The Digestive

System
By Michael Donohoe

Aged 16
Class TYA
Newbridge College
 List of Contents
1. Introduction

2. Digestive System Anatomy

3. Digestive System Physiology

4. Latest Medical discoveries

in the digestive
system

5. Diseases related to digestive

system

6. Experiment

7. Nutrition and the

importance of a healthy
lifestyle
 8. Interesting Facts
Introduction
The digestive system is the system of organs responsible for
getting food into and out of the body and for making use of
food to keep the body healthy. The digestive system includes
the salivary glands, mouth, oesophagus, stomach, liver,
gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, colon, and rectum. The
digestive system's organs are joined in a long, twisting tube
from the mouth to the anus. Inside this tube is a lining called
the mucosa. In the mouth, stomach, and small intestine, the
mucosa contains tiny glands that produce juices to help digest
food. Two solid organs, the liver and the pancreas produce
digestive juices that reach the intestine through small tubes
known as ducts. parts of other organ systems (for instance,
nerves and blood) also play a major role in the digestive
system.
 Digestive System Anatomy
Mouth
Food begins its journey through the digestive system in the
mouth, also known as the oral cavity. Inside the mouth are
many accessory organs that aid in the digestion of foodthe
tongue, teeth, and salivary glands. Teeth chop food into small
pieces, which are moistened by saliva before the tongue and
other muscles push the food into the pharynx

Teeth
The teeth are 32 small, hard organs found along the anterior
and lateral edges of the mouth. Each tooth is made of a bone-
like substance called dentin and covered in a layer of enamel
which is the hardest substance in the body. Teeth are living
organs and contain blood vessels and nerves under the dentin
is a soft area known as the pulp. The teeth are designed for
cutting and grinding food into smaller pieces.
Tongue
The tongue is located on the lower portion of the mouth just
behind the teeth. It is a small organ made up of several pairs
of muscles covered in a thin, bumpy, skin-like layer. The outside
of the tongue contains many rough papillae for gripping food as
it is moved by the tongues muscles. The taste buds on the
surface of the tongue detect taste molecules in food and
connect to nerves in the tongue to send information to the
brain. The tongue also helps to push food toward the back of
the mouth for swallowing.

Salivary Glands
Surrounding the mouth are 3 sets of salivary glands. The
salivary glands are organs that produce a watery
secretion known as saliva. Saliva helps to moisten food and
begins the digestion of carbohydrates. The body also uses
saliva to lubricate food as it passes through the mouth,
pharynx, and oesophagus.

Pharynx
The pharynx, or throat, is a funnel-shaped tube connected to
the back end of the mouth. The pharynx is responsible for the
passing of masses of chewed food from the mouth to the
oesophagus. The pharynx also plays an important role in the
respiratory system, as air from the nasal cavity passes through
the pharynx on its way to the larynx and eventually the lungs.
Because the pharynx serves two different functions, it contains
a flap of tissue known as the epiglottis that acts as a switch to
route food to the oesophagus and air to the larynx.
Oesophagus
The oesophagus is a muscular tube connecting the pharynx to
the stomach. It carries swallowed masses of chewed food along
its length. At the lower end of the oesophagus is a muscular
ring called the oesophageal sphincter or cardiac sphincter. The
function of this sphincter is to close off the end of the
oesophagus and trap food in the stomach.

Stomach
The stomach is a muscular sac that is located on the left side of
the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm. In an average
person, the stomach is about the size of their two fists placed
next to each other. This major organ acts as a storage tank for
food so that the body has time to digest large meals properly.
The stomach also contains hydrochloric acid and digestive
enzymes that continue the digestion of food that began in the
mouth.

Small Intestine
The small intestine is a long, thin tube about 1 inch in diameter
and about 10 feet long. It is located just below the stomach and
takes up most of the space in the abdominal cavity. The entire
small intestine is coiled like a hose and the inside surface is full
of many ridges and folds. These folds are used to maximize the
digestion of food and absorption of nutrients. By the time food
leaves the small intestine, around 90% of all nutrients have
been extracted from the food that entered it.

