HYDRAULICS I

(DBATU B.Tech Sem III – Second Year)

COURSE OVERVIEW &

UNIT-1 : FLUID STATICS
Prof. Farhan S Kazi
M.Tech (WRE)
Civil Engineering Dept,
NKOCET, Solapur
 2

INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical
science that deals with both stationary
and moving bodies under the influence
of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that
deals with the behavior of fluids at rest
(fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries. Fluid mechanics deals
with liquids and gases in
motion or at rest.
 3
Fluid Statics: A branch of
Fluid Mechanics. Which deals
with the behavior of fluids at
rest
Fluid Kinematics: A branch
of Fluid Mechanics. Which
deals with the behavior of
fluids in motion (without
considering the forces
responsible for motion)
Fluid Kinetics (Dynamics):
A branch of Fluid Mechanics.
Which deals with the behavior
of fluids in motion (Also
considering the forces
responsible for motion)
Hydraulics: A subcategory of Fluid Mechanics, which
deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
- Flow through pipes
- Flow through open channels
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially
air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles
at high or low speeds.
Oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with naturally
occurring flows.
 FLUID & ITS PROPERTIES

➢Fluid is a substance which

undergoes constant deformation
under the action of applied shear
force.

➢Fluid is a substance - The particles

of which easily move and change
position

➢Fluids can be – Liquids and Gasses

Difference Between Mechanics of Solid and Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Solid
Fluids have no shape Solids have a definite shape
Fluids cannot sustain a shear Solids can sustain a shear
force, i.e. a fluid is always in force
motion
 7
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Solid: The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated
throughout.
Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and
molecular ordering is nonexistent.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at

relatively fixed positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about each
other in the liquid phase, and (c) individual molecules move about at random
in the gas phase.
 8

Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics (HYDRAULICS)

Irrigation
 Canals/ Waterways system

Study of Hydrology
10
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 SYLLABUS

Module 1: Fluid Statics (Lectures 10)

➢Definition of fluids, fluid properties-density, specific
weight, specific volume, specific gravity, viscosity,
compressibility, surface tension, capillarity, vapor
pressure, types of fluids - Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluid, continuum, fluid pressure Forces on fluid elements,
fundamental equation, manometers, hydrostatic thrust on
submerged surfaces, buoyancy, stability of unconstrained
bodies, fluids in rigid body motion
 SYLLABUS

Module 2: Fluid Dynamics (Lectures 10)

➢Types of flow, continuity equation, derivation and
applications of momentum equation, flow measuring
devices, Euler's equation, Bernoulli's equation, velocity
potential and stream function, concept of flow net
 SYLLABUS

Module 3: Laminar and Turbulent Flow

(Lectures 10)
➢Fully developed laminar flow between infinite parallel
plates, both plates stationary, upper plate moving with
constant speed, fully developed laminar flow in pipe.
Turbulent flow: Shear stress distribution and turbulent
velocity profiles in fully developed pipe flow, velocity
distribution and shear stresses in turbulent flow, Prandtl
mixing length theory, Nikuradse's experiment, Introduction
to Boundary Layer Theory
 SYLLABUS

Module 4: Dimensional Analysis & Similitude

(Lectures 10)
➢Nature of dimensional analysis, Rayleigh’s Method,
Buckingham pi theorem, dimensionless groups and their
physical significance, flow similarity and model studies,
Scale Effects, Distorted and Undistorted Models
 SYLLABUS

Module 5: Flow Through Pipes (Lectures 08)

➢Loss of energy in pipes, pipe discharging from a reservoir,
pipe connecting two reservoirs in series and parallel,
siphon, transmission of power through nozzle, water
hammer in pipes- rigid and elastic water column theory,
surge tanks - function, calculation of head loss,
introduction to Moody's chart, nomograms and other pipe
diagrams
 COURSE OUTCOMES

On completion of the course, the students will be able to:

➢CO1: Calibrate the various flow measuring devices.
➢CO2: Determine the properties of fluid and pressure and
their measurement.
➢CO3: Understand fundamentals of pipe flow, losses in
pipe and analysis of pipe network.
➢CO4: Visualize fluid flow phenomena observed in Civil
Engineering systems.
 UNIT 1:
Fluid Statics
FLUID PROPERTIES
• Every fluid has certain characteristics by which
its physical conditions may be described.
• We call such characteristics as the fluid
properties.
➢ Mass Density ➢ Viscosity
➢ Specific Weight ➢ Adhesion
➢ Specific gravity ➢ Cohesion
➢ Specific volume ➢ Surface tension
➢ Capillarity
➢ Vapor Pressure
➢ Cavitations
 General Properties
Specific Weight (γ or w) or Weight Density
The gravitational force per unit volume of fluid, or simply
“weight per unit volume”.
W
γ=
V
Unit is N/m3.
- Water at 20 oC has a specific weight of 9810 N/m3.
Mass Density (ρ) or Specific Mass
The “mass per unit volume” is mass density. Hence it has units
of kilograms per cubic meter.
M
ρ=
V
Unit is kg/m3.
- The mass density of water at 4 oC is 1000 kg/m3.
 Relation between MASS & WEIGHT

Weight = mass X specific gravity

(On earth, gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2)
∴W = M X g
(Dividing both sides by volume)
𝐖 𝐌
= Xg
𝐕 𝐕
W M
But, = γ = specific weight & = ρ = Mass Density
V V
γ=ρXg
(We know, ρ of water = 1000 kg/m3)
∴ γ = ρ X g = 1000 X 9.81 = 9810 N/m3
Specific Gravity (S) or Relative Density
The ratio of specific weight of a given liquid to the
specific weight of water at a standard reference
temperature (4 oC)is defined as specific gravity, S.
γ𝑙 ρ𝑙
S = or S=
γ𝑤 ρ𝑤

Specific Gravity is Unitless.

The specific weight of water at atmospheric pressure
is 9810 N/m3.

The specific gravity of mercury at 20 oC is

133 kN/m3
SHg = 3
= 13.6
9.81 kN/m
Specific Volume (S)
•
 NUMERICALS ON GENERAL PROPERTIES
Q 1) Density of a liquid is 850 kg/m3. Determine relative
density and weight density of the liquid. With reason, state
whether the liquid will float or not.
To find:
Given Relative density, S = ?
ρliquid = 850 kg/m3 Weight density, γ = ?
Solution:
ρ𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 850
S= = = 0.85……Answer
ρ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1000
γ = ρ.g = 850 × 9.81 = 8338.5 𝑁Τ𝑚3……Answer

The liquid level will float on water because specific weight

of liquid is less than water.
NUMERICALS ON GENERAL PROPERTIES
Q.2) On a certain planet, a correctly calibrated spring
balance shows the weight of a body as 12N, the mass of
which is 4.893kg. Find the value of gravity on this planet.
Given:
M = 4.893 kg
W = 12 N
Solution:
γ = ρ.g
γ 12
g= = = 2.45 𝑚Τ𝑠2………..Answer
ρ 4.893
NUMERICALS ON GENERAL PROPERTIES
Q.3) Calculate the specific weight, density and specific
gravity of one litre of a liquid which weighs 7 N.
Given:
W=7N
1
V = 1 litre i.e 1 litre = m3 or 1 litre = 1000cm3
1000
Solution:
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 7
Specific weight (w) = = =7000𝑁Τ𝑚3…….Answer
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 0.001
𝑤 7000 𝑘𝑔
Density (ρ) = = Τ𝑚3 = 713.5 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3……Answer
𝑔 9.81
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 713.5
Specific gravity = = =0.1735……Answer
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1000
[since, density of water = 1000 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 ]
NUMERICALS FOR PRACTICE

Q 1) Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of

one liter of petrol of specific gravity = 0.7.

Q 2) A rectangular block measures (2.3 X 5.1 X 7.8) cm. It

has a mass of 66 grams. Determine its density and specific
gravity.

Q 3) An unknown liquid of 2 m3 has a mass of 6 kg. Find its

specific weight
 “Be Persistent like
water, which is fluid and
soft but can overcome a
rock which is rigid and
hard”
 VISCOSITY
The property by virtue of which a fluid offers resistance to
deformation under the action of shear force is called as viscosity.
Viscosity is a quantitative measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.

Dynamic (or Absolute) Viscosity:

The dynamic viscosity(μ) of a fluid is a measure of the resistance it
offers to relative shearing motion.

μ= τ /(du/dy) N-s/m²

Kinematic Viscosity :
It is defined as the ratio of
absolute viscosity to the
density of fluid.
ν = μ/ρ m²/s
ρ= density of fluid
 ➢ Consider the behavior of two layers of fluid moving one over the
other.
➢ The lower layer has a velocity u and upper layer has velocity u+du.
The layers are at a distance dy apart from each other.
➢ The upper layer will try to move the lower layer with same high
velocity as itself. But the lower layer opposes it.
➢ Thus the relative velocity (du) between the two layers causes shear
stress to act between the two layers.
➢ The shear (or tangential) stress between the two adjacent layers is
directly proportional to the rate of velocity change across the
distance between the layers in
direction perpendicular to layers.
➢ This is Newton’s law of viscosity.

τ α 𝒅𝒖ൗ𝒅𝒚 (from Newton’s Law of Viscosity)

∴ τ = μ.𝒅𝒖ൗ𝒅𝒚 (here, μ = coeff. of viscosity)
τ
∴ μ = 𝒅𝒖
ൗ𝒅𝒚
Newtonian Fluid:
➢The fluids which obey Newton’s law of viscosity are
known as Newtonian Fluid
➢Eg: water, honey, oil, kerosene

Non-Newtonian Fluid:
➢The fluids which do not obey Newton’s law of viscosity
are known as non-Newtonian Fluid
➢Eg: toothpaste, gel, lubricant oil
 OTHER FLUID TYPES
Ideal Fluid:
The fluid which has zero viscosity is known as ideal fluid. OR No shear stress is
required for deformation to take place in the fluid
Eg: Ideal fluid does not exist in nature (But for practical purposes, water is
considered closest to an ideal fluid).

