Anatomy is a branch of natural science which deals with the structure of

organisms and their parts. Phisiology on the other hand is the study of the
integrated functions of the body and the with functions of all its part
Systems, organs, tissue,cells and cells components), including biophysical
and biochemical process.

And processes. Definition of Terms

CELL ‫مصرف‬

The cell is the smallest unit of om organism. Cells are often called the
building blocks of life. Thes candy of cell is called cell biology. There are 2
types of cells:

Eukaryotic cells: These are cells with nuclew Examples include plants and
animals cells

On the easiest approach to study anatomy is to divide the whole body into
systems, to do this f wave must begin with the most simplest unit of ing from
which an organism develop, this is called he

Tissues: They are group of cells that have the same characteristics and
performed similar function.

There are four different types of tissues. Arconnective tissues; They are
fibrous tissues, usthey give shape to organs and hold them in Laplace. They
connect one form of argome to the other.

There are 2 types of connective tissues: @Bose tissue: this is the most rigid
connec tive tissue. It supports body structures ninter hat AS
Nally. Blood tissue: this consist of blood cells Surrounded by non-lwing fhid
matrix called plasma”It serves as transport system helping in moving
nutrients round the body and wastes to site of excretion from the ba body

(2) Muscle/muscular tissues: They function to produce force and canse

motion either locomotion or movement of internal organs. It is separated into
3 distinct categories:

@Smooth muscles: of organs veg found in the inner lining Stomach, eyes.

Skdetal: found attached to bone provid. Ing for gross movement ie joining
bone to bone is the ligament and joining bone to baix muscle is tendon.

③ Cardiac: found in the heart allowing it to pump blood throughout an

organism.. Neravon5.

This comprises of central and peripheral nenou System

(a) Central: They are called neural tissue, they form the bram and Spinal
cord

Peripheral: They form the cranial nerves and

Spinal nerves 4 Epithelial

They are tissues formed by cells that cover the organ surfaces such as the
surface of the skin, airways, the reproductive tract, the liming of the
digestive tract. These tissues

14 aprovide a bamier between the external enve ronment and the organs it
covers. It also helps in absorption of water and nutrients

@Cuboidal (6) Columnar Ⓒ Glandular

Paired organs: These are organs that are

And elimination of waste products. These tissues combine with each other to
form Orgams. There are 2 types of organs

Fond on each side of the body eng ears, eyes, kidneys lungs ms. These
orgams etc Jare argans that occm

Mapamed I once eng Lead, tungure, liver, nose Those orgoms. Combine etc
with acach other to form the systems. They mande:

@Digestive system / stomach and Intestines Respiratory system/1 em/Lungs

and air spaces

Grenlatory system / Heart and vessels

Reproductive/ovariyes and Tester priorat

Musentar /Skeletal System / Bones and muscles

F Endocrine system / Suctless glands

⑨ Nervous system / Bram, spinal cord and nerves Excretory System / skin,
liver, Kidney and lings.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The major structures of digestive system is the stomach and the intestines.
Different species of farm animals differ in digestion process depending on
their feeding habits. Animals can be classified into two major groups based
on their feeding habits

Monogastriccs: These are animal’s with only one simple stomach and no
compontments. These types of stomach contam enzymes within the stomach
that com help break down proteins but not fibre ( indigestible portion of food
derived from plants or cellulose (the mam component of plants well walls).

Types of monogastics (a) Omnivores: Thay eat plants and animale turnes e-g
humans, rats pigs etc.

(6) Herbivores: They eat plants, but they do not have complex stomach. They
have large carcum that possess bacteria for degradation of plante materials.

Eng rabbits, horses, etc Thy are also called Pseudo-rumirants

Canivores they eat flesh only ang cat’s, dogs lion etc. One important thing to
know about monogastrics is that, although they comnot break down allulose,
it is still beneficial to them as a bulking agent for fences because it adds bulk
and and water to stool allowing for easy passage. 2 RUMINANTS
Animals with complex stomach. Thy have cap. Abilities of regurgitating,
chewing and resvial. Lowing their meals in order to digest it more easily.
They eat mainly grasses ung cattle, sheep and goats.

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Im

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300 contams

At

The Digestive System. Of Monogastric Avian To ariom species, the crop,

proventriculus and gizzard replace the simple stomach found in monogastric
species. Ingested food ques direct to the crop because the crop isa storage
temporary ONG site. It has capacity for expansion RONDIN The
proventriculus of birds is the site of prody RES ction of gastric juices. The
gizzard is a very muscular organ with It norinally ones) and other hand,
materials. The gizzard serve the same funfun of teeth in mammalian species,
acting to physical lly reduce partide size of food. The bird has relatively long
small mtestine, two large ceca and a very short section of large intestine…
Birds differ from mammals in that wrine is excreted in seminar Solid form
along with feaces
Pants and functions of the Monogastric Avión Digestive Syst.

