Cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of organisms.

The lowest level of biological organization that can perform all the activities
required for life.
Reproduction Multiplying of organism
Response to stimuli Ability to cope with the environment
Ecosystem highest tier of biological organization
Atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism,
population, specie, community, ecosystem- Proper order of levels of Biological
Organization
Hermaphroditism term used to refer to one individual with both male and
female reproductive parts.
Oviparity the eggs are fertilized internally, it would complete its development
outside the mother’s body. The egg would receive its nourishment through its
yolk. This type of fertilization
Budding breaking of body parts into pieces, some, or all of which develop into
adults, and is accompanied by regeneration or regrowth of lost body parts
Farmers in General Trias, Cavite have increased the harvest yield of food crops
like eggplant by growing them from seeds that have been modified to produce a
bacterial toxin that is harmful to pest insects. This is an example of an
application of biotechnology (recombinant DNA)
The very process of creating GM plant can result a massive collateral damage
that produces the following EXCEPT Mass production of food.
Selection the transformed bacteria containing the recombinant plasmid with
the gene of interest are being identified using special galactose sugar
Cleaving DNA enzymes cut the source DNA and the circular plasmid at a
specific site
Transformation a circular plasmid is combined with the fragments of source
DNA.
Genetic engineering It is the process of using recombinant DNA technology to
alter the genetic makeup of an organism
Plasmids This refers to the circular DNA found in most prokaryotes which is
an important tool used in the techniques and research of genetic engineering.
GAATTC The restriction enzyme EcoRI always recognizes which of the following
DNA sequence
mouth, stomach, esophagus, small intestine, large intestine the following
answers the correct sequence for the pathway food takes from the beginning to
end
Fluid feeders Animals that suck nutrient-rich fluid from the living host
Large intestine organ is responsible for the absorption of water and movement
of waste
Pancreas following organs releases digestive enzymes into the small intestine
pancreas, liver, and gall bladder following are accessory organs of the
digestive system

Essential amino acids Animals need 20 amino acids and can synthesize about
half from molecules in their diet (Campbell et.al.,2008). The remaining amino
acids, which are the essential amino acids, cannot be synthesized by the
human body and therefore must be obtained from the food. These amino acids
are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine,
tryptophan, and valine (Bagchi, Nair, & Sen, 2018, p. 509).

Vitamins. Vitamins are organic molecules (contains carbon atoms) required in

the diet in small amounts. All of the water- soluble vitamins and two of the fat-
soluble vitamins, A and K, function as coenzymes which participates in
numerous biochemical reactions involving energy release or
catabolism(Caballero, Finglas, & Toldra, 2003, p. 1476).
Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients, usually required in small amounts.
Minerals serve a variety of important functions including enzymes cofactors
(Campbell et.al., 2008)

Ingestion

In ingestion, or process of taking in food substances, the animal takes in food

in different ways:

1.1 Suspensionfeeders-
Manyaquaticanimalsaresuspensionfeeders,whichsiftsmall food particles from
the water. Examples of these are clams, mussels, whales, etc.

1.2 Substrate feeders - animals live in or on their food source. Examples of

this are the

leaf miner, maggots and other parasites.

1.3 Fluid feeders - suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host. Example:
Mosquito

1.4 Bulk feeders - eat relatively large pieces of food. Example: Rock python In
vertebrates, the teeth, saliva, and tongue play important roles in mastication
(chewing). While the food is being mechanically broken down, the enzymes in
saliva begin to chemically process the food as well. The combined action of
these processes modifies the food from large particles to a soft mass that can
be swallowed and can travel the length of the esophagus.

Digestion

It is the process of breaking food down into soluble molecules – small enough
to absorb.

2.1 Mechanical digestion aids in physically breaking down food particles for
easier chemical digestion.

2.2 Chemical digestion, also known as hydrolysis, is the process of breaking

down complex molecules into simpler molecules through chemical hydrolysis.

Absorption It is uptake of nutrients by body cells. It allows the animals to

acquire the necessary energy, organic molecules and essential nutrients from
the digested food.

Elimination It is the passage of undigested material out of the digestive

compartment.

Food stays in your Stomach for hours where it mixes with acid.
Mechanical Digestion It is the process of breaking down complex molecules
into simpler molecules through hydrolysis.

Food travels down your esophagus through a wavelike motion called

Peristalsis

The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus

The mouth or oral cavity is responsible for ingestion. In humans, the mouth
have

specialized dentition for mechanical digestion of food. With the aid of the salivary
gland, food is softened and rolled by the tongue, which results in a round, semi-
digested food called the bolus. Teeth chew food into smaller particles. This is
mechanical digestion that increases the surface area exposed to the enzyme
salivary amylase, initiating breakdown of glucose polymers. Some animals do
not have teeth, such as birds and earthworms, they use a structure called
gizzard, a muscular organ which grinds food with the aid of ingested pebbles or
stones.

The bolus enters the digestive tract, via a cross-road of food and air called the
pharynx (a junction that opens to both the esophagus and the trachea which
leads to the lungs). To prevent food from entering the respiratory system, the
epiglottis (leaf-shaped flap of cartilage located behind the tongue, at the top of
the larynx) covers the opening (called the glottis) to the respiratory when
swallowing.

The esophagus, which has voluntary muscles at the pharyngeal end, allows the
movement of bolus to the stomach by lubricating its walls with mucus produced
by goblet cells. Movement of food, not only through the esophagus, but
throughout the digestive tract is caused by peristalsis or the wavelike movement
of the muscles of the organs of digestion.