Real Fluid:
The fluid which has viscosity is known as real fluid.

Compressible fluid:
If the volume of a given mass of fluid can be changed, it is known as compressible
fluid.
Eg: Gases

Incompressible Fluid:
If the volume of a given mass of fluid cannot be changed, it is known as
incompressible fluid.
Eg: water
 NUMERICALS ON VISCOSITY
Q 1) A plate 0.05 mm distant from a fixed plate moves at 1.2 m/s
and requires a force of 2.2 N/m2 to maintain this speed. Find the
viscosity of the fluid between the plates.
Given: Velocity of the moving plate, u = 1.2 m/s
Distance between plates, dy = 0.05 mm = 0.05 × 10–3 m
Shear stress on the moving plate, 𝜏 = 2.2 N/m2
We know, τ = μ.𝒅𝒖ൗ𝒅𝒚
where 𝜏 = shear stress or force per unit area = 2.2 N/m2,
du = change of velocity= u – 0 = 1.2 m/s and
dy = change of distance = 0.05 × 10–3m.
𝜏
∴μ= 𝒅𝒖ൗ
𝒅𝒚

2.2
μ = 1.2Τ
0.05 𝑥 10−3

∴ μ = 9.16 x 10-5 N.s/m2 …..Answer

Q 2) The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of
the plate is 720 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 15 mm. The upper plate, which
moves at 3 m/s requires a force of 120 N to maintain the speed. Determine:
(i) The dynamic viscosity of the oil;
(ii) The kinematic viscosity of oil if the specific gravity of oil is 0.95.
Solution. Each side of a square plate = 720 mm = 0.72 m
The thickness of the oil, dy = 15 mm = 0.015 m
Velocity of the upper plate = 3 m/s
∴ Change of velocity between plates, du = 3 – 0 = 3 m/s
Force required on upper plate, F = 120 N
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 120
∴ Shear stress, 𝜏 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 0.72𝑥0.72 = 231.5 N/m2
(i) Dynamic viscosity, μ: We know that,
τ = μ.𝒅𝒖ൗ𝒅𝒚
𝜏 231.5
∴ μ = 𝒅𝒖 =𝟑 = 1.16 N.s/m2 (Ans.)
ൗ𝒅𝒚 ൗ𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟓

(ii) Kinematic viscosity, v:

Weight density of oil, γ = 0.95 × 9810 N/m3 = 9320 N/m3
γ
Mass density of oil, ρ = ൗ𝑔 = 9320Τ9.81 = 950 kg/m3
μ
∴ Kinematic viscosity, v = ൗρ = 1.16Τ950 = 0.00122 m2/s ( Ans.)
 Q 3) Two large fixed parallel planes are 12 mm apart. The space between the
surfaces is filled with oil of viscosity 0.972 N.s/m2. A flat thin plate 0.25 m2 area moves
through the oil at a velocity of 0.3 m/s. Calculate the drag force:
(i) When the plate is equidistant from both the planes, and
(ii) When the thin plate is at a distance of 4 mm from one of the plane surfaces.
Solution.
Given: Distance between the fixed parallel planes = 12 mm = 0.012 m
Area of thin plate, A = 0.25 m2
Velocity of plate, u = 0.3 m/s
Viscosity of oil = 0.972 N.s/m2
Drag force, F:
(i) When the plate is equidistant from both the planes:
Let, F1 = Shear force on the upper side of the thin plate,
F2 = Shear force on the lower side of the thin plate,
F = Total force required to drag the plate = F1 + F2.
The shear 𝜏1, on the upper side of the thin plate is given by:
𝑑𝑢
𝜏1 = μ.(𝑑𝑦)1
where, du = 0.3 m/s (relative velocity between upper fixed plane and the plate), and
dy = 6 mm = 0.006 m (distance between the upper fixed plane and the plate)
 𝑑𝑢 0.3
∴ 𝜏1 = μ.( )1 = 0.972 x = 48.6 N/m2
𝑑𝑦 0.006

∴ Shear force, F1 = 𝜏1. A = 48.6 × 0.25 = 12.15 N

Similarly shear stress (𝜏2) on the lower side of the thin plate
is given by
𝑑𝑢 0.3
𝜏2 = μ.( )2 = 0.972 x = 48.6 N/m2
𝑑𝑦 0.006

and F2 = 𝜏2 . A = 48.6 × 0.25 = 12.15 N

∴ F = F1 + F2 = 12.15 + 12.15 = 24.30 N (Ans.)

(ii) When the thin plate is at a distance of 40 mm from one of the plane
surfaces:
The shear force on the upper side of the thin plate,
𝑑𝑢 0.3
F1 = 𝜏1. A = μ.( )1 x A = 0.972 x x 0.25 = 9.11 N
𝑑𝑦 0.008

The shear force on the lower side of the thin plate,

𝑑𝑢 0.3
F2 = 𝜏2. A = μ.( )2 x A = 0.972 x x 0.25 = 18.22 N
𝑑𝑦 0.004

Total Force = F = F1 + F2 = 9.11 + 18.22 = 27.33 N (Ans.)

 Effects of temperature on Viscosity
➢The viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in the temperature.
➢The viscosity of gases increases with the increase in the temperature.
This is due to the reason that in liquids the shear stress is due to the inter-
molecular cohesion which decreases with increase of temperature.
In gases the inter-molecular cohesion is negligible and the shear stress is due to
exchange of momentum of the molecules, normal to the direction of motion. The
molecular activity increases with rise in temperature and so does the viscosity of
gas.
Effects of pressure on Viscosity

➢The viscosity under ordinary conditions is not

appreciably affected by the changes in pressure.
➢However, the viscosity of some oils has been found to
increase with increase in pressure.
For eg., Lubricant oil’s viscosity increases with pressure.
For most lubricants this effect is considerably largest than the other
effects when the pressure is significantly above atmospheric.
Applications of VISCOSITY
Viscosity is important for any flow involving fluid flow.
Because different fluids with different viscosities will flow at
different speed, when the same force is applied to them.

• Viscosity will determine how long a reservoir will take to fill

and settle.
• It will determine how much power will be required to pump
fluids
In pumping operation
- for high viscous fluid high power will require.
- for low viscous fluid low power will require.
Viscosity - shear relationship
• For Newtonian fluids, shear stress linearly vary
with the shear rate as shown in Figure. Viscosity is
constant for this kind of fluid.
• e.g. – air, water & glycerine

τ = μ (du/dy)
 Viscosity - shear relationship
▪ Non - Newtonian fluid doesn’t follow the linear
relation between viscosity and shear rate.
▪ e.g. – blood, grease, milk, cement slurry etc.
SURFACE TENSION
• What’s happening here?
– Bug is walking on water
• Why is this possible?
– It doesn’t weigh much
– It’s spreading its weight
out
– The downward forces
are less than the effects of
surface tension
 SURFACE TENSION
Defn:-
❑The surface tension of a liquid is
the property by virtue of which
the free surface of the liquid
resists tensile stress.

OR

❑Surface Tension can be defined

as the property of fluid by virtue
of which the free surface of fluid
at rest behaves like a stretched
elastic membrane having
contracting tendencies.
SURFACE TENSION
➢Consider a vessel containing
liquid.
B C
➢The liquid molecule at A is deep
inside the liquid so is its sphere of
influence.
➢But, for the liquid molecules at
surface, half of the sphere of
influence is inside the liquid and A
half outside.
➢Hence there is net downward
force acting on the molecules on
the surface.
➢This causes the molecules on the
surface to bind together and
create tension.
SURFACE TENSION

B C
➢The property of surface
tension is due to the cohesion
between the molecules at the
surface of liquid.
➢It is denoted by σ.
A
➢Its S.I. unit is N/m.
➢As the temperature increases,
the surface tension decreases.
 Pressure Inside a Water Droplet, Soap Bubble and a Liquid Jet

• Case I. Water droplet:

Let, p = Pressure inside the droplet above outside
pressure
d = Diameter of the droplet and
σ = Surface tension of the liquid.

𝝅
(i) Pressure force = p x x d2
𝟒
(ii) Surface tension force acting around the
circumference = σ × π d.

Under equilibrium conditions these two forces will be

equal and opposite,
𝝅
px x d2 = σ × π d
𝟒
𝟒𝝈
∴p= 𝒅
OR σ = p.d/4
Above equation shows that with an increase in size
of the droplet the pressure intensity decreases
 Pressure Inside a Water Droplet, Soap Bubble and a Liquid Jet

Case II. Soap (or hollow) bubble:

Soap bubbles have two surfaces on which
surface tension σ acts.
𝝅
(i) Pressure force = p x x d2
𝟒
(ii) Surface tension force acting around the
circumference = 2 x (σ × π d).