I Mouth (Beak-gather and break down feed !!!

Ii Esophagus-tube from mouth to stomach that is open at the month end

In Crop – feed storage and moistening

Us and tu proventriculus-glandular stomach where the and gastric juices are

added to fed materials for proper digestion ad porn tratt

And in

Des create

✓ Gizzard – This is the muscular stomach wher mechomical breakdown of

food takes place. Pansion

Porary

Of produ. Vi. Small intestine – This is the site of digestion of protein,

carbohydrates and fats. Absorptin of the end products of digestim also occur
here.

A very

Inally
And

-funfun

Physica

Vii Ceca – This is essentially non functioning in monogastrics

V Large Intestine – this is where bacteria activitie

Water absorption, waste storage take place. X cloacat This is the common
chamber for gastro- -ds differ intestinal and wrinary tracts.

Ed has

Feca and

-Semi x Vent – this is the common exilt for Gtr and wrin ary tracts.~ dude ci

Digestion in Monogastric Animals

Digestion is the process or activities in the gastro- intestinal tract to

pocoduse reduce food particles to a size or solübility that will allow for absor

Ption. These processes or activities may mahrude cherring, muscular

contraction of GT, chemical action of HCL, action of bile from the Iwer
activities of enzymes and micro-organisms.c Before discussing the digestion
in animals it is important to note some animals the dental formulae of
C

Pig 2(13,ct, P 階,m) Con 2(1 율, C, P, m)

Sheep 2(14, C 음 글, m³)

Digestion and Associated Structures. The Mouth The mouth and associated

Structures – tongue, lips, teeth atc are used for grasping and masticationg
food. In the process of mastication of food, Sabie is added to the food to help
form a bolus that may be swallowed ceasily. Also Saviva ( is a somce of
enzyme called Amylase (Ptyalin This cenzyme begins the digestion of
Carbohydrate by converting it to dextrin and maltose (disace haride sugar)
The mouth is an alkaline meding and the food passes through the
aesophagus and enters the stomach. The Stomach:

There are gastric juice in the stomach that continue the digestive processes
initiated by mastication and censalivation in the mouth. In the stomach, HCL
is secreted along with son enzymes. The HCl provides an agdia mediun in
which the enzymes will work. The enzymes initiate the digestion of protein in
the food and fats in young animals.

Repsin is the is the enzyme that anvert or hynyx allow’s milk to coa protein
to peptones and proteoses “Renin is the enzyme that allows milk to coaguly

(milk clotting enzyme). This is done by conver ting soluble casein (sugar in
the milk) caseino to insoluble

Gastric lipase-m yomg animals, ut hystrolyses emulsified milk fat into fatty
acids and glycerol. The pantally digested food now called Chyme passes into
the chrodenum (the first short section of the small intestine) BUODEDUM
Series of activities take place in the duock- num. Firstly, the deadenum
receives secretion through the pancreatic duct from the pancrease Pand the
bile duct from the bite to continue digestion of the partially digested food
coming Food, Sabbia from the stomach.

Ociated

Atc are

Song food

A bolus

O Saliva

Tase (Ptyalin)

Carbohychale

Altose (disacc

Line mediu

Ophagur

H that
Tiated by

Mouth.

Ong with som

Dia medium

Re enzymes

Food and

Or mydrolyse

Milk to cou

The enzymes contained in pancreatic juice are: @Pancreatic Proteases: There

are 3 pancreatic proteases which are secreted into the juice in an mactive
tam which are activated before they con perform their functions.

This enzyme completes the breakdown of protein to peptides Pancreatic

lipase: This is a fat enzyme called

Steapsin. It act on fat after bile has rechused it to tirly droplets The action of
steapsin on fut is to split the links between quyerol and fatty acid to release
these substances into duodenum Pamcreatic amylase: This enzyme of
myotrolyses carbohydrate that escapes digestion in the mouth and convert it
to dextins and maltose. Its action is similar to the salivery amylase (Phyalia)
All thids secreted by pancrease, liver and 2. Doderium are alkaline. The
pancreatic engyme act
To coagues best within ptt range of 8-9. The liver produces bite, aqreerish
yellow

That enters the duodenum through the bite duet. The bite is stared in the
gall bladder. It containing sodium and potassium salt, it reduces the surface
tension causing emulsification of fat rap Creducing fat to tiny droplets). It
also give the duodenum its characteristic alkaline natu From the duodenum,
the chyme moves to the small intestine for completion of

Am

Wats

Of t

Duo

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Be ro

Way

Tot

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Is st
Ami

Denum

Are a

Acid

Or d

Trows

Viem

Fat

Throug

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Digestion and absorption. SMALL INTESTINE

It is important to note that digestion process rends in the small intestine.