Liver and Gallbladder

The liver is a roughly triangular organ of the digestive system
located to the right of the stomach, just below the diaphragm
and above the small intestine. The liver weighs about 3 pounds
and is the second largest organ in the body. The liver has many
different functions in the body, but the main function of the
liver in digestion is the production of bile and its secretion into
the small intestine. The gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped
organ located just behind the liver. The gallbladder is used to
store and recycle excess bile from the small intestine so that it
can be reused for the digestion of subsequent meals.
Pancreas
The pancreas is a large gland located just underneath and
behind the stomach. It is about 6 inches long and shaped like a
short, lumpy snake with its head connected to the duodenum
and its tail pointing to the left wall of the abdominal cavity.
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the small
intestine to complete the chemical digestion of foods.

Large intestine
The large intestine is a long, thick tube about 2 inches in
diameter and about 5 feet long. It is located just underneath
the stomach and wraps around the superior and lateral border
of the small intestine. The large intestine absorbs water and
contains many symbiotic bacteria that aid in the breaking down
of wastes to extract some small amounts of nutrients. Faeces in
the large intestine exit the body through the anal canal.

Digestive system physiology

The digestive system is responsible for taking whole foods and
turning them into energy and nutrients to allow the body to
function, grow, and repair itself. The six primary processes of
the digestive system include:

1. Ingestion of food
2. Secretion of fluids and digestive enzymes
3. Mixing and movement of food and wastes through the
body
4. Digestion of food into smaller pieces
5. Absorption of nutrients
6. Excretion of wastes
Ingestion
The first function of the digestive system is ingestion, or the
intake of food. The mouth is responsible for this function, as it is
the opening through which all food enters the body. The mouth
and stomach are also responsible for the storage of food as it is
waiting to be digested. This storage capacity allows the body to
eat only a few times each day and to ingest more food than it
can process at one time.
Secretion
In the course of a day, the digestive system secretes around 7
litres of fluids. These fluids include saliva, mucus, hydrochloric
acid, enzymes, and bile. Saliva moistens dry food and contains
salivary amylase, a digestive enzyme that begins the digestion
of carbohydrates. Mucus serves as a protective barrier and
lubricant inside of the GI tract. Hydrochloric acid helps to digest
food chemically and protects the body by killing bacteria
present in our food. Enzymes are like tiny biochemical
machines that disassemble large macromolecules like proteins,
carbohydrates, and lipids into their smaller components. Finally,
bile is used to break up large masses of lipids into tiny globules
for easy digestion.

Mixing and Movement

The digestive system uses 3 main processes to mix and move
food:

Swallowing: Swallowing is the process of using smooth

and skeletal muscles in the mouth, tongue, and pharynx to
push food out of the mouth, through the pharynx, and into the
oesophagus.
Peristalsis: Peristalsis is a muscular wave that travels the
length of the GI tract, moving partially digested food a short
distance down the tract. It takes many waves of peristalsis for
food to travel from the oesophagus, through the stomach
and intestines, and reach the end of the GI tract.
Segmentation: Segmentation occurs only in the small
intestine as short segments of intestine contract like hands
squeezing a toothpaste tube. Segmentation helps to increase
the absorption of nutrients by mixing food and increasing its
contact with the walls of the intestine.
Digestion
Digestion is the process of turning large pieces of food into its
component chemicals. Mechanical digestion is the physical
breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces. This
mode of digestion begins with the chewing of food by the teeth
and is continued through the muscular mixing of food by the
stomach and intestines. Bile produced by the liver is also used
to mechanically break fats into smaller globules. While food is
being mechanically digested it is also being chemically
digested as larger and more complex molecules are being
broken down into smaller molecules that are easier to absorb.
Chemical digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase
in saliva splitting complex carbohydrates into simple
carbohydrates. The enzymes and acid in the stomach continue
chemical digestion, but the bulk of chemical digestion takes
place in the small intestine thanks to the action of the
pancreas. The pancreas secretes an incredibly strong digestive
cocktail known as pancreatic juice, which is capable of
digesting lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids. By
the time food has left the duodenum, it has been reduced to its
chemical building blocksfatty acids, amino acids,
monosaccharides, and nucleotides.