𝝅
px x d2 = 2 x (σ × π d)
𝟒
𝟖𝝈
∴p= OR σ = p.d/8
𝒅
Pressure Inside a Water Droplet, Soap Bubble and a Liquid Jet

Case III. A Liquid jet:

Let us consider a cylindrical liquid
jet of diameter d and length l. The
figure shows a semi-jet.
Pressure force = p × l × d
Surface tension force = σ × 2l
Equating the two forces, we have:
p × l × d = σ × 2l
𝟐𝝈
∴p=
𝒅
 NUMERICALS ON SURFACE TENSION
Q 1) If the surface tension at the soap-air interface is 0.09
N/m, calculate the internal pressure in a soap bubble of 28
mm diameter.
Solution.
Given: σ = 0.09 N/m;
d = 28 mm = 0.028 m

In a soap bubble there are two interfaces. Hence,

𝟖𝝈 𝟖 𝑿 𝟎.𝟎𝟗
∴p= =
𝒅 𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟖
∴ p = 25.71 N/m2 ……(Answer)
 NUMERICALS ON SURFACE TENSION
Q 2) The surface tension of water in contact with air at 200C is
0.0725 N/m. The pressure inside a droplet of water is to be
0.02 N/cm2 greater than the outside pressure. Calculate the
diameter of the droplet of water.
Solution.
Given: σ = 0.0725 N/m; Let, d = diameter of droplet
Pressure intensity p in excess of outside pressure is,
p = 0.02 N/cm2 = 0.02 x 104 N/m2
For water droplet,
𝟒𝝈
p=
𝒅
𝟒 𝒙 𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟓
∴ 0.02 x 104 =
𝒅
𝟒 𝒙 𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟓
d=
0.02 x 104
d = 0.00145 m = 1.45 mm ….(Answer)
CAPILLARITY
General Defn
➢The ability of liquid to flow upwards through narrow
spaces opposing the force of gravity is called as
capillarity.
CAPILLARITY

Capillarity is due to the property of cohesion and

adhesion-
Cohesion:- Cohesion is defined as the inter-molecular
attraction between the molecules of the same liquid.
Adhesion: Adhesion is defined as the force of attraction
between the molecules of liquid and the molecules of solid
boundary surface in contact with the liquid.
(This property enables a liquid to stick to a solid body)
CAPILLARITY
Technical Defn
Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a
liquid surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent
general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the
liquid. (The tube is known as a capillary tube)
CAPILLARITY
• Rise and fall of liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface
tension. Capillarity depends on the relative magnitudes of the
cohesion of the liquid to walls of the containing vessel.

• When the adhesive forces between liquid and solid are larger
than the liquid's cohesive forces, the meniscus in a small
diameter tube will tend to be concave

• If adhesive forces are smaller than cohesive forces the

meniscus will tend to be convex, for example mercury in glass.

concave
convex

water mercury
• Following point is worth noting:
Smaller the diameter of the capillary tube, greater is the
capillary rise or depression.
CAPILLARITY
Examples of Capillary Action:
1. Rising
damp in concrete and mas
onry is the result
of capillary action. This can
be prevented by installation
of a damp-proof course
(DPC).
2. The roots of a plant absorb
water from the soil by help
of capillary action.
3. Water moving through a
paper or cloth towel.
 CAPILLARITY
• Capillary Rise in Tube:
Consider a glass tube of small diameter opened at both ends and is inserted
in a liquid, say water.
The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of liquid
 CAPILLARITY
➢Let,
h = height of liquid in the tube above the surrounding level
d = Diameter of the capillary tube,
θ = Angle of contact of the water surface,
σ = Surface tension, and
γ = Weight density (ρg).
➢Now,
upward surface tension force (lifting F) = weight of the water column in the tube (gravity F)

Where,
Upward surface tension force = vertical component of S.T. force
Upward surface tension force = (σ x circumferential area) x cos θ
Upward surface tension force = (σ x πd) x cos θ ……(i)
And,
Weight of the water column in tube = (Area of tube x h) x ρg
π
Weight of the water column in tube = 4 d2 x h x ρg …(ii)
 CAPILLARITY
Equating equations (i) and (ii),
π
σ x πd x cos θ = d2 x h x ρg
4

𝟒𝒙 σ 𝒙 cos θ
∴h=
𝒅 𝒙 ρg

Note:
➢ In case of water, value of θ between water and clean glass tube is
zero
𝟒𝒙 σ
∴h=
𝒅 𝒙 ρg

➢ In case of mercury, as there is capillary fall, value of h is negative

NUMERICALS ON CAPILLARITY
Q 1) Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when
immersed vertically in water. Take surface tension as σ = 0.0725 N/m for water
in contact with air.
Solution. Given: d = 2.5 mm ; σ = 0.0725 N/m
Level of the liquid in the tube, h:
The liquid in the tube rises due to capillarity.
The capillary rise,
𝟒 𝒙 σ 𝒙 cos θ
h= 𝒅 𝒙 ρg
But, for water and glass tube, θ = 0

𝟒𝒙 σ
∴ h = 𝒅 𝒙 ρg
𝟒 𝒙 𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟓
h=
𝟐.𝟓 𝑿 𝟏𝟎
−𝟑
𝒙 (1000 x 9.81)
h = 0.0118 m or h = 1.18 cm …..Answer
 POINTS TO REMEMBER
➢ Viscosity
➢ Adhesion
➢ Mass Density
➢ Cohesion
➢ Specific Weight
➢ Surface tension
➢ Specific gravity
➢ Capillarity
➢ Specific volume
➢ Vapor Pressure
➢ Cavitations
 POINTS TO REMEMBER
➢ Specific Weight (γ or w) or Weight Density
W
γ=
V
Unit is N/m3.

➢ Mass Density (ρ) or Specific Mass

M
ρ=
V
Unit is kg/m3.

➢ Specific Gravity (S) or Relative Density

γ𝑙 ρ𝑙
S = or S=
γ𝑤 ρ𝑤
Specific Gravity is Unitless.
➢ Specific Volume (S)
 POINTS TO REMEMBER
➢ Viscosity
τ
μ = 𝒅𝒖
ൗ𝒅𝒚

Unit is N-s/m²

➢ Surface Tension (σ)

Unit is N/m
𝟒𝝈
Pressure inside a water droplet = p =
𝒅
𝟖𝝈
Pressure inside a soap bubble = p =
𝒅
𝟐𝝈
Pressure inside a liquid jet = p =
𝒅

➢ Capillarity
σ 𝒙 cos θ
𝟒𝒙
h =
𝒅 𝒙 ρg
Unit of capillary rise is m or cm or mm
 NUMERICALS on Fluid Properties

Q 1) Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 cm apart. The space between the
surface is filled with glycerine. What force is required to drag a very thin plate
of surface area 0.5 square metre between the two large plane surfaces at a
speed of 0.6 m/s, if:
(i) the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces, and
(ii) the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of the plane surfaces?
Take the dynamic viscosity of glycerine = 8.10 x 10-1 N-s/m2.
Solution: Given
Distance between two large plane surfaces = 2.4 cm
Area of thin plate, A = 0.5 m2
Velocity of thin plate, u = 0.6 m/s
Viscosity of glycerine, μ = 8.10 x 10-1 N-s/m2
 Case I: When the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces
Let,
F1 = Shear force on the upper side of the thin plate
F2 = Shear force on the lower side of the thin plate
F = Total force required to drag the plat
Then,
F = F1 + F2

The shear stress (𝝉𝟏) on the upper side of the thin plate is given by
𝑑𝑢
𝜏1 = μ.( )1
𝑑𝑦
Where,
du = Relative velocity between thin plate and upper plane surface
du = 0.6 m/s
dy = Distance between thin plate and upper large plane surface
Dy = 1.2 cm = 0.012 m
 0.6
∴ 𝜏1 = 8.10 x 10-1 x ( )
0.012
∴ 𝜏1 = 40.5 N/m2
Now, shear force, F1 = Shear stress x Area
Now, shear force, F1 = 𝜏1 x A = 40.5 x 0.5 = 20.25 N

Similarly The shear stress (𝝉𝟐) on the lower side of the thin plate is
given by
𝑑𝑢 0.6
𝜏2 = μ.( )2 = 8.10 x 10-1 x ( ) = 40.5 N/m2
𝑑𝑦 0.012

shear force, F2 = 𝜏1 x A = 40.5 x 0.5 = 20.25 N

∴ Total force, F = F1 + F2 = 20.25 N + 20.25 N = 40.5 N

Case II: When the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of the
plane surfaces
➢ Let the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from the lower plane surfaces
➢ Then the distance of plate from upper plane surface
= 2.4 – 0.8 = 1.6 cm = 0.016 m

The shear force on the upper side of thin plate,

F1 = Shear stress x Area = 𝜏1 x A
𝑑𝑢 0.6
F1 = μ.( )1 x A = 8.10 x 10-1 x ( ) x 0.5 = 15.18 N
𝑑𝑦 0.016

The shear force on the lower side of thin plate,

F2 = Shear stress x Area = 𝜏2 x A
𝑑𝑢 0.6
F2 = μ.( )2 x A = 8.10 x 10-1 x ( ) x 0.5 = 30.36 N
𝑑𝑦 0.008

∴ Total force required, F = F1 + F2 = 15.18 N + 30.36 N = 45.54 N

Q 2) A plate having an area of 0.6 m2 is sliding down the inclined
plane at 30° to the horizontal with a velocity of 0.36 m/s. There is
a cushion of fluid 1.8 mm thick between the plane and the plate.
Find the viscosity of the fluid if the weight of the plate is 280 N.
Solution: Area of plate, A = 0.6 m2
Weight of plate, W = 280 N
Velocity of plate, u = 0.36 m/s
Thickness of film, t = dy = 1.8 mm = 1.8 × 10–3 m
Viscosity of the fluid, μ:
Component of W along the plate = W sin θ = 280 sin 30°
Component of W along the plate = 140 N

∴ Shear force on the bottom surface of the plate, F = 140 N and

shear stress,
F 140
τ= = = 233.33 N/m2
A 0.6
We know,
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 = μ.( )
𝑑𝑦
Where, du = change of velocity = u – 0 = 0.36 m/s
and, dy = t = 1.8 × 10–3 m
0.36
∴ 233.33 = μ.( )
1.8 𝑥 10−3

μ = 1.166 N-s/m2
Q 3) A soap bubble 62.5 mm diameter has an internal
pressure in excess of the outside pressure of 20 N/m2. What
is tension in the soap film?
Solution.
Given: Diameter of the bubble, d = 62.5 mm = 62.5 × 10–3 m;
Internal pressure in excess of the outside pressure, p = 20 N/m2.

Surface tension, σ:
Using the relation,
𝟖𝝈
p=
𝒅
𝟖𝝈
i.e., 20 = −
𝟔𝟐.𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟑
−
𝟔𝟐.𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝒙 𝟐𝟎
𝝈=
𝟖

𝝈 = 0.156 N/m
Q 4) Determine the minimum size of glass tubing that can
be used to measure water level, if the capillary rise in the
tube is not to exceed 0.3 mm. Take surface tension of
water in contact with air as 0.0735 N/m.
Solution.
Given: Capillary rise, h = 0.3 mm = 0.3 × 10–3 m
Surface tension, σ = 0.0735 N/m
Mass density of water, ρ = 9810 N/m3.