Also absorption of nutrients takes place in the small intestin (Jejunum &
ileum). The small intestine secrets come intestinal juices catted which termin
ates digestion. They incinde
Enterokinase enzyme: which help in activat Inactive trypsinogen to active
trypsin

Maltase which huydrolyses a molecule of maltose sugar to two molemles of

quicose Sucrase which hyatrolyses sucrose to quicose and galactoser
fructose

Ladase which myctrolyser lactuce to quicose ang large galactose

Mine

-absor

Land

Intesti

Passed

Anus

Feace

Unob

⑤ Peptidases which converts all peptides to aming

Ands fut to fatty aci Investinal lipase which convierte att peptides to arisa
acid and glycero1.

(7) Nancleotidase which converts nucleotider to nucleosider and phosphoric

acid

Absorption of food in monogastrices The small intestine is lined with small

fingerb projections called VILLI, which serve to incr se the surface area off for
assumption. Siqu

Amino acids, vitamins, mineral salts and water are absorbed into the blood
capillaries of the villi. Hexoses and pentoses ove rapidly onosorbed across
the walls of the duodenum and jejunum. The sugars that oure not converted
to simple quanto sugars will be mobilized by the Iwer or metabolized in other
ways. All absorbed sugars become available to the body cells for energy and
other meta- bolic processes. The animal body stores il ghieose as glycogen, a
type of starch which is stored in the liver and muscle tissues.

Amino acids is rapidly absorbed in the duo denum and jejunum, but slowly in
the ileum Srepus are absorbed by active transport, while amino acids are
absurbed either by active transport or diffusion. Ghicose and amino ands are
transported to the liver through the hepatic portal vem

Fatty acids and glycerolo enter the blood stream through the LACTEALS and
later enter the circ- ulatory system through the thoracic duct into the Se and
large veins near the heart. Water, vitamins and minerals are absorbed by
diffusion and selective -absorption. The large intestine excretes salts and
assimilate water.

Se

Cose
Amino

I fond The materials that moves out of the large intestine or colon is called
feaces. Feaces are passed periodically through the rectum.and anus through
a process called defeacation Feaces are food residues left undigested and
Unabsorbed.

TH

The

Sm

To

Ren

Lipa
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF RUMINANTS. The cattle’s stomach has & main
compartments namely: Rumen, Reticulum (honey comb), omasum and
Abomasum true stomach). At birth the rumen and reticulum are least
developed while the abomasum is fully developed. Af maturity the rumen
has about 80% of the total stomach Capacity, reticulum 5%, omarsum and
abonam 7% each.

JA

When the ruminant amimal takes in food (raphas It is chewed and soaked
with cativa and then swallowed. This bolus of food is called the “cud”. It goes
down into the rumen and it is broken down by micro-organisms. At regular
intervals, the and is brought back to the animal’s mouth while resting to be
rechened and swallowed. Again, a process called rumination or negurgitatia
or chewing the cud. RUMEN

The rumen acts as a big fermentation chainker It has many bacteria and
protozoa which produ celislolytic enzyme that com degrader cellulo cell
walls. It is located in the left sic the abdominal cavity. The ruminal wall
constan muscles fibres thad and rotary movement of fo It is also lined with
numerous projections called Papillae. This functions to increase the surface
area and absorption ethiency of the rumen RETICULUM

It Is attached to the forward of the rumen and

Has a link with the omasum through the

Reticulo-omasal orifice. The linnings of the

Reticulum has

A
Honey comb

Collects small and heavy foreign objects. This

Strictione which

Orgom is lying against the diaphragm and theliver. Therefore army sharp
object that punctures the wall may pierce the diaphragm and injure the heart
cansing abscess of the liver which may result in sudden death…

En

OMASUM

This is spherical in shape. It is connected to the maimon abomasum through

an opering called omaso-06- omasal orifice. The inner wall of omasum has
numerous laminae or leaves of various tenguils. It is called many plies. Only
liquids and small feed particles and some grams enter the Omasum.
ABOMASUM

Ach

Ven

d.
outh,

ed

tias

aims

of fa

the

the

This is the true stomach. It has two parts: the fundic region which contams
chief cells that produce Hl and the Pyloric region which contain parietal cells.
The parietal cells produces the gastric juice. The pyloric valve separates the
abomarum from the small intestine. It is surrounded by a well developed
sphincter muscle. This valve opens internistently to permit some of the
contents to pass into the duodenum. The gastric juice contains the enzymes
renin, pepsin and a small amount of gastric lupases. The se cengames act on
carsin, other proteins and some fat particles

