MIN 203 (Manufacturing Technology – II)

Instructor – Dr. Amit Choudhary

Foundry:
Sand casting process-steps, core; sand testing; moulding processes,

Gating system

Solidification phenomena,

Melting furnaces;

Special casting methods: Centrifugal casting, permanent mold casting, hot chamber and
cold chamber die casting, investment casting, shell mould casting, plaster mould casting,
CO2 mould casting

Casting design considerations

Casting defects and remedies

Foundry - Factory that produces metal castings
• Casting: Process
Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other
force into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of the
mold cavity
Steps:
1. Melt the material (metal)
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze

Refractory mold → pour liquid metal → solidify, remove → finish

 Capabilities and Advantages
• Versatile: complex geometry, internal cavities, hollow sections
• Versatile: small (~10 gms) → very large parts (~1000 Kg)
– Engine blocks and heads, machine frames, railway wheels, pipes, church
bells etc.
– Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, frying pans
• ECONOMICAL: little wastage (extra metal is re-used)
• ISOTROPIC: cast parts have same properties along all
directions
• Some casting methods are suited to mass production
• All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous and nonferrous
• High complexity with few steps (usually)
 Disadvantages of Casting
• Limitations on mechanical properties
• Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some processes;
e.g., sand casting
• Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals
• Environmental problems
• Expensive and time-consuming patterns/molds/dies
• Solidification issues: shrinkage, porosity, ~low strength, brittleness
• Some methods require many steps
 Casting
Pattern » Mold » Pour » Cool » Remove » Inspect

Types of Casting :
Expendable Mold, Non-Expendable Mold (Multiple Use
Mold)

Sand Casting :
Expendable Mold casting process uses sand as
molding material
 Casting Requirements
• Mold : single or multiple use
• Melting Process
• Pouring Technique
• Solidification Process
• Mold removal
• Clean, Finish, Inspection
 METAL CASTING PROCESSES
Categories
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to remove
part
• Mold (Sand, Shell, Vacuum, Expanded Polystyrene,
Investment Casting, Plaster and Ceramic)
– Advantage: more complex shapes possible
– Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to
make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal and
can be used to make many castings
– Advantage: higher production rates
– Disadvantage: gas defects, limited size and geometries,
low melting point materials.
 Sand Casting
• Widely used casting process, accounting for a significant
majority of total tonnage cast
• Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals
with high melting temperatures
• Castings range in size from small to very large (0.1-
105kg)
• Production quantities from single castings as well as for
large-scale casting
• Hand moulding and large-scale machine moulding
• Cast complicated components
• Low initial cost
• Poor dimensional accuracy and surface smoothness
680 kg air compressor frame
 Steps in Sand Casting
1. Preparation of pattern(s), core(s) and mold(s)
2. Melting and Pouring the molten metal into
sand mold
3. Allow time for metal to solidify
4. Break up the mold to remove casting
5. Clean and inspect casting
– Separate gating and riser system
6. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes
required to improve metallurgical properties
 Sand Casting
Production sequence in sand casting
 Mold
• Cavity whose geometry determines part shape
– Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly
oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal during
solidification and cooling
– Molds are made of a variety of materials, including
sand, plaster, ceramic, and metal
Sand Casting: Parts of a Sand Mold (expendable mold)
Key terms:
Flask, Cope, Drag, Sprue, Runner, Gate, Riser, Mold Cavity, Core, Parting Line
1) Cope - upper moulding flask.

2) Drag - lower moulding flask.

3) Cheek – intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding. It is used

when large size casting is to be done. (it is not shown in the previous figure).

4) Pattern - Pattern is a replica of the final object to be made with some

modifications. The mould cavity is made with the help of the pattern.

5) Parting line - This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes
up the sand mould. In split pattern it is also the dividing line between the two halves
of the pattern.

6) Ladle – it is basically a container from which molten metal is poured into the
cavity.