Size of glass tubing, d:

4 σ cos θ 4 σ
Capillary rise, h = =
d . ρg d . ρg
(Assuming θ = 0 for water)
4 x 0.0735
0.3 x 10-3 =
d x (1000 x 9.81)

∴ d = 0.1 m = 100 m
Q 5) A clean tube of diameter 2.5 mm is immersed in a liquid with a
coefficient of surface tension = 0.4 N/m. The angle of contact of the
liquid with the glass can be assumed to be 135°. The density of the
liquid = 13600 kg/m3. What would be the level of the liquid in the tube
relative to the free surface of the liquid inside the tube.
Solution. Given: d = 2.5 mm ; σ = 0.4 N/m, θ = 135°; ρ = 13600 kg/m3

Level of the liquid in the tube, h:

The liquid in the tube rises (or falls) due to capillarity.
∴ The capillary rise (or fall) is,
𝟒 𝒙 σ 𝒙 cos θ
h= 𝒅 𝒙 ρg

𝟒 𝒙 0.4 𝒙 cos 1350

h=
𝒙 (9.81 x 13600)
−𝟑
𝟐.𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎

h = -3.39 x 10-3 m or h = -3.39 mm

Negative sign indicates that there is a capillary fall of 3.39 mm
Q 6) A volume of 5 litres of water is compressed by a
pressure of 20 atmospheres. If the bulk modulus of water is
20 x 108 N/m2, find the change produced in the volume of
water. Density of mercury = 13600 kg/m3; g = 9.81 m/s2.
Normal atmospheric pressure = 75 cm of mercury.
Solution.
Given: Original volume = 5 L = 5 x 10-3 m3;
Pressure = dp = 20 x 75 x 10-2 x 13600 x 9.81 N/m2
Bulk modulus of water = 20 x 108 N/m2
𝐝𝐩
Bulk Modulus = K = (−𝐝𝐕
ൗ𝐕)

𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟒𝟎
20 x 108 = (−𝐝𝐕
൘
5 x 10−3)

∴ dV = -5 x 10-6 m3
 COMPRESSIBILITY & BULK MODULUS
COMPRESSIBILTY
➢ Compressibility is the measure of elasticity in fluid.
➢ Fluids are compressed under pressure due to change in their mass
density. i.e. More mass can be accommodated in the unit volume
and when the pressure is removed, the fluid regains its original
volume.
➢ As the pressure increases, volume decreases
−𝐝𝐕
dp α ( )
𝐕
−𝐝𝐕
dp = K x( )
𝐕
𝐝𝐩
K = (−𝐝𝐕
ൗ𝐕)
−dV
➢ If K is more, ( ) is less (i.e. less compressibility)
V
➢ K is a constant of proportionality known as BULK MODULUS
 VAPOUR PRESSURE
➢All liquids vaporize or evaporate due to molecules
escaping from the free surface.
➢When the liquid is contained in closed vessel, the vapor
molecules get accumulated in the space between a free
surface and top of the vessel.
➢This accumulated vapor of the liquid exerts a partial
pressure on the liquid surface and is known as vapor
pressure.
➢If the pressure on liquid is equal to or less than vapor
pressure, it starts to boil or vaporize.
❖Vapor pressure of water is 2.345 N/m2
❖Vapor pressure of petrol is 30.40 N/m2
VAPOUR PRESSURE
 CAVITATION
➢ Cavitation is defined as the formation of bubbles filled of vapor within the
body of moving liquid.
➢ These vapor bubbles begin to appear whenever the pressure at the point
in a flow falls equal to or below the vapor pressure of liquid.
➢ When these bubbles flow with the liquid and come in contact with high
pressure, vapors condense and the bubbles suddenly collapse.
➢ The space occupied by the bubble is filled by surrounding liquid, due to
which noise occurs and there are vibrations.
➢ The cavities collapse on the surface of the body due to which material of
solid surface gets eroded.
It occurs in certain portions of pipeline and high-speed hydraulic machines
such as turbines, pumps and marine propellers
CAVITATION
CAVITATION
FLUID STATICS

Objectives
➢Determine the variation of pressure in a fluid at rest
➢Calculate pressure using various kinds of manometers
➢Calculate the forces exerted by a fluid at rest on plane
or curved submerged surfaces
➢Analyze the stability of floating and submerged bodies
Manometers
Hydrostatic thrust on submerged surfaces
Buoyancy
Stability of unconstrained bodies
 96
FLUID STATICS
Fluid statics: Deals with problems associated with fluids at rest.
The fluid can be either gaseous or liquid.
Hydrostatics: When the fluid is a liquid.
Aerostatics: When the fluid is a gas.
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid
layers, and thus there are no shear (tangential) stresses in the
fluid trying to deform it.
The only stress we deal with in fluid statics is the normal stress,
which is the pressure, and the variation of pressure is due only to
the weight of the fluid.
The topic of fluid statics has significance only in gravity fields.
The design of many engineering systems such as dams and liquid
storage tanks requires the determination of the forces acting on
the surfaces using fluid statics.
 PRESSURE OR INTENSITY OF PRESSURE
➢ It is defined as the force acting per unit area.
➢ It is denoted by ‘p’.
➢ S.I. unit is N/m2, which is also called Pascal (Pa).
𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐏
p= =
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐀

➢ The pressure of a fluid on a surface will always act normal to the surface .
➢ Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures encountered in practice, kilopascal (1
kPa = 103 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa) are commonly used.
The same force applied over a smaller area results in greater pressure
– think of poking a balloon with your finger and then with a needle.
 LECTURE OBJECTIVE

To study the fundamental laws governing fluid at rest

➢PASCAL’S LAW
➢HYDROSTATIC LAW
 PASCAL’S LAW
Pascal’s law states –
“The intensity of pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is
same in all directions.”
Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in
fluid mass at rest.
Let the width of element be unity.
Let Px, Py and Pz be the pressures acting on the face
AB, AC and BC respectively.
Let, <ABC = θ

The forces acting on the element are –

i) Force on the face AB = Pressure in x-direction x Area of face AB
i) Force on the face AB = Px x (dy x 1)
ii) Force on the face AC = Pressure in y-direction x Area of face AC
ii) Force on the face AC = Py x (dx x 1)
iii) Force on the face BC = Pressure in z-direction x Area of face BC
iii) Force on the face BC = Pz x (ds x 1)
iv) Weight of the element = V x ɣ
iv) Weight of the element = Area of ABC x width x ɣ
iv) Weight of the element = ½ x AB x AC x 1 x ɣ
iv) Weight of the element = ½ x (dx.dy.ɣ)
Consider the Δ (ABC),
AB
Cos θ =
BC
;→ ∴ BC. Cos θ = AB;→ i.e. ds. Cos θ = dy
AC
Sin θ =
BC
; →∴ BC. Sin θ = AC;→ i.e. ds. Sin θ = dx
Resolve the forces in x-direction –
Px x (dy x 1) – (Pz cos θ).(ds x 1) = 0
∴ Px x dy = Pz x cos θ x ds
Px x dy = Pz x dy
(Since, ds. cos θ = dy)
∴ Px = Pz …….(1)

Resolve the forces in x-direction –

Py x (dx x 1) – (Pz sin θ).(ds x 1) – ½.(dx.dy.ɣ) = 0
Since the element is very small, weight is negligible
∴ Py x dx = Pz x sin θ x ds
Py x dx = Pz x dx
(Since, ds. sin θ = dx)
∴ Py = Pz …….(2)

From (1) and (2),

Px = Py = Pz
 HYDROSTATIC LAW
It states that –
“The rate of increase of pressure in vertically
downwards direction, at a point in a static fluid, must
be equal to the specific weight of fluid.”
➢ Consider a jar containing liquid.
➢ The liquid has density ρ.
➢ Consider a small element, which is at a distance
z from the surface.
➢ The element has surface area A and height dz.
➢ The volume of element is –
dV = A.dz
➢ The weight of element, dW, is directed
downwards –
i.e. dW = g.dM
dW =g.(ρ.A.dz)

➢ The pressure at upper face of object is p at depth

z.
➢ The pressure at depth (z + dz) will be (p + dp).
➢ Now fluid at rest is in equilibrium.
∴ Net upward force on the object is zero.
i.e. +↑∑F = 0
∴ -p.A + (p + dp).A – g.(ρ.A.dz) = 0
-p + p + dp – g. ρ.dz = 0
dp = g. ρ.dz
dp
∴ = ρ.g
dz

𝐝𝐩
=ɣ
𝐝𝐳
We can also use the equation to
find change in pressure between
two points z1 and z2.
dp = ɣ.dz
Δp = ɣ.Δz
P2 - P1 = ɣ. (z2 - z1)

Replace z1 with z0 i.e. surface

& P1 with P0 i.e. atmospheric
pressure
& distance between z0 and zA is h.
(i.e. h = (zA – z0)
PA – P0 = ɣ. (zA – z0)
PA – P0 = ɣ. h
PA = ɣ. h
Variation of Pressure with Depth

The pressure of a fluid at rest Free-body diagram of a rectangular

increases with depth (as a fluid element in equilibrium.
result of added weight).
Lecture Outcome:
➢Students will be able to measure pressure in a given fluid.
 109
Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the
local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Throughout
this module,
the pressure P
will denote
gage pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.
 NUMERICALS
Q 1) Calculate the pressure due to a column of 0.3 m of (a)
water, (b) an oil of specific gravity 0.8, and (c) mercury of
specific gravity 13.6. Take density of water, ρ =1000 kg/m3.
Solution:
h = 0.3 m
The pressure at any point in a liquid is given by –
p = ɣ. h

(a) For water, ρ =1000 kg/m3.