And

The

BIGGESTION BY FERMENTATION IN RUMINANTS Micresias fermentation takes

place langely in the Microwiadand reticulum It is brought about by fore the
presence of large numbers of bacteria and protozoa in the rumen. These
micro organisms live on the food of the animal white the animal in tum
provide habitat for them. The anional later digest the micro-organisms
requirement of amino acids. The to obtain it animal secret large amount of
saliva from salivary glands, which continously porre into the rumen and
reticulum. The salivary NaCO, acts as buffer on rumen contents making them
alkaline” instead of acidic due to organic acids pred uced by fermentation.
Saliva secretion favours

Contin

One

They

Duced

In tr

Pot

Prote

Which

Digest

And

Sorc
Miert

Synte

Of mi

Fermentation. Conbohychate fermentation.

Grasses which are the bulk of feed eaten by ruminants contain cellulose cell
walls that cannot absorb be digested by any intestinal enzymes. The
carbohythm amino in the grasses can only be broken down by micro host.c
organisms. These microbes will produce CELLULASE (cellulose spliting
enzymes that are capable of rong fermenting the structural cellulose of
plants tissue thereby rendering the trapped nutrients inside the plants cells
for fun ther digestion. Some of these toy nutrients are proteins and soluble
carbohydrater such as hexoses, fructosauns and sucrose. After des oying the
cell walls, the combomytintes are fermented to volatile fatty acids (VFA), and
grasses gait (carbonchoxide, methane). A lot of heat is also generated as by
product. Some of the volatile faulty acids produced are acetic, propionic and
butyric erudation. Packs are usinated by a podien ca the uctations The FA's
are source of energy to the animals. The end product of fermentation as
antinously removed from the rumen to the lower itiger- tive tract by
cructation or absorption

One thing to note about the micro-organisms is that They use a portion of
the nitrogen and energy pro- anced for their orin gronith and reproduction.
They in turn become source of food for the amimal‫ ب‬Protein fermentation.

Protem in the diet are broken down into peptides, which are short chant of
amino acids. Further. Digestion of peptides field individual amino acids and
eventually ammonia. Ammonia is a major source of nitrogen for microbial
growth. The microbes also com convert non-protein nitrogen to ammonia
Synthesis of high quality protein in the form of micrubial bodies – bacteria
and protozoa few into the abomasnim before they are digested and That
cannot absorbeds they can synthesize all the essential carbohyatın amino
acids and make it available for their by micro host.

Gen by

Synthesis

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The major structures of circulatory system is the heart and vessels (Arteries,
veins and capillaria) The system that circulates blood and lymph STRUCTURE
OF THE HEART

Right anvicte

LA

Left auricle

RA. HEART DIAGRAM

RV

LV

Left ventricle
Superior Venadava

Right Ventricle

The heart of animals is for chambered. It is an organ located at the centre of

the thoracic arity. It is surromded by a membrane called per candium. The
wall of the heart is made up of spee ialized type of muscle called CARDIAC
muscle, The heart contam two amricles and two ventricles The upper
chambers (anterior) are the left and mos antiles, while the lower chambers
(posterior) a the left and right ventrides. On each side of t body there are two
chambers it and avrile and a ventricle which opens into each other but
between the right and left sides of the heart a complete partition. The
omricular chamber Vestrator csess muscular than the ventricular chamb N
are more murentar because they pump blood of the heart to the lungs and
into the cuorta fort onwand transmission to all parts of the body animal body.
Between the right anticle and Ventricle is valve called tricuspid valve and all
Thetween left aniicle and ventride is bicuspid val

Inferior Viena cava

The

Ma
This me

Towice f

Circula

These valves help blood to flow in one direction the most muscaber dint of
the four chambers because it forces blood of of the heart into

Body, when the heart contracts, blood is pushed from the anvicles to the
ventricles. The ventricles contract and blood is forced ont of the heart night
into the pulmonary artery through the ventricle into the aorta through the
Left ventricle A

Superior

HEAD Carotid artery

<<

ARMS Subs clarianarkry

Veng

Right auricle
Leff anricle

Right Ventride

Left ventiele

Pulmonary

Pulmonary

LUNKTS

Aorta

Oxygenated blood

Ambers

Hamb

In feriena rava
Affery

LIVER

A↑

Mesenteric

Intestine!