Absorption
Once food has been reduced to its building blocks, it is ready
for the body to absorb. Absorption begins in the stomach with
simple molecules like water and alcohol being absorbed directly
into the bloodstream. Most absorption takes place in the walls
of the small intestine, which are densely folded to maximize the
surface area in contact with digested food. Small blood and
lymphatic vessels in the intestinal wall pick up the molecules
and carry them to the rest of the body. The large intestine is
also involved in the absorption of water and vitamins B and K
before faeces leave the body.
Excretion
The final function of the digestive system is the excretion of
waste in a process known as defecation. Defecation removes
indigestible substances from the body so that they do not
accumulate inside the gut. The timing of defecation is
controlled voluntarily by the conscious part of the brain, but
must be accomplished on a regular basis to prevent a backup of
indigestible materials.

Latest medical discoveries in the

digestive system
A new organ has been
discovered inside the human
body by a scientist at Limerick
university
The organ is known as the mesentery and it was previously
thought to be just a few fragmented structures in the digestive
system.

But now scientists at the University of Limerick have realised it

is in fact one, continuous organ.

Although its function is still unclear, the discovery opens up a

whole new area of science, according to J Calvin Coffey, a
researcher at the UL who first discovered it.

Following its reclassification, medical students are now being

taught that the mesentery is a distinct organ.

Grays Anatomy, the worlds most famous medical textbook,

has been updated to include the new definition.

According to the UK Independent medical students and

researchers can now investigate what role the mesentery might
play in abdominal diseases, which it is hoped could ultimately
lead to new treatments.
A digital representation of the small and large intestines and associated mesentery

The Appendix Might Not Be So

Useless After All
The appendix has long been a bit of a mystery. At its worse, it's
considered a useless evolutionary throwback whose sole
purpose is to give you a nasty case of appendicitis. However,
one research team of medical doctors have a theory of what
purpose this little organ could serve.
Researchers from the Midwestern University Arizona College of
Osteopathic Medicine have worked on a study that suggests it
could serve as a reservoir for beneficial gut bacteria. The
appendix is a worm-like strip that projects off at the crossroads
of the small and large intestines, called the cecum.

In this study, associate professor of anatomy Heather Smith

and her team tracked the evolutionary history of the appendix
by studying the cecum of 533 different mammals, from beavers
and rabbits to common wombats and brush tail possums. Their
research found it has evolved independently at least 30
separate times in several mammal lineages. Rather
interestingly, once the appendix appears, it almost never
disappears. This led them to the idea that it could serve some
advantageous function. Their study set out to see if ecological
factors such as diet, climate, and where an
animal lives correlated with which species have an appendix.
Instead, they found that species with an appendix have higher
average concentrations of lymphoid tissue, which is key in
creating an immune response, in the cecum in the lower
abdomen.
Research over the past few years has shown that lymphatic
tissue can also foster the growth of beneficial gut bacteria. This
led the team to conclude that the organ plays some role in the
immune system, particularly acting as a safe house for
helpful gut bacteria.

Gut-Bacteria-Based Treatments
More breakthroughs have occurred in the area of gut-bacteria-
based treatments. Amazingly, scientists have discovered that
the mix of bacteria or microbes in our digestive system could
affect how our brain functions and the way we think. There is
also research demonstrating a potential link between obesity
and the mix of gut bacteria in our bodies.

The medical field is only just beginning to understand to degree

to which gut bacteria affects human health. Gut-bacteria may
one day be used as part of possible treatments for diseases
such as ulcerative colitis and Crohns disease as well as
common allergies and cancers.