7) Bottom board - This is a board which is normally made of wood and is used at
the start of the mould making. The pattern is first kept on the bottom board, sand is
sprinkled on it and then the ramming is done in the drag.

8) Facing sand - The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner
surface of the moulding cavity to give better surface finish to the castings.
9) Moulding sand - It is the freshly prepared refractory material used for making the
mould cavity. It is a mixture of silica, clay and moisture in appropriate proportions to
get the desired results and it surrounds the pattern while making the mould.

10) Core - It is used for making hollow cavities in castings.

11) Pouring basin - A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which
the molten metal is poured.

12) Sprue - The passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin
reaches the mould cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mould.

13) Runner - The passage ways in the parting plane through which molten metal
flow is regulated before they reach the mould cavity.

14) Gate - The actual entry point through which molten metal enters mould cavity.

15) Chaplet - Chaplets are used to support cores inside the mould cavity to take
care of its own weight and overcome the metallo static forces.

16) Chill - Chills are metallic objects which are placed in the mould to increase the
cooling rate of castings to provide uniform or desired cooling rate.
17) Riser - It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting so that hot metal
can flow back into the mould cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal
due to solidification.

18) Vent – after ramming off the excess sand it is used to make small holes, called
vents, in the mould to allow the exit of gasses and steam during the casting.

19) Blind riser- closed riser which is surrounded by the moulding sand or made
inside the mould is called blind riser. The cooling rate of molten metal inside the
blind riser is very less as compared to the open riser.
Open Molds and Closed Molds

(a) open mold, simply a container in the shape of the

desired part
(b) closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more
complex and requires a gating system
(passageway) leading into the cavity
 Making the Sand Mold
• The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand
around a pattern, then separating the mold into two
halves and removing the pattern
• The mold must also contain gating and riser system
• If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
• A new sand mold must be made for each part produced
 Core and Core prints

Core prints
 Pattern
A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining allowances in the
casting
5 mm/m to 15 mm/m
Draft Angle 0.50 to 20
Pattern Material Characteristics
• Pattern materials:
– Wood - common material because it is easy to work,
but it warps
– Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
– Plastic - compromise between wood and metal
 Patterns
Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern, (b) split pattern, (c) match-plate
pattern (d) cope and drag pattern

split pattern
(location of dowel pins)
 TYPES OF PATTERN

Types of patterns depend upon the following factors :

(I) The shape and size of casting.

(ii) Number of castings required.
(iii) Method of moulding employed.
(iv) Anticipated difficulty of the moulding operation.

The following types of patterns are commonly used :

1. Solid or single piece pattern. 2. Split pattern.

3. Loose piece pattern. 4. Match plate pattern.
5. Gated pattern. 6. Skeleton pattern.
7. Sweep pattern. 8. Cope and drag pattern.
9. Follow board pattern. 10. Segmental pattern.
1. Solid or single piece pattern :

It is simplest of all the patterns and the cheapest.

It is made in one piece and carries no joint, partition or loose

pieces.
Solid or single piece pattern
Depending upon the shape, it can be moulded in one or two
boxes.

2. Split pattern:

Most of the patterns are not made in a single piece because

of the difficulties encountered in moulding them. In order to
eliminate this difficulty, some patterns are made in two or
more pieces.

A pattern consisting of two pieces is called a two piece split

pattern. One-half of the pattern rests in the lower part of the
moulding box known as drag and the other half in the upper
part of the moulding box known as cope. The line of
separation of the parts is called parting line or parting surface.

Sometimes a pattern is constructed in three or more parts for

complicated castings. Such a pattern is called multi-piece
pattern.
 cope

cheek
Three
pieces of
pattern

drag

Molding sand

Multi-piece pattern
3. Loose piece pattern :

In some cases a pattern has to be made with projections or

overhanging parts. These projections make the removal of the
pattern difficult. Therefore such projections are made in loose
pieces and are fastened loosely to the main pattern by means
of wooden or wire dowel pins. These pins are taken out during
moulding operation. After moulding the main pattern is
withdrawn first and then the loose piece is removed by using a
lifter.