p = ɣ. h
p = ρg.h
p = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.3
p = 2943 N/m2
p = 0.2943 N/cm2
(b) For oil of specific gravity 0.8
∴ Density of oil = ρ0 = sp. gr. of oil x density of water
∴ Density of oil = ρ0 = 0.8 x 1000
∴ Density of oil = ρ0 = 800 kg/m3

Now, pressure = p = ρ0 x g x h
Now, pressure = p = 800 x 9.81 x 0.3
Now, pressure = p = 2354.4 N/m2
Now, pressure = p = 2354.4 x 10-4 N/cm2

Now, pressure = p = 0.2354 N/cm2

(c) For mercury, specific gravity = 13.6,
∴ Density of mercury = ρm = sp. gr. of mercury x density of water
∴ Density of mercury = ρm = 13.6 x 1000
∴ Density of mercury = ρm = 13600 kg/m3

Now, pressure = p = ρm x g x h
Now, pressure = p = 13600 x 9.81 x 0.3
Now, pressure = p = 40025 N/m2
Now, pressure = p = 40025 x 10-4 N/cm2

Now, pressure = p = 4.002 N/cm2

Q 2) The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given 3.924
N/cm2. Find the corresponding height of fluid when the fluid is :
(a) water, and (b) oil of specific gravity 0.9.
Solution:
Pressure intensity, p = 3.924 N/cm2 = 3.924 x 104 N/m2 (Given)
We know, p = ρ x g x h
p
∴h=
ρxg
(a) For water, ρ = 1000 kg/m3
p 3.924 x 104
∴h= = = 4 m of water …(Answer)
ρxg 1000 x 9.81
(b) For oil, specific gravity = 0.9
ρ = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m3
p 3.924 x 104
∴h= = = 4.44 m of oil …(Answer)
ρxg 900 x 9.81
Q 3) What are the gage pressure and absolute pressure at a
point 3 m below the free surface of a liquid having a density of
1.53 x 103 kg/m3 if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to
750 mm of mercury? The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and
density of water = 1000 kg/m3.
Given:
Depth of liquid, h1 = 3 m
Density of liquid, ρ1 = 1.53 x 103 kg/m3
Atmospheric pressure head, h0 = 750 mm of Hg
Atmospheric pressure head, h0 = 0.75 m of Hg

∴ Atmospheric pressure, patm = ρ0 x g x h0

Where, ρ0 = Density of Hg = sp. gr. of Hg x density of water
Where, ρ0 = Density of Hg = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m3
And, h0 = Pressure head in terms of mercury (Atm. Pressure head)
∴ patm =ρ0 x g x h0 = (13.6 x 1000) x 9.81 x 0.75 N/m2
∴ patm =ρ0 x g x h0 = 100062 N/m2

Pressure at a point, which is at a depth of 3 m from the free

surface of the liquid is given by,
p =ρ1 x g x h1 = (1.53 x 1000) x 9.81 x 3 N/m2
p = ρ1 x g x h1 = 45028 N/m2

∴ Gage pressure = p = 45028 N/m2

Now,
Absolute pressure = Gage pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Absolute pressure = 45028 + 100062
Absolute pressure = 145090 N/m2 ….Answer
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

Manometers

Piezometer Simple U- Single Differential

Tube Column U-Tube
Manometer Manometer Manometer

Mechanical Gauges

Bourdon Bellow Dead Wt. Diaphragm

pressure pressure pressure pressure
gauge gauge gauge gauge
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
MANOMETERS:
Manometers are defined as the devices used for
measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing
the column of fluid by the same or another column of liquid.

These are classified as follows:

(a) Simple manometers:
(i) Piezometer
(ii) U-tube manometer
(iii) Single column manometer.

(b) Differential manometers.

 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

(a) Simple manometers

A “simple manometer” is one which consists of a glass tube
whose one end is connected to a point where pressure is to
be measured and the other end remains open to
atmosphere.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
(i) Piezometer:
➢A piezometer is the simplest form of
manometer which can be used for
measuring moderate pressures of liquids. It
consists of a glass tube inserted in the wall
of a vessel or of a pipe, containing liquid
whose pressure is to be measured.
➢ The tube extends vertically upward to such
a height that liquid can freely rise in it
without overflowing.
➢ The pressure at any point in the liquid is
indicated by the height of the liquid in the
tube above that point, which can be read on
the scale attached to it.
➢ Thus if ɣ is the specific weight of the liquid,
then the pressure at point A(p) is given by:
p=ɣh
➢ A piezometer tube is not suitable for measuring
negative pressure; as in such a case the air will enter
in pipe through the tube.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
(ii) Simple U-tube manometer:
➢Piezometers cannot be employed when large pressures
in the lighter liquids are to be measured, since this would
require very long tubes, which cannot be handled
conveniently.
➢This limitation can be overcome by the use of Simple U-
tube manometers.
➢A U-tube manometer consists of a glass tube bent in U-
shape, one end of which is connected to a point at which
pressure is to be measured and other end remains open
to the atmosphere.
 121

A simple U-tube
manometer, with high
pressure applied to the
right side.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
1. For positive pressure:
➢ Let, A be the point at which pressure is to be
measured. X–X is the datum line.
Let, h1 = Height of the light liquid in the left limb above
the datum line,
h2 = Height of the heavy liquid in the right limb above
the datum line,
PA = Pressure in pipe,
ɣ1 = Specific weight of the light liquid, and
ɣ2 = Specific weight of the heavy liquid.
➢ The pressures in the left limb and right limb above
the datum line X–X are equal (as the pressures at
two points at the same level in a continuous
homogeneous liquid are equal).
Pressure above X–X in the left limb = PA+ h1 ɣ1
Pressure above X–X in the right limb = h2 ɣ2
➢ Equating these two pressures, we get:
PA + h1 ɣ1 = h2 ɣ2 or PA = h2 ɣ2 – h1ɣ1
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
2. For negative pressure:
Pressure head above X–X in
the left limb
= PA + h1 ɣ1 + h2 ɣ2

Pressure head above X–X in

the right limb = 0
➢Equating these two pressures,
we get:
PA + h1 ɣ1 + h2 ɣ2 = 0
or
PA = – (h1 ɣ1 + h2 ɣ2)
Q 1) In a pipeline water is flowing. A manometer is used to measure the
pressure drop for flow through the pipe. The difference in level was found
to be 20 cm. If the manometric fluid is CCl4, find the pressure drop in S.I
units (density of CCl4 = 1.596 g/cm3). If the manometric fluid is changed to
mercury (ρ = 13.6 g/cm3) what will be the difference in level?
Solution. Given: hCCl4 = 20 cm = 0.2 m;
ρ CCl4 = 1.596 g/cm3
ρ CCl4 = 1.596 × 103 kg/m3
ρHg = 13.6 × 103 kg/m3

Pressure drop, Δp = ρCCl4. g hCCl4

Pressure drop, Δp = 1.596 × 103 × 9.81× 0.2 N/m2
Pressure drop, Δp = 3131.3 N/m2 or Pa = 3.131 kPa (Ans.)

The difference in level with mercury,

ρ 4
hHg = ρCCl x hCCl4
Hg
hHg = 0.02347 m or 2.347 cm (Ans.)
Q 2) A U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure
of oil of specific gravity 0.85 flowing in a pipe line. Its left
end is connected to the pipe and the right-limb is open to
the atmosphere. The centre of the pipe is 100 mm below
the level of mercury (specific gravity = 13.6) in the right
limb. If the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is
160 mm, determine the absolute pressure of the oil in the
pipe.
Solution:
Specific gravity of oil, S1 = 0.85
Specific gravity of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Height of the oil in the left limb,
h1 = 160 – 100 = 60 mm = 0.06 m
Difference of mercury level,
h2 = 160 mm = 0.16 m.
Absolute pressure of oil:
Let, h1 = Gauge pressure in the pipe in terms of head
of water, and
p = Gauge pressure in terms of kN/m2.
Equating the pressure heads above the datum line
X–X, we get:
PA + h1. ɣ1 = h2 . ɣ2
or, PA + 0.06 × 8338.5 = 0.16 × 133416
∴ PA = 17720 N/m2
∴ PA = 17.72 kPa
Absolute pressure of oil in the tube,
pabs. = patm. + pgauge
= 100 + 17.72 = 117.72 kPa (Ans.)
 Q 3) U-tube manometer containing mercury was used to find the negative
pressure in the pipe, containing water. The right limb was open to the
atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in the pipe, if the difference of
mercury level in the two limbs was 100 mm and height of water in the left
limb from the centre of the pipe was found to be 40 mm below.