Diseases associated with the

digestive system
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) is severe
heartburn. Weakness of the valve between the oesophagus
and stomach may allow stomach acid to reflux (regurgitate,
backup) into the oesophagus and irritate and inflame the lining.
This results in chest pain which can mimic that of angina (a
discomfort you experience when your heart cannot get enough
blood).

Treatment

Antacids that neutralize stomach acid. Antacids, such as

Maalox, Mylanta, Gelusil, Gaviscon, Rolaids and Tums, may
provide quick relief. But antacids alone won't heal an
inflamed oesophagus damaged by stomach acid.
Medications to reduce acid production. Called H-2-receptor
blockers, these medications include cimetidine (Tagamet
HB), famotidine (Pepcid AC), nizatidine (Axid AR) or
ranitidine (Zantac). H-2-receptor blockers don't act as
quickly as antacids do, but they provide longer relief and
may decrease acid production from the stomach for up to
12 hours. Stronger versions of these medications are
available in prescription form.
Medications that block acid production and heal the
oesophagus. Proton pump inhibitors are stronger blockers
of acid production than are H-2-receptor blockers and
allow time for damaged oesophageal tissue to heal. Over-
the-counter proton pump inhibitors include lansoprazole
(Prevacid 24 HR) and omeprazole (Prilosec, Zegerid OTC).
However, in rare cases this medication may not work and
surgery may be required.

Jaundice Literally means yellow in French. Yellowing of

the skin and whites of the eyes from a backup of bile
metabolic by-products from the blood into body tissues.
May result from blockage of the ducts draining bile from
the liver into the intestines or excessive breakdown of red
blood cells.

Treatment

Treatment is aimed at correcting the underlying cause.

The primary objective of medical or surgical treatment is
to alleviate the blockage. Some of the treatment options
include a cholecystectomy and an ERCP.
A cholecystectomy is the removal of the gallbladder if
there are gallstones. An ERCP may be sufficient to remove
small stones from the common bile duct or to place a
stent inside the duct to restore bile flow.

Diverticulosis/diverticulitis Small pouches may form

along the walls of the large intestine called diverticuli
which if symptomatic, causing discomfort to the patient, is
called diverticulosis. These abnormal outpocketings may
collect and not be able to empty faecal material which can
lead to inflammation, diverticulitis.

Treatment
paracetamol is recommended to help relieve your
symptoms. Eating a high-fibre diet may initially help to
control your symptoms. Some people will notice an
improvement after a few days, although it can take around
a month to feel the benefits fully.
Cirrhosis Literally, orange-yellow in Greek. A
degenerative disease of the liver that often develops in
chronic alcoholics, but can have other causes. The name
refers to the gross appearance of the organ. Often there are
no signs of cirrhosis until damage is done. Symptoms can
include: Fatigue, Itchy skin, Yellow discoloration in the skin and
eyes (jaundice), Fluid accumulation in your abdomen (ascites),
Loss of appetite, Nausea, Swelling in your legs, Weight loss.

Treatment

No treatment will cure cirrhosis or repair scarring in the liver

that has already occurred. But treatment can sometimes
prevent or delay further liver damage. Treatment involves
lifestyle changes, medicines, and regular doctor visits. In
some cases, you may need surgery for treatment of
complications from cirrhosis. o treatment will cure cirrhosis or
repair scarring in the liver that has already occurred. But
treatment can sometimes prevent or delay further liver
damage. Treatment involves lifestyle changes, medicines, and
regular doctor visits. In some cases, you may need surgery for
treatment of complications from cirrhosis.

Oesophageal cancer - Oesophageal cancer is caused when

the lining of the oesophagus experiences abnormal cell
growth.

Symptoms

Frequent and persistent hiccups

Constant burping/belching/coughing

Acid indigestion/heartburn/reflux

Difficulty swallowing (solids/meats at first, then softer

foods/liquids)
 Weight loss

Unexplained tiredness

Vomiting

Discomfort in the throat or back

Discomfort between the breast bone and shoulder

A lump in the neck or hoarseness in the voice (rare).