Mesenteric

Blood o

Orta for

Cliac Vein <

Body
And

Nd alss

Id valve

Ection

Ut of all

Ood out

D the

BLOOD CIRCULATION

The mammalian heart shows donsole circulation. This meoms that the blood
passes through the heart twice for the body to be supplied once. The two
circulations are (1) Systomic Circntation @Pulmonary circulation.

Systemic Circulation: The main reat artery arising from the left ventricle too
From these organs, th the oxygenated blood to the body organs thn a
number of arteries. Impure (deuxygenated) blood is collected by Su rior and
inferior vena cava and broughd bal to the right anricle. The right aicle pump
the impure blood into the right ventricle. Pulmonary Circulation: The
deoxygenated by from the right ventricle is taken by the pulmon artery to
the lungs for oxygenation. The bloo after oxygenation is returned to the left
arric of the heant by the pulmonary vem. From the lef amricle the blood
tow’s into the left ventricor and blood leaves the left ventride through

Main aorta to all pants of the body- Doints to note

All artenes in the animal body camry oxyroit nated blood except pulmonary
artery which ho carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the
lungs. The blood vessels carrying blood towards.

The heart ane called VEINS The blood vessels camping bloud away fro the
heart are called Arteñes… All veins corrry de oxygenated blood encep the
pulmonary vem that carry oxygenated- blood from the lungs to the left
auricle- Aorta is the largest artery in the animal

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The major structmes of respiratory system are the Lings and am passages.

The onter nostrils are connected to the intermal ones which in turn are
connected to the Trades. (wind pipe) The top of the tracker Is called the
GLOTTIS. The glottis has a cartilaginouw lit called EPIGLOTHS which chises
during swallowing and opens whenever the animal makes any noise.
Exygenated the The trachea has oor top the LARYNX or VOICE BOX by the
pulmong containing some Thread like structures called VOCAL CORDS. These
cords controls the opening the left arrick and closing of the epiglottis and it
vibrates tor produice sound made by animalsa

=se organs, the

Collected by supe

Brought back

Sunade pump
Ventricle.

Tion. The bloo

- From the lei ventan The trachea is divided into 2, each of the sub-
division is called BRONCHUS Each bronchus Tenterala lang. There are 2
tungs on each side of the animal body. On entering the camy oxy ox
wit ling the bitonchus breaks further into bro- Hery which allenchioles,
reach bronchicole and in a closed sac called AIR CELLS OR ALVEOLUS
Eadá alveolus is surrounded by two types of blood vessels je
pulmonary vein and pulmonaury artery. The vein brings oxygenated
blood. Round the alveolus while the artery takes away carbon dioxide
from the alveolus for expulsion. Each Lung Lying is surrounded over
one amother. By 21 The types of membranes inger membrame is
called the viscera pleurg while the outer one

-de through

Body-

The right

I towards

I away from

-lood encept

Oxygenated
Auricle-

Animal bodu

Is called Parietal pleura Respiration in Animals

The animal is involved in two types of respiration EXTERNAL RESPIRATION:

This involves 2 phases namely: Inhalation and tahalation. Inhalation is the
taking in of voxygen from the atmospheree through the nostrils, while
exchalation is carbon dioxide out. Of the body. These are entomced by some
muscles animal body pprocesse in the

@Intercostal muscles-found between the rubr Diaphragm muscler-found

around the diaphrag Abdominal muscles

During respiration, the respiratory muscles. Asts and relax an the time. Con

Lungs

Skin

Kidney

Wo

Al

Liver B
INTERNAL RESPIRATION: This is the normal proc by which food substances
ame broken down a to lose oxidized to provide energy in animals. Care must
be taken not to confuse this with digestim The kic Most food carbohydrate
foods are converted t glucose before being respired. This can be re

The poin

Amimals

Pominal

Either

The kid

Resented as follows: Co the 06 + 02 6002 + H2O +ATP

This type of respiration ensures that the formati and constant replenishment
of ATP in the cell protectin to keep muscles and cells alive

EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Excretion is the removal of metabolic wastes from the body of omimals. The
mayor structures vor organs of exuretion are chazurag

ORGANS

EXCRETORY PRODUCTS IN
Water and Cos Eby food oxidation in tissues)

Mineral Salts and water

Les curts 3 Kidney

Nal proces

Own a

Care

All riitrogenous wastes, Inorganic salts and water Bile salts Crodium
guychocholate and soiflun taurocholate, cholesterol and lecithin)