Chemical Digestion in the Stomach

The stomach is a bag which mainly functions in the storage of food. Chemical
digestion of food starts here through the action of gastric juice made up of
pepsin (an enzyme for protein digestion) and hydrochloric acid (HCl). Parietal
cells secrete hydrogen and chloride ions separately and chief cells secrete
inactive pepsinogen, which is activated to pepsin when mixed with hydrochloric
acid in the stomach. This action of gastric juice helps in breaking cells,
activating pepsinogen (a proenzyme) to pepsin (active enzyme), and denaturing
proteins. Denaturation is the process of breaking the bonds of protein, through
acids, bases, heavy metals, high temperature and others. This is observed in
cooked white egg, whitening of the lips when consuming acidic food, etc.
Mucus protects the stomach lining from gastric juice. Coordinated contraction
and relaxation of stomach muscle churn the stomach’s contents. Sphincters
prevent chyme from entering the esophagus and regulate its entry into the
small intestine.

Digestion in the Small Intestine

When the stomach is filled, the product of its digestion called chyme or acidic
chyme (due to its acidic nature) moves to the small intestines which is the
longest section of the alimentary canal and the major organ of digestion and
absorption. The first portion of the small intestine is the duodenum, where
acid chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas,
liver, gallbladder, and the small intestine itself.

Pancreatic Secretions
The pancreas produces proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin, protein-digesting
enzymes that are activated after entering the duodenum. Its solution is alkaline
and neutralizes the acidic chyme.

Bile Production by the Liver

Bile is a substance produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder which
aids in the digestion of fats by emulsification of fat molecules which is
considered physical not chemical digestion. Fat emulsification increases the
surface area for chemical digestion of fats by lipases (enzyme that catalyzes the
hydrolysis of fats).

Secretions of the Small Intestine

The epithelial lining of the duodenum, called the brush border, produces
several digestive enzymes. Enzymatic digestion is completed as peristalsis
moves the chyme and digestive juices along the small intestine. Most digestion
occurs in the duodenum; the jejunum and ileum function mainly in absorption
of nutrients and water.

Absorption in the Small Intestine

Villus (plural- villi) and microvillus (plural- microvilli) are structures
responsible for the efficient absorption of the digested molecules. The
enormous microvillar surface area greatly increases the rate of nutrient
absorption.

Each villus contains a network of blood vessels and a small lymphatic vessel
called a lacteal. After glycerol and fatty acids are absorbed by epithelial cells,
they are recombined into fats within these cells. These fats are mixed with
cholesterol and coated with protein, forming molecules called chylomicrons,
which are transported into lacteals. Amino acids and sugars pass through the
epithelium of the small intestine and enter the bloodstream. Capillaries and
veins from the lacteals converge in the hepatic portal vein and deliver blood to
the liver and then on to the heart.

Absorption in the Large Intestine

The large intestine, termed for its larger diameter compared to the small
intestine, is

responsible for water reabsorption and temporary storage of feces. Water from
the process of digestion, which comes from the surrounding tissues (mucus,
saliva, chemicals), is recycled by the large intestine by reabsorbing it. The rate
of water reabsorption has implication on the hardness/softness of the feces to
be eliminated. In humans, the cecum is a structure called appendix, a vestigial
organ. It does not have any known digestive function, but some argue that it has
immune functions. The rectum is the structure of the large intestine which
temporary store feces, the movement of the feces is regulated by a voluntary
muscle called the anus.

Carbohydrate Digestion The digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth.

The salivary enzyme amylase begins the breakdown of food starches into
maltose, a disaccharide. As the bolus of food travels through the esophagus to
the stomach, no significant digestion of carbohydrates takes place.

Protein Digestion A large part of protein digestion takes place in the stomach.
The enzyme pepsin plays an important role in the digestion of proteins by
breaking down the intact protein to large polypeptides. In the duodenum, other
enzymes—trypsin elastase, and chymotrypsin— act on the peptides reducing
them to smaller peptides. Trypsin elastase, carboxypeptidase, and
chymotrypsin are produced by the pancreas and released into the duodenum
where they act on the chyme. Further breakdown of peptides to single amino
acids is aided by enzymes called peptidases (those that break down peptides).
Specifically, carboxypeptidase, dipeptidase, and aminopeptidase play important
roles in reducing the peptides to free amino acids. The amino acids are
absorbed into the bloodstream through the small intestines.

Nucleic Acid Digestion

The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are found in most of the foods you eat. Two
types of pancreatic nuclease are responsible for their digestion:
deoxyribonuclease, which digests DNA, and ribonuclease, which digests RNA.
The nucleotides produced by this digestion are further broken down by two
intestinal brush border enzymes (nucleosidase and phosphatase) into pentoses,
phosphates, and nitrogenous bases (see figure 7), which can be absorbed
through the alimentary canal wall (OpenStax, 2017).

Lipid Digestion The three lipases responsible for lipid digestion are lingual
lipase, gastric lipase, and pancreatic lipase. However, because the pancreas is
the only consequential source of lipase, virtually all lipid digestion occurs in
the small intestine. Pancreatic lipase breaks down each triglyceride into two
free fatty acids and a monoglyceride. The fatty acids include both short-chain
(less than 10 to 12 carbons) and long- chain fatty acids.