Solution. Specific gravity of water, S1 =

1
Specific gravity of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Height of water in the left limb,
h1 = 40 mm = 0.04 m
Height of mercury in the left limb,
h2 = 100 mm = 0.1 m
Let, h = Pressure in the pipe in terms of
head of water (below the atmosphere).
Equating the pressure heads above the datum line X–X, we
get:
h + h1S1 + h2S2 = 0
or, h = – (h1S1 + h2S2)
or, h = – (0.04 × 1 + 0.1 × 13.6)
or, h = –1.4 m of water

Pressure p is given by:

p = ɣh
p = 9.81 × (– 1.4) kN/m2
p = – 13.73 kPa
p = 13.73 kPa (vacuum) (Ans.)
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
(iii) Single column manometer:
➢The U-tube manometer usually requires reading of fluid levels at two or
more points.
➢This difficulty is however overcome by using single column
manometers.
➢A single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube manometer
in which a shallow reservoir having a large c/s area (about 100 times)
as compared to the area of the tube is connected to one limb of the
manometer.
➢For any variation in pressure, the change in the liquid level in the
reservoir will be so small that it may be neglected, and the pressure is
indicated by the height of the liquid in the other limb.
➢As such only one reading in the narrow limb of the manometer need be
taken for all pressure measurements. The narrow limb may be vertical
or inclined.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
(a) Vertical Single Column Manometer
➢ Let X–X be the datum line in the reservoir
when the single column manometer is not
connected to the pipe.
➢ Now consider that the manometer is
connected to a pipe containing light liquid
under a very high pressure.
➢ The pressure in the pipe will force the light
liquid to push the heavy liquid in the reservoir
downwards.
➢ As the area of the reservoir is very large, the
fall of the heavy liquid level will be very small.
➢ This downward movement of the heavy
liquid, in the reservoir, will cause a
considerable rise of the heavy liquid in the
right limb.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
Let,
h1 = Height of the centre of the pipe above
X–X,
h2 = Rise of heavy liquid (after experiment)
in the right limb,
δh = Fall of heavy liquid level in the
reservoir,
h = Pressure in the pipe, expressed in terms
of head of water,
A = Cross-sectional area of the reservoir,
a = Cross-sectional area of the tube (right
limb),
S1 = Specific gravity of light liquid in pipe,
and
S2 = Specific gravity of the heavy liquid.
We know that fall of heavy liquid in
reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid
level in the right limb.
Thus, A × δh = a × h2
or
a × h2
dh =
A
Let us now consider pressure heads above
the datum line Z–Z –
Pressure in the left limb = PA + (h1 + δh)ɣ1
Pressure in the right limb = (h2 + δh) ɣ2

Equating the pressure heads, we get:

PA +(h1 + δh) ɣ1 = (h2 + δh) ɣ2
Or
PA = (h2 + δh) ɣ2 – (h1 + δh) ɣ1
PA = δh (ɣ2 – ɣ1) + h2 ɣ2 – h1 ɣ1
 a × h2
But, dh =
A
∴ PA = δh (ɣ2 – ɣ1) + h2 ɣ2 – h1 ɣ1
Becomes,
a × h2
PA = (ɣ2 – ɣ1) + h2 ɣ2 – h1 ɣ1
A

When the area A is very large as compared

to a, then the ratio a/A becomes very small,
and thus is neglected.
Then the above equation becomes –
PA = h2ɣ2 – h1 ɣ1
(b) Inclined single column manometer:
This type of manometer is useful for the measurement of small pressures
and is more sensitive than the vertical tube type. Due to inclination the
distance moved by the heavy liquid in the right limb is more.
Let, l = Length of the heavy liquid moved in right limb,
α = Inclination of right limb horizontal, and
h2 = Vertical rise of liquid in right limb from X–X = l sin α .
Putting the value of h2 in eqn. PA = h2ɣ2 – h1 ɣ1, we get:
PA = l sin α × ɣ2 – h1 ɣ1
Figure shows a single column manometer connected to a pipe
containing liquid of specific gravity 0.8. The ratio of area of the
reservoir to that of the limb is 100. Find the pressure in the
pipe. Take specific gravity of mercury as 13.6.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

(iv) Differential U-Tube manometer:

• A differential manometer is used to measure the difference

in pressures between two points in a pipe, or in two different
pipes.
• In its simplest form a differential manometer consists of a U-
tube, containing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are
connected to the points, whose difference of pressures is
required to be found out.
Case I. - A differential manometer whose two ends are connected
with two different points A and B at the same level and containing
same liquid.
Case II. - A differential manometer whose two ends are connected
with two different points A and B at different level and containing
different liquid.
Q 1) A differential manometer connected at the two points A and B in a
pipe containing an oil of specific gravity of 0.9 shows a difference in
mercury levels as 150 mm. Find the difference in pressures at the two
points.
Q 2) Figure shows a U-tube differential manometer connecting two pressure pipes at A
and B. The pipe A contains a liquid of specific gravity 1.6 under a pressure of 110 kN/m2.
The pipe B contains oil of specific gravity 0.8 under a pressure of 200 kN/m2. Find the
difference of pressure measured by mercury as fluid filling U-tube.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
(v) Inverted Differential
U-Tube manometer:
➢ This type of manometer is used
for measuring difference of two
pressures where accuracy is the
major consideration.
➢ According to the figure below,
the apparatus consists of an
inverted U-tube, containing light
liquid, whose two ends are
connected to the points, (A and
B) whose difference of
pressures is to be found out.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
Let the pressure at A is more than the
pressure at B.
➢ Let, h1 = Height of liquid in the left limb
below the datum line X–X,
➢ h2 = Height of liquid in the right limb
below the datum line,
➢ h = Difference of levels of the light liquid
in the right and left limbs (also known as
manometer reading),
➢ ɣ1 = Specific weight of the liquid in the
left limb,
➢ ɣ2 = Specific weight of the liquid in the
right limb,
➢ ɣL = Specific weight of the light liquid,
➢ PA = Pressure in pipe A, and
➢ PB = Pressure in pipe B.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

We know that pressure heads in the left limb

and the right limb below the datum line X–X
are equal.
Pressure head in the left limb below X–X
= PA – (h1 × ɣ1)
Pressure head in the right limb below X–X
= PB – (h2 × ɣ2) – (h × ɣL)

Equating the above heads, we get:

PA – (h1 × ɣ1) = PB – (h2 × ɣ2) – (h × ɣL)
PA – PB = (h1 × ɣ1) – (h2 × ɣ2) – (h × ɣL)

i.e.,
PA – PB = h1.ɣ1 – h2.ɣ2 – h.ɣL
Q 1) Figure shows an inverted differential manometer having an oil
of specific gravity 0.8 connected to two different pipes carrying
water under pressure. Determine the pressure in the pipe B. The
pressure in pipe A is 2.0 metres of water.
Q 2) An inverted differential manometer is connected to two pipes A and B
carrying water under pressure as shown in the figure. The fluid in the
manometer is oil of specific gravity 0.75. Determine the pressure difference
between A and B.
1. Find the depth of a point below water surface in
sea where the pressure intensity is 100.55 kN/m2.
Specific gravity of sea water is 1.025.
2. A simple manometer (U-tube) containing mercury
is connected to a pipe in which an oil of specific
gravity 0.8 is flowing. The pressure in the pipe is
vacuum. The other end of the manometer is open
to atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe,
if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs
is 200 mm and height of oil in the left-limb from
the centre of the pipe is 150 mm below.
3. A U-tube mercury differential manometer is used
to measure the difference of pressure between
inlet throat of a venturimeter placed with its axis
horizontal in a pipeline. Calculate the difference in
pressure between inlet and throat when the
manometer reading is 250 mm and water flows
through the pipeline.
4. An inverted differential manometer is connected to
two pipes A and B carrying water under pressure
as shown in the figure. The fluid in the manometer
is oil of specific gravity 0.75. Determine the
pressure difference between A and B.
HYDROSTATIC THRUST ON
SUBMERGED SURFACES
➢In the last part, we have studied that a liquid, at rest,
exerts some pressure on all sides of the container.
➢The intensity of pressure (p) was related to specific
weight ɣ of the liquid and vertical depth h of the point by
eqn. p = ɣh.

➢In this next part, we shall discuss the total pressure on a

surface and its position.
➢The term ‘hydrostatics’ means the study of pressure,
exerted by a liquid at rest.
➢The direction of such a pressure is always perpendicular
to the surface, on which it acts.
 TOTAL PRESSURE AND CENTRE OF PRESSURE
Total pressure. It is defined as the force exerted by static
fluid on a surface (either plane or curved) when the fluid
comes in contact with the surface.
This force is always at right angle ( or normal) to the surface.

Centre of pressure. It is defined as the point of application of

the total pressure on the surface.

The immersed surfaces may be:

1. Horizontal plane surface;
2. Vertical plane surface;
3. Inclined plane surface;
4. Curved surface
 HORIZONTALLY IMMERSED SURFACE
Consider a plane horizontal surface
immersed in a liquid.
Let, A = Area of the immersed surface,
𝑥ҧ = Depth of horizontal surface from the
liquid, and
ɣ = Specific weight of the liquid.

The total pressure on the surface

P = Weight of the liquid above the immersed
surface
P = Specific weight of liquid × volume of
liquid
P = Specific weight of liquid × area of
surface × depth of liquid
P = ɣ.a.𝑥ҧ
 VERTICALLY IMMERSED SURFACE
Consider a plane vertical surface
of arbitrary shape immersed in a
liquid.
Let,
A = Total area of the surface,
G = Centre of the area of the
surface,
𝑥ഥ = Depth of centre of area,
OO = Free surface of liquid, and
ℎത = Distance of centre of pressure
from free surface of liquid.
 VERTICALLY IMMERSED SURFACE
Total Pressure (P):
➢ Consider a thin horizontal strip of the surface of
thickness dx and breadth b.
➢ Let the depth of the strip be x.
➢ Let the intensity of pressure on strip be p; this may
be taken as uniform as the strip is extremely small.
Then, p = ɣ.x
where, ɣ = sp. Wt. of the liquid.
➢ Total pressure on the strip
= p.b.dx. = ɣx . bdx
➢ Total pressure on the whole area,
P = ∫ ɣx.bdx = ɣ ∫ bdx . x
➢ But, ∫ bdx . x = First Moment of the surface area
about the axis O-O = A 𝒙 ഥ
∴ P = ɣ.A 𝒙ഥ
or, the total pressure on a surface is equal to the area
multiplied by the intensity of pressure at the centre of
area of the figure.
 VERTICALLY IMMERSED SURFACE
ഥ
Centre of Pressure (𝒉):
➢ The intensity of pressure on an
immersed surface is not uniform, but
increases with depth.
➢ As the pressure is greater over the
lower portion of the figure, therefore
the resultant pressure, on any
immersed surface will act at some
point, below the centre of gravity of
the immersed surface and towards
the lower edge of the figure.
➢ The point through which this
resultant pressure acts is known as
‘centre of pressure’ and is always
expressed in terms of depth from the
liquid surface.
 VERTICALLY IMMERSED SURFACE
ഥ
Centre of Pressure (𝒉):
➢ Let C be the centre of pressure of the immersed
figure.
➢ Then the resultant pressure P will act through the
point.
➢ Let, 𝒉ഥ = Depth of centre of pressure below free
liquid surface, and
➢ I0 = Moment of inertia of the surface about OO.
➢ Consider the horizontal strip of thickness dx.
➢ Total pressure on strip
= ɣ.x.b.dx
➢ Moment of this pressure about free surface OO
= (ɣ.x. b.dx) x = ɣ.x2.b.dx
➢ Total moment of all such pressures for whole area,
M = ∫ ɣ.x2.b.dx. = ɣ ∫ x2.b.dx
➢ But, ∫ x2.b.dx = I0 = Moment of inertia of the surface
about the free surface OO (or second moment of
area)
 VERTICALLY IMMERSED SURFACE
M = ɣ.I0 ...(i)
➢ The sum of the moments of the pressure is also
=P×𝒉 ഥ ...(ii)
➢ Now equating eqns. (i) and (ii), we get:
P×𝒉 ഥ = ɣ.I0
ɣA 𝒙ഥ×𝒉 ഥ = ɣ.I0 .........(Since, P = ɣA 𝑥)ҧ