④ Liver

-igestim. The kidney The paired Kidneys are exccretory organs of – be re

amimals located in the upper part of the abd ominal cavity just below the
diaphragm on either she of the body in the vertebral column The kidney is
beam-shaped and surrounded by adipose tissue koorin as which acts as
protective padding. The indentation on the concave Pile side of the kidney
known as the RENAL HILUS provides, a space for the renal artery, renal vein
and wreter to enter the kidney. The kidney’s ramove unwanted nitrogenous
substance like urea, and other cammonium componds from the blood. They
also maintain osmotic pre- ssure of the blood by controling the excretion of
water omd salts. The cross section of the “Kidney revealed that it has two
regions I the onter CORTEX and the inner MEDULLA…
Ted to

TATP

Omation

E cells

The medulla is made up of seven cone-shaped renal pyramids, which are

aligned with ther bases facing outrend tourard the renal conten and then
aperes pont innard the centre of the kidney. The kidney constams about
I’million individnad NEPARON OF URINARY TUBULE’S which are the functional
units of the kidney.

FORMATION OF URINE

The processes involved in the formation of win are- as ultra filation

Selective re absorption tubular secretion

The found th

Is known

The amon

Protem in
As blood circulates through the glomerulus ultra filtration occurs. Small
molecules such a water, ure, mineral salts, sugar and plasma solntes pass
through the one cell thick wall the & capillaries and the Bowman’s capsule
into the capsullar space. Bigger moleculer la plasma protem and the blood
cells cannot pass through this barrier. For ultrafiltration process to occur,
high pressure in the glomen (@) Excretory. Is essential. This ways. High
pressure is initiated in

The kidney

I less o

Oxide

In less ni

A result

The wine

Collects in

Full, it co

The body

Function

Contams
Wastes

(i) The blood entering the kidney is already at ho e Regulation pressure

because the renal artery branches off from the lower part of the
curta which is at © Osmoregula very short distance from the heart,

Excess ac

Percentage

(ii) The blood vessels leaving each glomerates. Is narrower than the
one entering if thereby increasing the pressure in the glomerulus
furt … The fluid that filters into the Bownanst capsule is known as
GLOMERULAR FILTRATE It flows down the tubule. As it passes throw
the proximal part of the tubule and Henle’s lo selective reabsorption
takes place. In this pass blood itachra water and useful substances
like singar, ars and ceases acids and salts are reabsorbed into the
surrounding blood capillaries. The filtrate the moves to the distal
tubule, where like creatinine are secreted into the tulbules to keep
the osmotic concentration of the blood constel

The found that remains eventually in the twonke is known as wine.

The amont of urea exccreted depends on the proteine in the chel. The
filtered blood leaving the kidney by the renal vem corttams

I less oxygen, less glucose and more carbondi

Oxide

As a result of cellular respiration

Ii less nitrogenous waster, salts

And water as

A result of excretion. The urine formed trickles down the ureter and collects
in the bladder. When the bladder is full; it contracts discharging the inne out
of the body through the urethra.

Functions of Kidney

E glomerul @ Excretory function: It excretes wrine which contams water,

salts and other nitrogenous wastes

Ated in 2

By aut high (6) Regulation of pH: This is done by expreting encess acid or
alkaline in the urine

Ches off

Ch is at © Osmoregulatory function: It helps to mantan the percentage of

salt in the body. If there is thin ctuation in the percentage of salt level, the
Kidney controls and bringe back the percentage to normal. When the
percentage of osalt in the blood is hish, the kidney will absüb or and reaison
more water to dilute the concentration, if this is not done, there will be
increase in the osmotic pressure of the blood and this save would lead to
withdrawal of blood from the cells -e-gred blood cells which then become
flaccid and inactive I and ceases to finction properly. If the percentage te
then is low, water will be filtered ont of the blod to increase the
concentration (this is filtration under pressure). Once the concentration is
normal, the internal environment will functions normallyand properly.

Of m

SKIN

The skin of the animal completely covere animal body. It is a very active
corgan. The Comprises of two layers…

(i) The onter layer (Epidermis) (4) The inner layer (Dennis)

The fepidermis: The epidermis is the outer lay of the skin, It is divided into
four outermost layer is called STRATUM CORNEUM. II consist of flattened
keratinized culs which and being continously lost from the surface and my
layers. Th Maved from below : Beneath the stratum corner iS STRATUM
Lucidium. This layer is very close to the first loyer, both layers are non-
nucleated. Below the Lucidium is the STRATUM TRANULOSUm, this layer is
characterized by presence of a lot of granules. It is the layer that is
resporisible for the columnation of the skin. It contains a pigment called
MELANIN. The degree of melarnin present determines the skin colom. High
degree of avelanin results in black skin. The innemost layer is called
STRATUM GERMINATIVUM. This layer consist of cells that have ability to prous
They undergo mitotic call division to produce new cells which replaces thuse
lost from the surface.

