Metal Casting

Lecture 1
Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing process. It is the first step in making most of the products.

• Steps: -
- Making mould cavity
- Material is first liquefied by properly heating it in a suitable furnace.
- Liquid is poured into a prepared mould cavity
- allowed to solidify
- product is taken out of the mould cavity, trimmed and made to shape.

We should concentrate on the following for successful casting operation:

(i) Preparation of moulds of patterns

(ii) Melting and pouring of the liquefied metal
(iii) Solidification and further cooling to room temperature
(iv) Defects and inspection
Advantages
• Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made by this process. As a
result, many other operations, such as machining, forging, and welding, can be minimized.
• Possible to cast practically any material: ferrous or non-ferrous.
• The necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive. As a result, for production of a
small lot, it is the ideal process.
• There are certain parts (like turbine blades) made from metals and alloys that can only be processed this way.
Turbine blades: Fully casting + last machining.
• Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process
Limitations

• Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting processes are a
limitation to this technique.

• Many new casting processes have been developed which can take into consideration the
aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of these processes are die casting
process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed moulding process, and shell moulding
process.

• Metal casting is a labour intensive process

Steps in making sand castings

The five basic steps in making sand castings are, (i) Pattern making, (ii) Core making, (iii)
Moulding, (iv) Melting and pouring, (v) Finishing & Cleaning

Pattern making - Pattern: Replica of the part to be cast and is used to prepare the mould
cavity. It is the physical model of the casting used to make the mould. Made of either wood or
metal.

The mould is made by packing some readily formed aggregate material, such as moulding
sand, surrounding the pattern. When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint provides the
mould cavity. This cavity is filled with metal to become the casting.

- If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called ‘cores’, are used to form these
cavities.
Core making

Cores are placed into a mould cavity to form the interior surfaces of castings. Thus the void space is filled
with molten metal and eventually becomes the casting.

Moulding

Moulding is nothing but the mould preparation activities for receiving molten metal. Moulding usually
involves: (i) preparing the consolidated sand mould around a pattern held within a supporting metal frame,
(ii) removing the pattern to leave the mould cavity with cores.

Mould cavity is the primary cavity.

The mould cavity contains the liquid metal and it acts as a negative of the desired product.

The mould also contains secondary cavities for pouring and channeling the liquid material in to the primary
cavity and will act a reservoir, if required.
Melting and Pouring

The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as melting. The molten metal is
transferred to the pouring area where the moulds are filled.

Finishing & Cleaning

Cleaning involves removal of sand, scale, and excess metal from the casting. Burned-on sand and
scale are removed to improved the surface appearance of the casting. Excess metal, in the form
of fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is removed. Inspection of the casting for defects and
general quality is performed
Flow diagram to produce casting
 Pattern and Pattern Making

• A pattern is simply the duplicate of the component

which has to be manufactured by the casting process.

• The pattern are packed into sand that is mixed with

binding agents.

• The pattern is purposely made larger than the cast

part to allow for shrinkage during cooling.
• Sand “cores” can be inserted in the mould to create holes and improve
the casting’s final shape.

• Vent holes are created to allow hot gases to escape during the pour.

• The selection of a pattern material depends on the size and shape of

the casting, dimensional accuracy, the quantity of casting required.
FACTORS EFFECTING SELECTION OF
PATTERN MATERIAL

1. Number of castings to be produced. Metal pattern are preferred when

castings are required large in number.
2. Type of mould material used.
3. Kind of molding process.
4. Method of molding (hand or machine).
5. Degree of dimensional accuracy and surface finish required.
6. Minimum thickness required.
7. Shape, complexity and size of casting.
8. Cost of pattern and chances of repeat orders of the pattern
 Pattern Materials
The most used pattern materials
has good characteristics. There are
(i) Wood and wood materials
(ii) Metals and Alloys
(iii) Plasters
(iv) Plastic and Rubbers
(v) Waxes
 Types of Patterns
(i) Single piece pattern (or) Solid pattern.
(ii) Split pattern
(iii) Gated pattern
(iv) Cope and Drag pattern
(v) Match plate pattern
(vi) Loose – piece pattern
(vii) Follow Board pattern
(viii) Sweep pattern
(ix) Skeleton pattern
 Sweep pattern
❖A sweep pattern is just a form, made
on a wooden board with sweeps the
shape of the casting into the sand
all around the circumference.
❖The sweep patterns are rotating about
the post. It is used for producing large
casting of circular sections.
Sweep pattern
 Skeleton pattern
❖This is a ribbed construction with a large
number of square or rectangular
openings between the ribs which from a
skeleton outline of the pattern to be made.
❖The framework is filled and rammed with
clays, sand or loam and a strike-off board
known as a strickle board.
Skeleton pattern
Sand Preparation and reclamation
➢ Refractoriness

