Elements of Mechanical Engineering

Introduction to Manufacturing
• How do we define manufacturing?
• Manufacturing is the ability to make goods and
services to satisfy societal needs
• Manufacturing processes are strung together to
create a manufacturing system (MS)
What is Manufacturing?
• The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words
manus (hand) and factus (make); the combination means
“made by hand”.

• “Made by hand” accurately described the fabrication

methods that were used when the English word
“manufacture” was first coined around 1567 A.D.

• Most modern manufacturing operations are accomplished

by mechanized and automated equipment that is
supervised by human workers.
 Manufacturing Processes

Manufacturing Processes

Casting: Forming & Machining: Joining: Finishing:

Shaping:
Expendable Turning Welding Lapping
mold Rolling
Milling Brazing Polishing
Permanent Forging
mold Drilling Soldering Deburring
Extrusion
Boring Bonding Surface
Drawing treating
Grinding assembly
Sheet forming coating
Shaping
Broaching
Examples of Manufactured Products
Casting
 Casting
• Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow
cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.

• The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process.
The process is called casting process.

• Casting materials are usually metals. Almost all metals can be cast.

• Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult to make by other methods
Capabilities and Advantages of Casting

• Can create complex part geometries

• Can create both external and internal shapes
• Some casting processes are net shape; others are near net shape
• Can produce very large parts
• Some casting methods are suited to mass production

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Disadvantages of Casting

• Disadvantages for different casting processes:

• Limitations on mechanical properties
• Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some processes; e.g., sand
casting
• Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals
• Environmental problems

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 Casting terminologies
Pattern: A pattern is made of wood or metal, is a replica of the final product
and is used for preparing mold cavity.
Flask/Box: The rigid metal or a wooden frame
that holds the molding material
Cope: Top half of the molding box
Drag: Bottom half of the molding box
Riser: A column of metal placed in the mold to feed the casting as it shrinks
and solidifies. Also known as a "feed head."
Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the
sprue to the gate.
Cores: A separated part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which
is used to create openings and various shaped cavities in the casting.
Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the casting cavity.
Parting Line: Joint where mold separates to permit removal of the pattern and
which shows how and where to open the mold.
Sand: A sand which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or
gases.
Chaplet: A metal support used to hold a core in place in a mold. Not used
when a core print will serve.
Pouring basin: Filling the mold with molten metal.
Shrinkage: The decrease in volume when molten metal solidifies.
Mold: The mold contains a cavity whose geometry determines the shape of
cast part.
 Types of Molds

Open mold in which the liquid metal is simply poured until it fills the open cavity. (fig. (a))

Closed mold the closed mold is provided to permit the molten metal to flow from outside the mold cavity.
The closed mold is more important categories in production casting operation. (Fig (b))
 Classification of casting processes
Casting process divide onto two broad categories according to types of mold
used;
o Expandable mold casting
(a) Permanent pattern Ex: Sand casting
(b) Expandable pattern Ex: Investment casting
o Permanent mold casting EX: Die casting, centrifugal casting
Pattern

• Pattern is the principal tool during the casting process.

• A pattern is a model or the replica of the object (to be casted)

• A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.

OBJECTIVES OF A PATTERN

• Pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.

• It establishes the parting line and parting surfaces in the mold.

• Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the casting.

• Properly made pattern having finished and smooth surface reduce casting defects.
 Pattern Materials
Wood: Inexpensive, Easily available, Light weight, easy to shape, good surface finish, Poor wear resistance, absorb
moisture, less strength, not suitable for machine molding, easily repaired, warping, weaker than metallic patterns.
Eg. Teak wood, maogani, Shisam, kail, deodar,

Metal:
Less wear and tear, not affected by moisture, metal is easier to shape the pattern with good precision, surface finish
and intricacy in shapes, withstand against corrosion and handling for longer, excellent strength to weight
ratio, metallic patterns are higher cost, higher weight and tendency of rusting.
Preferred for production of castings in large quantities with same pattern.
Eg.: cast iron, brass and bronzes and aluminum alloys

Plastic:-
Plastics are getting more popularity now a days because the patterns made of these materials are lighter,
stronger, moisture and wear resistant, non sticky to molding sand, durable and they are not affected by the
moisture of the molding sand. Fragile, less resistant to sudden loading and their section may need metal reinforcement.
Eg.:phenolic resin, foam plastic

Plaster:
Intricate shapes can be made, good compressive strength, expands while solidifying, less dimensionally accurate.

Wax: Good surface finish, high accuracy, no need to remove from the mould, less strength.
 TYPES OF PATTERN
Single-piece or solid pattern
• Solid pattern is made of single piece without joints, partings lines or loose pieces.

• It is the simplest form of the pattern.

• Typical single piece pattern is shown in Fig.