4. Match plate pattern:

• Here the cope and drag patterns along with the gating and
the risering are mounted on a single matching metal or
wooden plate on either side.
• On one side of the match plate the cope flask is prepared
and on the other, the drag flask.
• After moulding when the match plate is removed, a
complete mould with gating is obtained by joining the cope
and the drag together.
• It is preferred because Several patterns can be fixed to a
single match plate, if they are sufficiently small in size,
hence it can be used for mass production.
• They are expensive but since they increase productivity, the
additional cost is justified.
5. Gated pattern :

This is an improvement over the simple pattern where the gating

and runner system are integral with the pattern. This would
eliminate the hand cutting of the runners and gates, and will help
in improving the productivity of a moulder.

6. Skeleton pattern :

• A skeleton of the pattern made of strips of wood is used for

building the final pattern by packing sand around the
skeleton. After packing the sand, the desired form is
obtained with the help of a strickle.
• The type of skeleton to be made is dependent upon the
geometry of the work piece.
• This type of pattern is useful generally for very large castings
required in small quantities where large expense on
complete wooden pattern is not justified.

Skeleton pattern
7. Sweep pattern :

• It is used to sweep the complete casting by means of a

plane sweep.
• These are used for generating large shapes which are axi–
symmetrical or prismatic in nature such as bell shaped or
cylindrical.
• This greatly reduces the cost of a three dimensional
pattern.
• This type of pattern is particularly suitable for very large
castings such as bells for ornamental purposes used,
which are generally cast in pit moulds. Sweep pattern
8. Cope and drag pattern :

• These are similar to split patterns. In addition to splitting

the pattern, the cope and drag halves of the pattern along
with the gating and risering systems are attached
separately to the metal or wooden plates along with the
alignment pins. They are called the cope and drag
patterns.
• The cope and drag moulds may be produced using these
patterns separately by two moulders but they can be
assembled to form a complete mould.
• These types of patterns are used for castings which are
heavy and inconvenient for handling and also for
continuous production.

Cope and drag pattern

9. Follow board pattern :

• This type of pattern is adopted for those castings

where there are some portions which are structurally
weak and if not supported properly are likely to break
or bend under the force of ramming.
• Hence the bottom board is modified as a follow board
to closely fit the contour of the weak pattern and thus
support it during the ramming of the drag.
• During the preparation of the cope, no follow board is
necessary because the sand that is already
compacted in the drag will support the fragile pattern.
Follow board pattern
10. Segmental pattern :

• These patterns are generally applied to circular work,

like rings, wheels, rims, gears etc. segment
• In principle they work like a sweep, but the difference
is that a sweep is given a continuous revolving motion
to generate the desired shape whereas a segmental
pattern is a portion of the solid pattern itself and the
mould is prepared in parts by it.
• It is mounted on a central pivot. and after preparing
the part mould in one position, the segment is moved
to next position.
• The operation is repeated till the complete mould in
ready.

Segmental pattern
 Core
Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part
• It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
• The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold
cavity and the core to form the casting's external and
internal surfaces
• May require supports to hold it in position in the mold
cavity during pouring, called chaplets
 Core

(a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b)

possible chaplet design, (c) casting with internal cavity.
 Core - Considerations
• During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal
tends to displace the core, which can cause
casting to be defective
• Force tending to lift core = weight of displaced
liquid less the weight of core itself
Fb = Wm - Wc

where Fb = buoyancy force; Wm = weight of molten metal

displaced; and Wc = weight of core

 Pattern Allowances

1. Shrinkage Allowance
• Liquid shrinkage refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from

liquid to solid state at the solidus temperature.

• Solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume caused when metal loses

temperature in solid state. The shrinkage allowance is provided to take care of

this reduction.