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Covered the uns mittoorg gami. The skin 9501

- Outer lays THE DERMES: This layer of the skin is avant & 3 time as
thick as the epidermis. It consists of many Lorgans that are suspended
in position by connective tissues. Throughout the dermics is a network
of blood vessels with a lot of capillonies forming La boundary on the
epidermas transverse the dermis vending pinink beneath
transpidemics, these are Cor of entemal stimuli such temperature or
pressure touch,
-
- Tears, th
-
- Which se
-
- Frattarins om epidermal structure derived from s tam germinativum.
Each ham.. arises ara sol tode of cells proliferated from the
germinative develop
-
- Substan
-
- Ano
-
- Which grows into the dermiss and the bara pie the epidermics to
appear above the surface bo haw, Tuer in a FOLLICLE which is swollen
af the base and indented to forme a PAPILLA. Have tiam papilla is
supplied with. Connective tissu for ther blood vessels and epithelial
cells. When the cepithelial cells multiply, it makes the han to a Length
determined by the frequency of me Iting (multiplication). The portion of
the haw with Excretor the hair follide is called the ROOT, while the ont
smed enposed portion is called SHAFT.
-
- -SEBALIOUS GLAND
-
- SWEAT C
-
- The who
-
- Germina
-
- Fissné
-
- Ube latio
-
- Next to
-
- Of mus
-
- Fun
-
- Consusti
-
- This is another organ (structure) that secrets int the lumen, droplets of
fatty substances called Sebum, this randers the har supple, less. The
hair likely to break and water proof. Very che protecti to the follicle is
the ARRECTOR PILY MUSCLE Whed insulati consist of involuntary
muscle fibres which an ③ Senson responsible for erection of the hain,
raising of the follicle above the general surface and land si the
Squeezing of the secretion from the sebaci gland when stimulated to
contract by hormone adrenalin.
-
- Nerve.
-
- Stimul
-
- Pain Le
-
- Stray
-
- Adipoce
-
- Some sapaccions glands in special pants ofit omimal body are modified
to perform spend (5) Absorp functions like MEIBOMIAN gland which
opens into the follicle of the eyes lashes to produce tears, the
CERuminous glands of the ear which secrets CERUMON (ear wax) a
fatty Substance which protects cand lubricates the Inner membrane of
the ear.
-
- Another structure in the dermis is the SINEAT GLANISS. These are
numerous over the whole skin. Each is a coiled tube the hair play
develop them omid invested pillaries. The surface to Swollen bus fissue
both exccretary and temperature reg and a network of utelation
functions. The fat tissue responsible Estive tisshe, for thermal
insulation is called Adipose tissue, next to this is the underliging
flattened sheet of muscles Functions of the Skin
-
- Sking ham like
-
- Rwed from stre
-
- Solid
-
- Ses ava
-
- Germinative
-
- PAPILLA. Thi
-
- Allen the
-
- He han
-
- Ency of mar
-
- Haw within Excretory and saratory formation: The skin passes ont
sweat which is an excretory product. Consisting of dissolved salts,
carbonkoxide, Dawater and small quantity ofrurear Protectives: The
outer layer of the skin provid secrets into
-
- While the
-
- Os called
-
- Le, less
-
- Very chaise
-
- SCLE Which
 -
- Es protective funfun from varions hazards. … The hair, furr of feathers
provide physical protection. The adipose tissue provides thermal
insulationin pristal poinci
-
- Which are Sensory functions: The skin contan’s Somany nerve endings,
that anginates from the bram and spinal cord – They are sensitive to
vanóro stimuli ang temperature, contad to other parts, pain etc suborg
of nits alt of the
-
- Rousing
-
- Ace and
-
- Sebacia
-
- Ormone
-
- Storage function: It storer fats and cal eg of Adipose tissue and
Sebacious gland. Spead & Absorptive it absorbe drugs on the form of
ointment engembro catise, mentholatum when applied to affected part
of the skir

Maninfacturing

Tempe ostasis It helps in the mainafadimy Preputation; It helps to keey the

miside the body astable. Ie hom

Incr

Heat

The

Ing
Ath

HOMEOSTASIS

Many activitiber take place in the body generate energy in form of heat, such
ad include respiration, digestion, hydroly etc. These beat are distributed
round t body to the cells by the blood, at the sam fine Leat is being lost from
the bochy from th sumface to the environment.

(HT

Heat loss com be achieved in two ways: (Sensible Weat loss: theat is lost
through con

Eaction, faciation and conduction (ii) Inserisible heal loss: Heat is tost
through swes _ing.