• Simplest type, inexpensive used for limited production

Two-piece or split pattern

• When solid pattern is difficult for withdrawal from the mold cavity, then
solid pattern is splited in two parts.
• Split pattern is made in two pieces which are joined at the parting line
by means of dowel pins.
• The splitting at the parting line is done to facilitate the withdrawal of
• the pattern.
Cope and drag pattern
• In this case, cope and drag part of the mold are prepared separately. This
is done when the complete mold is too heavy to be handled by one operator.
• The pattern is made up of two halves, which are mounted on different plates.
A typical example of match plate pattern is shown in Fig.

Loose-piece Pattern used when pattern is difficult for withdrawal from the mold.

• Loose pieces are provided on the pattern and they are the part of pattern.

• The main pattern is removed first leaving the loose piece portion of the
• pattern in the mould.

• Finally the loose piece is withdrawal separately leaving the intricate mold.
Match plate pattern
• This pattern is made in two halves and is on mounted on the opposite sides of a wooden or metallic plate, known as match
plate.
• The gates and runners are also attached to the plate.
• This pattern is used in machine molding. A typical example of match plate pattern is shown in Fig.

Gated pattern
• In the mass production of casings, multi cavity molds are used. Such molds are formed by joining a number of
patterns and gates and providing a common runner for the molten metal, as shown in Fig.
• These patterns are made of metals, and metallic pieces to form gates and runners are attached to the pattern.
Sweep pattern
• Sweep patterns are used for forming large circular molds of symmetric kind by revolving a sweep attached to a spindl
e as shown in Fig.
• Sweep is a template of wood or metal and is attached to the spindle at one edge and the other edge has a contour depending
upon the desired shape of the mould.
• The pivot end is attached to a stake of metal in the center of the mold.
Shell pattern
• Shell patterns are used mostly for piping work or for producing drainage fittings. This pattern consists of a thin
cylindrical or curved metal piece parted along the center line. The two halves of the pattern are held in alignment by dowels.

• The outside surface of the pattern is used to make the mold for the fitting required while the inside can serve as a
core box.
 PATTERN ALLOWANCES

• The size of a pattern is never kept the same as that of the desired casting because of the fact that

during cooling the casting is subjected to various effects and hence to compensate for these effects,
corresponding allowances are given in the pattern.

• These various allowances given to pattern can be enumerated as, allowance for shrinkage, allowance for
machining, allowance for draft, allowance for rapping or shake, allowance for distortion and allowance for

mould wall movement.

 Shrinkage Allowance

The pattern must be made over size to compensate for contraction of liquid metal on cooling. This addition to
the dimension of the pattern is known as shrinkage allowance.

Machining Allowance
• It is a positive allowance given to compensate for the amount of material that is lost in machining or
finishing the casting.
• If this allowance is not given, the casting will become undersize after machining.Pattern must be made
over size for machining purpose.
• This extra amount of dimensions provided in the pattern is known as
Machining allowance.

Taper allowance
• It is a positive allowance given on all the vertical surfaces of pattern to make withdrawal easier.
• These values are greatly affected by the size of the pattern and the molding method
Distortion Allowance
• This allowance is applied to the castings which have the tendency to distort during cooling due to thermal stresses
developed.

• For example a casting in the form of U shape will contract at the closed end on cooling, while the open end will
remain fixed in position.

• Therefore, to avoid the distortion, the legs of U pattern must converge slightly so that the sides will remain
parallel after cooling.
Types of moulding sand
Refractoriness
Properties of Moulding Sand
Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to withstand
high temperatures without breaking down or fusing thus facilitating
Flowability or plasticity
to get sound casting. It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave
like a fluid. It will flow uniformly to all portions of pattern
Degree of refractoriness depends on the SiO2 i.e. quartz content, when rammed and distribute the ramming pressure evenly
and the shape and grain size of the particle, higher the SiO2 content all around in all directions.
higher is the refractoriness of the molding
Adhesiveness
Permeability It is the important property of the molding sand and it is
It is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in order to allow defined as the sand particles must be capable of adhering
the escape of any air, gases or moisture present or generated in the to another body, then only the sand should be easily attach
mould when the molten metal is poured into it. itself with the sides of the molding box and give easy of
lifting and turning the box when filled with the stand.
All these gaseous generated during pouring and solidification
process must escape otherwise the casting becomes defective. Collapsibility
After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified, the
Cohesiveness sand mould must be collapsible so that free contraction of
It is property by virtue of which the sand grain particles interact and the metal occurs and this would naturally avoid the tearing
attract each other within the molding sand. or cracking of the contracting metal.

Thus, the binding capability of the molding sand gets enhanced to This property is highly desired in cores.
increase the green, dry and hot strength property of molding and