➢ Permeability

➢ Hardenability

➢ Strength
Magnetic separator
Sand Muller
Trowel
They are utilized for finishing flat surfaces and joints and
partings lines of the mold. They consist of metal blade
made of iron and are equipped with a wooden handle. The
common metal blade shapes of trowels may be pointed or
contoured or rectangular oriented. The trowels are
basically employed for smoothing or slicking the surfaces
of molds. They may also be used to cut in-gates and repair
the mold surfaces.
Rammers
Lifters
They are also known as cleaners or
finishing tool which are made of thin
sections of steel of various length and width
with one end bent at right angle. They are
used for cleaning, repairing and finishing
the bottom and sides of deep and narrow
openings in mold cavity after withdrawal of
pattern. They are also used for removing
loose sand from mold cavity.
 Vent Wire
It is a thin spiked steel rod or wire carrying a
pointed edge at one end and a wooden handle
or a bent loop at the other. After ramming and
striking off the excess sand it is utilized to pierce
series of small holes in the molding sand in the
cope portion. The series of pierced small holes
are called vents holes which allow the exit or
escape of steam and gases during pouring mold
and solidifying of the molten metal for getting a
sound casting
Slicks
They are also recognized as small double ended
mold finishing tool which are generally used for
repairing and finishing the mould surfaces and their
edges after withdrawal of the pattern. The commonly
used slicks are of the types of heart and leaf, square
and heart, spoon and bead and heart and spoon. The
nomenclatures of the slicks are largely due to their
shapes.
 Swabs
It is a small hemp fiber brush used for moistening
the edges of sand mold, which are in contact with
the pattern surface before withdrawing the
pattern. It is used for sweeping away the molding
sand from the mold surface and pattern. It is also
used for coating the liquid blacking on the mold
faces in dry sand molds.
Draw Spike
Draw spike is shown. It is a tapered
steel rod having a loop or ring at its
one end and a sharp point at the
other. It may have screw threads on
the end to engage metal pattern for it
withdrawal from the mold. It is used
for driven into pattern which is
embedded
Core Making
Core Box
Core Box
Core Box
Core Box
Core Box
Core Print
 Buoyancy Force during Pouring
• One of the hazards during pouring is that
buoyancy of molten will displace the core with the
force:
Fb= Wm-Wc (Archimedes principle)
Wm: Weight of molten metal displaced;
Wc: Weight of core
** In order to avoid the effect of Fb, chaplets are
used to hold the core in cavity of mold.
Other Expendable Mold Processes

• Shell Molding
• Vacuum Molding
• Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Investment Casting
• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting
Shell Molding
Casting process in which the cavity (& gating system) is
a thin shell of sand held together by thermosetting
resin binder
part

Steps in shell-molding: (1) a match-plate or cope-and-drag

metal pattern is heated and placed over a box containing
sand mixed with thermosetting resin.
Shell Molding
Steps in shell-molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot
pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a
hard shell; (3) box is repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop away;
Shell Molding
Steps in shell-molding: (4) sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to
complete curing; (5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern;
Shell Molding

Steps in shell-molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold are

assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and
pouring is accomplished; (7) the finished casting with sprue
removed.
Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of shell molding:
• Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
• Good dimensional accuracy - machining often not
required
• Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
• Can be mechanized for mass production
• Disadvantages:
• More expensive metal pattern
• Difficult to justify for small quantities
Vacuum Molding
Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages of vacuum molding:

• Easy recovery of the sand, since no binders
• Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning
done when binders are used
• Since no water is mixed with sand,
moisture-related defects are absent
• Disadvantages:
• Slow process
• Not readily adaptable to mechanization
 Expanded Polystyrene Process or
lost-foam process

Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern which

vaporizes when molten metal is poured into mold
• Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process,
evaporative-foam process, and full-mold process
• Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system, and
internal cores (if needed)
• Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections
 Expanded Polystyrene Process

Expanded polystyrene casting process: (1) pattern of polystyrene is coated with

refractory compound;
Expanded Polystyrene Process

Expanded polystyrene casting process: (2) foam pattern is placed in mold box,
and sand is compacted around the pattern;

NIETM - Manufacturing Processes

 Expanded Polystyrene Process

Expanded polystyrene casting process: (3) molten metal is poured into the portion of the
pattern that forms the pouring cup and sprue. As the metal enters the mold, the polystyrene
foam is vaporized ahead of the advancing liquid, thus the resulting mold cavity is filled.
Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:

• Pattern need not be removed from the mold
• Simplifies and speeds mold-making, because two mold halves are not
required as in a conventional green-sand mold
• Disadvantages:
• A new pattern is needed for every casting
• Economic justification of the process is highly dependent on cost of producing
patterns
Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Applications:

• Mass production of castings for automobile engines

• Automated and integrated manufacturing systems are used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting operation
 Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make

mold, after which wax is melted away prior to pouring molten metal
• "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of "invest" - "to
cover completely," which refers to coating of refractory material
around wax pattern
• It is a precision casting process - capable of producing castings of high
accuracy and intricate detail
Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are produced, (2)

several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree
Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of
refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated tree
with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid
Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an inverted position and
heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity, (6) the mold is
preheated to a high temperature, the molten metal is poured, and it solidifies
Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is broken

away from the finished casting and the parts are
separated from the sprue
Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of investment casting:
• Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
• Close dimensional control and good surface finish
• Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
• Additional machining is not normally required - this is a net shape process
• Disadvantages
• Many processing steps are required
• Relatively expensive process
Plaster Mold Casting
Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster of Paris
(gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
• In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured over plastic or
metal pattern and allowed to set
• Wood patterns not generally used due to extended contact with water
• Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern, capturing its fine details
and good surface finish
Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of plaster mold casting:
• Good accuracy and surface finish
• Capability to make thin cross-sections
• Disadvantages:
• Mold must be baked to remove moisture,
which can cause problems in casting
• Mold strength is lost if over-baked
• Plaster molds cannot stand high
temperatures, so limited to lower melting
point alloys can be casted
 Types of Furnace
➢Crucible furnace
➢Open hearth furnace
➢Reverberatory Furnace
➢Rotary Furnace
➢Cupola Furnace
➢Electric Arc furnace
➢Induction furnace
Crucible furnace

Oil/Gas fired
Open Hearth furnace
Reverberatory furnace
Rotary furnace
Cupola furnace
Coke less cupola furnace
Divided blast cupola furnace
Electric furnace
Indirect Electric furnace
Induction furnace
Casting of Ferrous Metals
%𝐶 - % Si/3
Casting of Non-Ferrous metals
Fettling of Casting
 Arc Welding Flame Welding

➢ Manual metal Arc welding Oxy-acetylene welding

➢ MIG

➢ TIG

➢ Submerged Arc welding

➢ Thermit welding
Heat Treatment of Casting
Heat Treatment of Cast Iron and
Non-Ferrous metals
Casting Defects
 General Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold cavity

Reasons:
a. Fluidity of molten metal is insufficient
b. Pouring temperature is too low
c. Pouring is done too slowly
d. Cross section of mold cavity is too thin
e. Mold design is not in accordance with
Chvorinov’s rule: V/A at the section closer to
the gating system should be higher than that
far from gating system

Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

 General Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of
fusion due to premature (early) freezing

Reasons:
Same as for misrun

Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

 General Defects: Cold Shot
Metal splashes during pouring and solid globules form and
become entrapped in casting

Gating system should be

improved to avoid splashing

Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

 General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity

Depression in surface or internal void caused by

solidification shrinkage

Proper riser design can solve this issue

Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

 General Casting Defects: Hot Tearing
Hot tearing/cracking in casting occurs when the molten metal is not
allowed to contract by an underlying mold during cooling/ solidification.

The collapsibility (ability to give way

and allow molten metal to shrink during
solidification) of mold should be
improved

Common defects in sand castings: (e) hot tearing

 Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold
gases during pouring

Low permeability of mold, poor

venting, high moisture content in
sand are major reasons

Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

 Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below surface of
casting

Caused by release of gas during

pouring of molten metal.
To avoid, improve permeability &
venting in mold

Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

 Sand Casting Defects: Penetration

When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into sand mold or core,
causing casting surface to consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal

Harder packing of sand helps to

alleviate this problem
Reduce pouring temp if possible
Use better sand binders

Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

 Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise relative
displacement of cope and drag
It is caused by buoyancy force of
molten metal.
Cope an drag must be aligned
accurately and fastened.
Use match plate patterns

Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

 Sand Casting Defects: Core Shift
Similar to core mold but it is core that is displaced and the displacement is
usually vertical.

It is caused by buoyancy force of

molten metal.
Core must be fastened with
chaplet

Common defects in sand castings: (g) core shift

 Sand Casting Defects: Sand Wash
An irregularity in the casting surface caused by erosion of sand mold during
pouring.

Turbulence in metal flow during pouring

should be controlled. Also, very high
pouring temperature cause erosion of
mold.

Common defects in sand castings: (h) sand wash

 Sand Casting Defects: Scabs
Scabs are rough areas on the surface of casting due to un-necessary deposit
of sand and metal.

It is caused by portions of the mold

surface flaking off during solidification
and becoming embedded in the casting
surface
Improve mold strength by reducing
grain size and changing binders

Common defects in sand castings: (i) scab

 Sand Casting Defects: Mold Crack
Occurs when the strength of mold is not sufficient to withstand high
temperatures

Improve mold strength by reducing

grain size and changing binders

Common defects in sand castings: (j) mold crack