There are two types of abnormal cell growth:

SQUAMOUS CELL CANCER

The lining of a healthy oesophagus consists of squamous or

flat cells similar to the cells in the skin. Abnormal growth in
these cells causes a squamous cell cancer that can affect the
oesophagus along its entire length.

ADENOCARCINOMA

Persistent acid-reflux can cause cells in the oesophageal lining

to experience negative change and start resembling cells in
the stomach lining. This transformed oesophagus is known as
Barretts Oesophagus and is highly at risk of developing
cancerous growths, leading to a cancer called an adeno-
carcinoma.

Treatment

The main options for treatment of cancer of the oesophagus

include:

Surgery
Radiation
Chemotherapy
Targeted therapy
Endoscopic treatments
 Experiment:
Investigate the action of amylase on starch

List of apparatus and chemicals: Starch solution, amylase

(saliva), water bath, 2 test tubes, iodine

Substrate Starch

Product Maltose

Enzyme Amylase

Method:

1 Dissolve some starch in water to form a starch solution.

2 Add equal amounts of starch solution to each of the two test

tubes.

3 Add saliva (which contains the enzyme amylase) to one of the

test tubes, call this test tube A. Shake the test tube to mix the
contents. Do not add saliva to tube B

4 Leave both test tubes for 10 minutes in a water bath at

37 degrees C (body temperature)
5 Add a few drops of the solution from each test tube to a few
drops of iodine solution on a dropping tile.

Recorded Data:

Contents of Chemical Original Final colour

test tube used in test colour of of test
test chemical
chemical when added
to test tube
(A) Star Iodine Yellow Yellow
ch and
Saliva
(B) Star Iodine yellow Black/blue
ch
Conclusion and evaluation of results:

Test Tube A Iodine and Saliva = Yellow coloured solution

Test Tube B Iodine and Starch = blue/black coloured solution

Therefore, amylase digests starch

Carry out qualitative food tests for protein

List of apparatus and chemicals: 2 droppers, test tube, Sodium

hydroxide, Copper sulphate

Method

1 Dissolve a sample of the food in water.

2 Add a few drops of sodium hydroxide (which is colourless).

Caution: Sodium hydroxide is corrosive, do not let it get on

your skin.

3 Add a few drops of copper sulphate (which is blue)

Result

If the colour changes from blue to purple protein is present

If the colour remains blue, protein is not present.

Recorded data:

Food tested Final colour Protein present

observed or absent
Yogurt Purple Present
egg Purple Present

Conclusion and evaluation of results:

Yogurt and egg contain protein

Nutrition and the importance of a
healthy lifestyle
 The Food Pyramid

The food pyramid is designed to make healthy eating easier.

Healthy eating is about getting the correct amount of nutrients
protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals you need
to maintain good health.

Foods that contain the same type of nutrients are grouped

together on each of the shelves of the Food Pyramid. This gives
you a choice of different foods from which to choose a healthy
diet. Following the Food Pyramid as a guide will help you get
the right balance of nutritious foods within your calorie range.
Studies show that we take in too many calories from foods and
drinks high in fat, sugar and salt, on the top shelf of the Food
Pyramid. They provide very little of the essential vitamins and
minerals your body needs. Limiting these is essential for
healthy eating.

IMPORTANCE OF DIET

Eat a balanced diet every day

Having a balanced diet and doing regular exercise can minimise

your weight and improve your health

- Get to know what food is good for you (fruit, vegetables,

etc.)
- Snack with fruit, low fat yogurt, popcorn (no butter) and
plain biscuits instead of high-fat foods like cakes, crisps, ice-
cream and chocolate
- Use fats, oils, sweets and salt sparingly
- Drink water and diet drinks instead of sugary soft drinks
 - Eat lean meat and stay away from fast food and fatty or
greasy food
Learn to control your appetite
- If you are feeling hungry between meals, take a walk to
distract yourself
- If eating more frequently, eat smaller portions at each meal
- Eat a healthy snack (an apple, carrots, etc.), drink a glass of
water or chew sugar-free gum to curb your hunger
- Eat slowly to give your stomach time to tell your brain that
youve had enough food
- Dont snack just because you are bored, nervous, angry,
sad or stressed

IMPORTANCE OF EXERCISE

Exercise improves blood flow throughout the body, which

includes your digestive system. Keep your body moving with
regular exercise, and you can keep your digestive tract moving,
too. A consistent exercise routine that may help you avoid a
sluggish digestive system can also help you avoid constipation,
in addition to any accompanying gas, bloating and cramps.