ഥ = I0
𝒉 ...(iii)
A 𝒙ഥ
➢ Also, I = IG + Ah2 ……..(Theorem of parallel axis)
➢ where, IG = Moment of inertia of the figure about
horizontal axis through its centre of gravity, and
➢h = 𝒙 ഥ = Distance between the free liquid surface
and the centre of gravity of the figure
➢ Thus rearranging equation (iii), we have

ഥ IG + A𝒙ഥ2 IG
𝒉= = ഥ
+𝒙
A 𝒙ഥ A 𝒙ഥ
ഥ = IG + ഥ
➢ Hence, centre of pressure = 𝒉 𝒙
A 𝒙ഥ
 NUMERICALS ON
VERTICAL IMMERSED
SURFACE
Q 1) Figure shows a circular plate of diameter 1.2 m placed
vertically in water in such a way that the centre of the place is
2.5 m below the free surface of water. Determine: (i) Total
pressure on the plate. (ii) Position of centre of pressure.
Solution:
Diameter of the plate, d = 1.2 m
𝝅 𝝅
Area, A = 𝟒
x d2 = 𝟒
x 1.22 = 1.13 m2
𝑥ҧ = 2.5 m

Total Pressure (P): Using the relation,

P=ƔA𝒙 ഥ = 9.81 × 1.13 × 2.5
P=ƔA𝒙 ഥ = 27.7 kN …..(Ans.)

ഥ
Position of centre of pressure (𝒉):
ഥ = IG + 𝒙
𝒉 ഥ
A 𝒙ഥ
𝜋 𝜋
Where, IG = x d4 = x 1.24 = 0.1018 m4
64 64

ഥ = 0.1018 + 2.5 ….(Ans.)

∴𝒉 𝟏.𝟏𝟑 𝒙 𝟐.𝟓
Q 2) A rectangular plate 3 metres long and 1 metre wide is
immersed vertically in water in such a way that its 3 metres
side is parallel to the water surface and is 1 metre below it.
Find: (i) Total pressure on the plate, and (ii) Position of centre
of pressure.
Solution.
Width of the plane surface, b = 3 m
Depth of the plane surface, d = 1 m
Area of the plane surface,
A = b × d = 3 × 1 = 3 m2
1
ഥ = 1 + = 1.5 m
𝒙
2
➢ Total Pressure (P): Using the relation,
P=ƔA𝒙
ഥ = 9.81 × 3 × 1.5
P=ƔA𝒙
ഥ = 44.14 kN …..(Ans.)

ഥ
➢ Position of centre of pressure (𝒉):

ഥ = IG + 𝒙
𝒉 ഥ
A 𝒙ഥ
bd3 3 x 13
Where, IG = = = 0.25 m4
12 12
Q 3) An isosceles triangular plate of base 3 m and altitude 3 m is
immersed vertically in an oil of specific gravity 0.8. The base of
the plate coincides with the free surface of oil. Determine: (i)
Total pressure on the plate; (ii) Centre of pressure.
Solution.
 INCLINED IMMERSED SURFACE
➢Consider a plane inclined
surface, immersed in a liquid.
➢Let,
A = Area of the surface,
𝒙ഥ = Depth of centre of gravity of
immersed surface from the free
liquid surface,
θ = Angle at which the immersed
surface is inclined with the liquid
surface, and
Ɣ = Specific weight of the liquid.
 INCLINED IMMERSED SURFACE
Total Pressure (P):
➢ Consider a strip of thickness dx, width b at a
distance l from O.
➢ The intensity of pressure on the strip
= Ɣl sinθ
➢ Area of the strip = b.dx
➢ Pressure on the strip
= Intensity of pressure × area
= Ɣl sin θ . b. dx
➢ Now total pressure on the surface,
P = ∫ Ɣl sin θ . b . dx = Ɣ sin θ ∫ l . b . Dx

But, ∫ l . b . dx = moment of surface area about

O-O
A ഥ𝒙
But, ∫ l . b . dx =
sinθ
A ഥ𝒙
• ∴ P = Ɣ sinθ . = ƔAഥ
𝒙
sinθ
 INCLINED IMMERSED SURFACE
ഥ):
Position of Centre of Pressure (𝒉
➢ let C be the centre of pressure of the inclined
surface.
ഥ = Depth of c.p. below free liquid surface,
Let, 𝒉
I0 = MI of the immersed surface about OO,
𝒙ഥ = Depth of c.g. of the surface from the liquid
surface,
θ = Angle at which the immersed surface is
inclined with the liquid surface
➢ Consider a strip of thickness of dx, width b
and at distance l from OO.
➢ Intensity of pressure on the strip = Ɣlsin θ
➢ Area of strip = b . dx
➢ ∴ Pressure on the strip
= Intensity of pressure × area = Ɣl sinθ b . dx
➢ Moment of the pressure about OO
= (Ɣl sin θ . b.dx) l = Ɣl2 sinθ . b . dx
 INCLINED IMMERSED SURFACE
➢ Now sum of moments of all such pressures
about O,
M = ∫ Ɣl2 sin θ . b dx = Ɣ sin θ ∫ l2 . b . dx

➢ But,
∫ l2 . b . dx = I0 = moment of inertia of the
surface about the point 0
∴ M = Ɣ sin θ. I0 ...(i)
➢ The sum of moments of all such pressures
P × 𝒉ത
about O is also = ...(ii)
sin θ
➢ Equating eqns. (i) and (ii), we get:
P × 𝒉ത
Ɣ sin θ. I0 =
sin θ
ƔA 𝒙ത × 𝒉ത
Ɣ sin θ. I0 =
sin θ
 INCLINED IMMERSED SURFACE
ഥ = I0 x sin θ
2
𝒉 ….(iii)
A ഥ𝒙
➢ Also, I = IG + Ah2 ……..(Theorem of parallel
axis)
where, IG = Moment of inertia of the figure
about horizontal axis through its centre of
gravity, and
ഥ
𝒙
h=l= = Distance between the free liquid
sin θ
surface and the centre of gravity of the figure
➢ Rearranging equation (iii), we have:

ഥ sin2 θ sin2 θ ഥ
𝒙
𝒉= 2
(IG + Al ) = (IG + A[ ]2)
A ഥ𝒙 A ഥ𝒙 sin θ

ഥ IG.sin2 θ
∴𝒉= ഥ
+𝒙
A ഥ𝒙
 NUMERICALS ON
INCLINED IMMERSED
SURFACE
• Q 1) A 1m wide and 1.5 m deep rectangular plane surface lies in
water in such a way that its plane makes an angle of 30° with
the free water surface. Determine the total pressure and position
of centre of pressure when the upper edge is 0.75 m below the
free water surface.
Solution:
Width of the plane surface = 1m
Depth of the plane surface = 1.5 m
Inclination, θ = 30°
Distance of upper edge from free water surface
= 0.75 m
(i) Total pressure, P:
Using the relation, P = ƔAഥ𝒙
Area, A = 1.5 × 1 = 1.5 m2,
ഥ = LU + UM = 0.75 + MN sin 30°
𝒙
1.5
ഥ = LU + UM = 0.75 +
𝒙 × 0.5 = 1.125 m
2
P = 9.81 × 1.5 × 1.125 m
P = 16.55 kN (Ans.)
 ഥ:
(ii) Centre of pressure, 𝒉
2
ഥ = IG.sin θ + 𝒙
𝒉 ഥ
A 𝒙ഥ
bd3 1 x 1.53
Where, IG = = = 0.281 m4
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

ഥ 0.281 X .(0.5)2
𝒉= + 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 = 1.166 m
𝟏.𝟓 𝑿 𝟏.𝟏𝟐𝟓
 CURVED IMMERSED SURFACE
➢ Consider a curved surface LM submerged in
a static fluid as shown in figure.
➢ At any point on the curved surface, the
pressure acts normal to the surface.
➢ Thus if dA is the area of a small element of
the curved surface lying at a vertical depth of
h from surface of the liquid, then the total
pressure on the elemental area is,
dp = p × dA = (Ɣ h) × dA .....(i)
• This force dP acts normal to the surface.
Further integration of eqn. (i) would provide
the total pressure on the curved surface and
hence,
P = ∫ Ɣ hdA ….(ii)
➢ But, is case of curved surface the direction of
the total pressures on the elementary areas
are not in the same direction, but varies from
point to point.
 CURVED IMMERSED SURFACE
➢ Thus the integration of eqn. (ii) for curved
surface is impossible.
➢ The problem, however, can be solved by
resolving the force P into horizontal and
vertical components PH and PV.
➢ Then total force on the curved surface is,