There is a range of temperature that the inten environment can function

properly the norme temperature at which heat gain must balance Leat loss.
There are ways to make this happer @Overheating or High temperature:
Vigorous a ivities like running, wurking, disease etic The cause high
temperature within the body if temperature of the blood reaching the bram.
Is high, the heat loss center in the hypothe lamus is stimulated and impulses
will be sent to the skin to produce 2 effects..
(4) vasochilation: The blood capillonner und the skin epidermis will te (get
wider) to- chalate (get allow more bloud to flow near the surface

And loose heat through seriible heat loss. 6) Sweating & Nerve impniser from
the brais mcreases the rate of sureat production SO that heat is lost through
evaporation of sumead from the skin to reduce temperature. The muscle will
relax, lowering the skin hans and allow- ing air to circulate over the skin.

Koey the

Over cooling or low temperature: If the temper- athie of the blood reaching
the braim is too low, the heat gain conter in the hypothalamus will be
stimulated and nerve impulser will be ed round the ways: sent to the skin to
respond in the following

In the body th

Zat, such activi

On, hydrolysis

At the same is the rate of chemical activities will be increased so that a lot of
heat is generated. (ii) Vaso constriction & The surface blood capillarier will
constrict (get smaller) little bloud will be allowed to thow to the surface/so
less heat will be lostir Zanonmed

Moochy from the

No ways:
Through con

Through swest (n) muscles will contract and raise the skin haw’s thereby
trapping and insulating the Skin.

Hal the internal

Y the normal cars Shivering & Muscles will contrat repeatedly and the body
begins to shiver, it is a reflex action that occur when the body temperature
Vigorous act begins to drop cas

St balance

This happen:

Se etsx ma

- Body if th

ENDOCRINE SYSTEMs

The endocrine system in the animal consist of – hypotha tramy Specialized

anctlers glands. These glands Secret chemichale substances called
HORMONES These are organic chemical mossengers. They are secreteditive
thy from the various glands into the blood stream to specific sites usually at
a distance from the area of production. These Sites ore target sites or
organs. The hormones gute in minute amounts, they are removed from the
bleed after secretion (il they 2) Postería in reactions, they only help to of
chemical and brological classified into 2. Take par Speed up the rat
reactions). Terary an
Pituita

Testi

① Based on the roles played in reproduction Primary hormones: The le are

hormones to “D Ove Lare necessary. For ovulation, sexual behavi oval
implantation, lactation and internal beky viom, eng prolactin, testosterone,
Lentinizing kormone, estrogen cetic…

Ova

Secondary hormone: These for the general. Well art being and responsibl &
Place body metabulu They influence growth, development and metod
whelkom. They have full effed on primary hormona Glam

Examples ame insulin, glucagon 2 Based on their chemical properties!!

NL

Anteri peptide hormones 2-9 Follicle stimul Pituit Protein or ing hormone
(FSH), Lentinizing Hormone (LH), Somat trophic hormone (STH), Lentotrophic
hormone (LTE

STH is a growth hormone (6) Steroid hormones: eg estrogen, progesteron

androgeno ate

Posteni
© Thyroxine is neither a protein nor steroid Pituirt hormone und an amino
acid with. Lading (1) 3 Thyr molecule

4 Adr

Major Primary Hormones of Reproduction

Gland

Hormone

Anterior

Pituitary

Follicle Stimulating Hor

Mone (FSH)

@Lentinizay hormme

Main function

Spermatogenesis & oogenesis 5 Pam

Release of testosterone form

Testis

Ovulation in female

Bould

Prolacting

Release of milk frim uddery affer portvinit con (giving bich

Par

TABLE

SKELETAL SYSTEM

Skeleten ca amy hard pent found in the ar

Fonctions of skelafon
It provides body. Skeleton may cherment, suppor the Endoskeleton: this. Is the be
inte tu

Type of skelet found within the animal ibody eng bones. Foxoskeleton: This is the
outside the body eg hairs; etc scales, horn’s etc. nails, hoof feathe

The hir

The pew

Namel

The geb

I fem

The endoskeletion of a vertebrate animal ma The ve be divided into two

( Axial Skeleton which consist of

Vertebral

Ribs

Sternum

(i) Appendicular skeleton. Which consist of My-banes of the fore limbs.

Bones of the hind limbs.

In the vertebrate animal, that the foreline is attached to the rest of the body
through the pectoral girdle.

The pectoral girdle is made up of 3 bones:

Scapular

Clavicle

Coracoid bones

The pectoral limb consist of

I Lumenes

U radius and ulna

Carpals

In metacarpals

2. phalanger Bones of

The hind limbs, These are made up of of the hind limbs tpelvic girdles. The pabicque
bones allacke all the bones of the hindling & pelvic