• The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material. For

example, steel contracts to a higher degree compared to aluminium.

• The shrinkage allowance is always to be added to the linear dimensions. Even

in case of internal dimensions (e.g. internal diameters of cylinders), the material

has a tendency to contract towards the centre and thus are to be increased.
Pattern Allowances – Shrinkage allowance
Pattern Allowances – Shrinkage allowance
 Pattern Allowances – Shrinkage allowance

Example: The casting shown in below figure is to be made in plain carbon steel using a
wooden pattern. Assuming only shrinkage allowance, calculate the dimensions of the
pattern.
 Pattern Allowances – Shrinkage allowance

Example: The casting shown in below figure is to be made in plain carbon steel using a
wooden pattern. Assuming only shrinkage allowance, calculate the dimensions of the
pattern.
 Pattern Allowances – Shrinkage allowance

Double shrinkage allowance is to be provided on the pattern dimensions, if it is to be

used for casting the metallic pattern, which would ultimately be used for moulding to
take care of the shrinkage of the actual metal cast as well as the shrinkage of the
pattern metal.

For the same example as shown in previous figure, if the master pattern is to be made
of aluminium then calculate the dimensions of the wooden pattern which is to be used
for making the aluminium pattern.
Pattern Allowances – Shrinkage allowance

The pattern allowance applied for this

wooden pattern is called double shrinkage
allowance
 Pattern Allowances – Finish or Machining Allowance

2. Finish or Machining Allowance

• The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and therefore when
the casting is functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate,
it is gene rally achieved by subsequent machining.
• Ferrous materials would have scales on the skin which are to be removed by cleaning.
• Hence, extra material is to be provided which is to be subsequently removed by machining
or cleaning process.
• This depends on dimensions, the type of casting material and the finish required and may
range from 2 to 20 mm.
• The machining allowance provided ultimately has to be removed by machining. Hence, the
cost of providing additional machining allowance should be carefully examined before
finalizing.
 Pattern Allowances – Finish or Machining Allowance

Machining allowances on patterns for sand castings

 Pattern Allowances – Finish or Machining Allowance

In the previous Example, what will be the pattern dimension if all the surfaces of the
casting need to be machined?
Pattern Allowances – Finish or Machining Allowance
 Pattern Allowances – Draft Allowance
3. Draft Allowance
• At the time of withdrawing the pattern from the sand mould, the vertical faces of
the pattern are in continual contact with the sand which may damage the mould
cavity
• To reduce its chances, the vertical faces of the pattern are always tapered from the
parting line. This provision is called draft allowance.

• Draft allowance varies with the complexity

of the job.
• But in general, inner details of the pattern
require higher draft than outer surfaces.
Pattern Allowances – Draft Allowance

Suggested draft values for patterns

 Pattern Allowances – Draft Allowance

Example: Provide draft allowance to the pattern shown in the Figure below
 Pattern Allowances – Draft Allowance

Example: Draft allowance to the pattern

 Pattern Allowances – Shake Allowance
4. Shake Allowance
• During withdrawal from the sand mould, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical
faces to enlarge the mould cavity slightly which facilitates its removal.
• Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is desirable that the original pattern
dimensions should be reduced to account for this increase.
• There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance since it is highly dependent on the
foundry personnel and practices involved.

• It is a negative allowance and is to be applied only to those dimensions

which are parallel to the parting plane.
 Pattern Allowances – Distortion Allowance
5. Distortion Allowance

• Metal when has just solidified is very weak and therefore is likely to be distortion
prone.
• This is particularly so for weaker sections such as long flat portions, V, U sections or
in a complicated casting which may have thin and long sections connected to thick
sections.

• The foundry practice should be to make extra material provision for reducing the
distortion.
• Alternatively, the shape of pattern itself should be given a distortion of equal
amount in the opposite direction of the likely distortion direction.