P = PH2 + PV2
➢ The direction of the resultant force P with the
P
horizontal is given by: tan θ = H
PV
P
Or, θ = tan-I ( H)
PV
o Here, PH = Total pressure force on the
projected area of the curved surface on
vertical plane, and
o PV = Weight of the liquid supported by the
curved surface upto free surface of liquid.
 NUMERICALS ON
CURVED IMMERSED
SURFACE
 PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF TOTAL PRESSURE
AND CENTRE OF PRESSURE
DAMS:
➢ A dam is a concrete or masonry structure
constructed across a river in order to check
the flow of water and store it in the reservoir
formed on the upstream side.
➢ Since the upstream face of the dam is always
in contact with static mass of water of great
depth, it is subjected to a pressure force.
➢ As shown in the figure, if H is the depth of
water stored on the upstream side of a dam,
then the total pressure exerted on the
upstream face for 1m length of dam may be
computed by –
P=ƔA𝐱
ത
H
P = Ɣw x (H x 1) x
2
ƔwH2
P= (…where, Ɣw = sp. Wt. of water)
2
 PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF TOTAL PRESSURE
AND CENTRE OF PRESSURE
➢ This force will act normal to the upstream face
at the centre of pressure, the depth of which
below the surface of water in the reservoir may
be determined by
I
𝐡ҧ = G + 𝐱ത
A 𝐱ത

1 𝐱 𝟏 𝐱 𝐇𝟑
𝐡ҧ =
12 +
H
(H x 1) 𝒙 H
2
2
H H 2H
𝐡ҧ = + =
6 2 3
➢ i.e. total pressure exerted on upstream face of
2H
dam acts at a depth of below the free
3
surface of water.
BUOYANCY & FLOATATION
 INTRODUCTION
BUOYANCY
➢ Whenever a body is immersed wholly or
partially in a fluid it is subjected to an upward
force which tends to lift (or buoy) it up.
➢ This tendency for an immersed body to be
lifted up in the fluid, due to an upward force
opposite to action of gravity is known as
buoyancy.
➢ The force tending to lift up the body under
such conditions is known as buoyant force
(FB) or force of buoyancy or upthrust.

CENTRE OF BUOYANCY
❖ The point of application of the force of
buoyancy on the body is known as the centre
of buoyancy.
❖ It is always the centre of gravity of the volume
of fluid displaced.
 INTRODUCTION

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
➢ The magnitude of the buoyant force (FB)
can be determined by Archimedes’
principle which states as follows:
➢ “When a body is immersed in a fluid
either wholly or partially, it is buoyed
or lifted up by a force, which is equal
to the weight of fluid displaced by the
body.”
 INTRODUCTION
➢ The buoyant force exerted on a
submerged body is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the submerged
body.
FB = Ɣ.V
Where, V = volume of submerged body
➢ The buoyant force acts vertically
upwards through the centre of buoyancy
which evidently coincides with the centre
of the volume of the fluid displaced.
➢ Moreover, for a wholly submerged body of
homogeneous composition, the centre of
buoyancy will coincide with centre of
gravity of body.
Q 1) A wooden block of width 1.25 m, depth 0.75 m and length 3.0 m
is floating in water. Specific weight of the wood is 6.4 kN/m3. Find:
(i) Volume of water displaced, and
(ii) Position of centre of buoyancy.
Solution.
Width of the wooden block = 1.25 m
Depth of the wooden block = 0.75 m
Length of the wooden block = 3.0 m
Volume of the block = 1.25 × 0.75 × 3 = 2.812 m3
Specific weight of wood, w = 6.4 kN/m3
Weight of the block = 6.4 × 2.812 = 18 kN

(i) Volume of water displaced:

For equilibrium,
the weight of water displaced = Weight of wooden block = 18 N
Weight of water displaced 18
Volume of water displaced = = = 1.835 m3
Specific weight of water 9.81
(ii) Position of centre of buoyancy:
We know that,
Volume of wooden block in water = Volume of water displaced
or, 1.25 × h × 3.0 = 1.835
(where, h = depth of wooden block in water)

1.835
∴h= = 0.489 m
1.25 x 3.0

Hence,
0.489
Centre of buoyancy = = 0.244 m from the base
2
A wooden block of width 2.5 m, depth 1.5 m and length
6 m is floating horizontally in water. If the specific
gravity of block is 0.65, find:
(i) The volume of water displaced, and
(ii) Position of centre of buoyancy.
[Ans. (i) 14.625 m3; (ii) 0.4875 m from base]
 METACENTRE AND METACENTRIC HEIGHT

➢ Consider a body floating in a liquid.

➢ If it is in static equilibrium, it is acted upon two forces i.e. wt. of body W
acting at centre of gravity G of body and the buoyant force FB acting at
centre of buoyance B.
➢ The forces FB and W are equal and opposite.
➢ As shown in the figure, the points G and B lie along the same verical line
which is the vertical axis of the body.
➢ Let this body be tilted slightly or it undergoes a small angular displacement
θ.
 METACENTRE AND METACENTRIC HEIGHT

➢ It is assumed that position of c.g. G remains unchanged relative to body.

➢ The centre of buoyancy B however does not remain fixed relative to body.
➢ This is so because, as the body is tilted, the portion of body immersed on
the right hand side increases while that on the left hand side decreases and
hence centre of buoyancy moves to new position B1.
➢ Now if a vertical line is drawn through the new centre of buoyancy B1, it
intersects the axis of the body (BG) at point M, which is known as
metacentre.
 METACENTRE AND METACENTRIC HEIGHT

➢ Thus,
Metacentre is defined as the point of intersection between the axis of the
floating body passing through points B and G and a vertical line passing
through the new centre of buoyancy B1.

➢ Further,
The distance between c.g. G of a body and metacentre M is known as
metacentric height.
 191
Stability of Immersed and
Floating Bodies

Stability is
easily
understood by
analyzing a
ball on the
floor.

For floating bodies such as ships, stability is

an important consideration for safety.
 TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF FLOATING BODIES
Stable equilibrium: M above G. if the metacentre is above the centre of gravity then the
floating body is in stable equilibrium. From fig shown above when a body is given a
slight tilt in clockward direction, the centre of buoyancy B will shift to new position B1.
The couple formed by buoyant force FB and the weight w of body tends the body rotate
anti-clockwise and then the force couple bring back body to its original position.

Unstable equilibrium: M below G. when the body is given a slight tilt in a clockwise
direction. If the metacentre M is below the centre of gravity G, then the couple formed by
buoyancy FB and weight W of body tends the body to tilt clockwise direction and thus the
body will overturn.

Neutral equilibrium: M coincide G. If the metacentre is at the centre of gravity, then the
torque formed by FB and W is zero. In this condition, body said to be in neutral
equilibrium.
 TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF SUBMERGED BODIES
For a submerged body the weight of body is equal to the buoyant force, W=FB, and
body has no tendency to move upward or downward. For example, a balloon
submerged in the air.

Stable equilibrium: B above G. If the centre of buoyancy B is above the centre of

gravity, the slight clockwise tilt produce a couple of force FB and W in opposite
direction. The body will return to its original position.

Unstable equilibrium: B below G. if the body is given a slight tilt, the couple of forces
W and FB also in the same direction.

Neutral equilibrium: B coincide G. There is no torque couple formed by W and FB.

 DETERMINATION OF METACENTRIC METHOD
A) ANALYTICAL METHOD:
I
BM =
V
WHERE, I = Moment of inertia of the floating body
And, V = Volume of the submerged part of the body

∴ GM = BM - BG
I
Becomes, ∴ GM = − BG
V
 DETERMINATION OF METACENTRIC METHOD
A) EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:
➢ In this method, a known weight W1 is shifted by a distance z across the axis of tilt.
➢ The change in moment due to this shift is W1 z.
➢ Let the angle of tilt be θ.
➢ This angle of tilt may be measured experimentally by using a plumb bob.
➢ The change in moment of entire wt. of ship due to this tilt is = W.GG1 or W.GM tan θ.
W1 z
∴ W1 z = W.Gm.tanθ or GM =
W. tan θ
If, l = Length of plumb bob, and
d = Displacement of the plumb bob,
d
➢ Then, tan θ =
l
➢ and, metacentric height is given by:
W z.l
GM = 1
W.d
Q 1) A wooden block of specific gravity 0.75
floats in water. If the size of the block is 1 m ×
0.5 m × 0.4 m, find its metacentric height.
Solution.
Size (or dimensions) of the block = 1m × 0.5 m × 0.4 m
Specific gravity of wood = 0.75
Specific weight Ɣ = 0.75 × 9.81 = 7.36 kN/m3
Weight of wooden block = specific weight × volume
Weight of wooden block = 7.36×1×0.5×0.4 = 1.472kN
Let depth of immersion = h m.
Weight of water displaced –
= Specific weight of water × volume of the wood
submerged in water
= 9.81 × 1 × 0.5 × h = 4.9 h kN
Now, for equilibrium:
Weight of wood block = Weight of water displaced
1.472 = 4.9 h
 1.472
Or, h =
4.9
∴ Distance of centre of buoyancy from bottom i.e.,
h 0.3
OB = = = 0.15 m
2 2
0.4
and, OG = = 0.2 m
2
∴ BG = OG – OB = 0.2 – 0.15 = 0.05 m
I
Also, BM =
V
1 x 0.53
Where, I = Moment of inertia of a rectangular section = = 0.014 m4
12
and, V = Volume of water displaced (or volume of wood in water)
and, V = 1 × 0.5 × h = 1× 0.5 × 0.3 = 0.15 m3
I 0.014
∴ BM = = = 0.069 m
V 0.15
We know that the metacentric height,
GM = BM – BG (∵ G is above B)
GM = 0.069 – 0.05
GM = 0.019 m (Ans.)
Q 1) solid cylinder 2 m in diameter and 2m high is
floating in water with its axis vertical. If the specific
gravity of the material of cylinder is 0.65 find its
metacentric height. State also whether the equilibrium
is stable or unstable.
Ans: metacentric ht. = 0.158 m
Q 1) The following data relate to a pontoon floating
in sea water:
Length = 5 m, width 3 m, height = 1.2 m
The depth of immersion = 0.8 m
Centre of gravity above the bottom of pontoon = 0.6 m
Sp. gravity of sea water = 1.025
Determine the metacentric height.
Ans. 0.7375 m