Excessive weight gain is hard on your stomach, slowing your

metabolism and making digestion more difficult and less
productive. Exercise helps you maintain a steady weight and
keep your body in shape, which gives your digestive system a
break from working overtime.

Maintaining a healthy weight is good for your digestive system

and also for your health in general, which is why doctors
encourage patients to incorporate exercise and a healthy diet
into their lives.

Cardio exercise, such as jogging or cycling, boosts your stamina

and increases your body's metabolism rate. This means you are
burning calories more quickly and giving your digestive system
more fuel to work harder.
Interesting facts about the digestive
system
Our salivary glands produce around 1.5 litres of saliva
each day!

The pharynx, at the back of the throat, has a flap of tissue

called the epiglottis that closes during swallowing to
prevent food going down the trachea (windpipe).

The adult stomach has a very small volume when empty

but can expand to hold up to 1.5 litres of food when full.

Stomach rumblings (borborygmi) are caused by wave-like

muscular contractions (peristalsis) at the walls of the
stomach and small intestine. These are normal digestion
movements, however the process is louder and more
noticeable when the stomach is empty as the sound is not
muffled.
 On average, the human adult male's small intestine is 6.9
m (22 ft 6 in) long, and the female's 7.1 m (23 ft 4 in). The
approximate surface area of the small intestine is 2,700
feet; Thats over half the size of a basketball court!

The large intestine is approximately 1.5 m (4.9 ft) long.

The average human being has over 400 different species

of bacteria in their colon

It takes approximately seven seconds for food to travel

through the oesophagus and reach the stomach.

People Pass Gas About 14 Times Per Day. The average

person produces about half a litre of farts every single day

We eat about 500kg of food per year.

 Conclusion
The digestive system is a vast and fascinating part of the
body. The function of the digestive system is digestion and
absorption. Digestion is the breakdown of food into small
molecules, which are then absorbed into the body. A
balanced diet and exercise are important in keeping the
digestive system healthy and avoiding diseases. The food
pyramid is a good guideline in helping us to choose what to
eat. New discoveries are being made every day about the
digestive system and we are starting to learn more about
what each part of our digestive system does. These new
developments in research of the digestive system will also
help in the treatment of disease.

Bibliography
Websites
Digestive system diseases

https://www.dmu.edu/medterms/digestive-system/digestive-
system-diseases/

Oesophageal cancer

http://www.lollipopday.ie/oesophageal-cancer-
symptoms.php?gclid=CPuu94eLgdECFaS_7QodmL4GqQ

Mesentery: A new organ

http://www.independent.ie/irish-news/news/mesentery-a-new-
organ-has-been-discovered-inside-the-human-body-by-a-
scientist-at-irish-university-35340585.html
 food pyramid

http://www.irishhealth.com/article.html?id=25641

action of amylase on starch

http://www.biotopics.co.uk/nutrition/amylex.html

Cirrhosis - Treatment Overview

http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/tc/cirrhosis-
treatment-overview#1

treatment for cirrhosis

http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-
conditions/cirrhosis/diagnosis-treatment/treatment/txc-
20187388

Jaundice

http://www.medicinenet.com/jaundice_in_adults/page5.htm

Digestive system General info

http://www.livescience.com/22367-digestive-system.html

digestive system anatomy

http://www.visualdictionaryonline.com/human-
being/anatomy/digestive-system.php#stomach9578

Books
The Digestive System by Christine-Taylor-Butler

Exploring science by Michael OCallaghan, Seamus Reilly and

Pat Doyle