Sexual Reproduction:

The mode of reproduction that takes place with the involvement of two individuals of
two different sexes i.e. male and female.During sexual reproduction, male organism
having male sex organs produces male gametes i.e. sperms which are small and
motile and the female organism having female sex organs produces ova/eggs which
are generally large and store food. Male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote
that grows into a new organism.

Significance of Sexual Reproduction :

 Sexual reproduction involves DNA as well as cellular apparatus of two different

organisms which promotes diversity of characters in the offspring.
 Since gametes are derived from two different organisms, it results in a new
combination of genes which increases the chances of genetic variations.
 Sexual reproduction results in the origin of new species.
 Sexual reproduction involves division in the sex organs that reduces the DNA
matter to half so that the zygote formed after fusion has the same amount of DNA
as the parents it maintains DNA in a species.

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

 The reproductive parts are Stamen and Carpel.

 The parts of the flower are sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
 Sepals are green structures that protect the inner parts when the flower is in bud
stage.
 Petals are colourful and attract the insects for pollination.
 Stamens are male reproductive parts and produce pollen grains that contain male
gametes. Each stamen has two parts- Filament or stalk and Anther i.e. swollen top
part which produces pollen grains.

Parts of a Flower
* The carpel is the female reproductive part and produces ovules that contain female
gametes. It has three parts—Stigma which is top sticky part and receives pollen grains
during pollination. Style which is the middle long part and ovary which is the swollen
part and contains ovules. Each ovule has an egg cell i.e. female gamete.

The flowers may be bisexual i.e. having both stamens and carpel for example;
Mustard ,China Rose (Hibiscus).
The flower may be unisexual i.e. paving either stamens or carpel for example; Papaya,
Watermelon.

Pollination: The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of
the flower is pollination. Two types of pollination are:
(i) Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
the same flower or another flower of the same plant.
(ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
another flower or another flower of a different plant of the same species. It generally
takes place with the help of some agents like insects, birds, wind and water.

Fertilization:

Fertilization is the process of fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote
during sexual reproduction. Pollination is followed by fertilization in plants. The events
are-
* Pollen grains land on the stigma of the ovary.
* Pollen tube grows out of the pollen grains, travel through the style and reach the
embryo sac, through micropyle.
* In the Pollen tube the nucleus divides into two male germ cells/gametes.

Each ovule has an Embryo sac that has two polar nuclei at the centre and a female
germ cell (egg) near the micropyle.

Pollen tube releases two male germ cells inside the embryo sac , one of them fuses
with female germ cell/egg and forms a zygote which grows into the embryo, the
fusion is known as syngamy. The other male germ cell fuses with two polar nuclei to
form a triploid nutritive tissue called the Endosperm.The process is known as triple
fusion. So in flowering plants two fusions take place during fertilisation(syngamy and
triple fusion),hence it is called double fertilisation.

Post-fertilisation changes: After fertilisation the following changes takes place in the
flower.Zygote divides several times and forms an embryo inside the ovule.

 The ovule develops a tough coat and changes into the seed.
 The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
 Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and fall off.

Seed and its parts: The advantage of seed is that it protects the future plant i.e.
embryo.
Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and Embryo Cotyledons store food for the future
plant.
Embryo has two parts: plumule and radicle. Plumule develops into shoot and
radicle develops into root.
The process of development of a seedling from the embryo under appropriate
conditions is known as germination.

Reproduction in Human Beings

Human beings show sexual reproduction. Male parent produces male gametes called
sperms. Female parent produces female gametes called ovum/egg. Sperms have tail
and are therefore, motile. They are produced in large numbers in the testes. Ovum is
bigger, non-motile and only one ovary produces one ovum in a month. Both the
gametes are microscopic unicellular and have half the number of chromosomes as
compared to the body cells, hence called Haploid cells.

Human beings become reproductively active from the onset of puberty. Puberty is
the period during adolescence when the rate of general body growth begins to slow
down and reproductive tissues begin to mature. Onset of puberty in human males is
between 11 to 13 yrs of age, while in human females is between 10 to 12 yrs. of age.

Puberty is associated with many physical, mental, emotional and psychological

changes in boys and girls which occur slowly over a period of time. These are called
secondary sexual characters. For instance thick dark hair start growing in new
parts of the body such as arm pits and genital area between the thighs. Thinner hair
appear on legs, arms and face. Skin becomes oily and pimples may appear on the
face.In case of boys beard and moustache start appearing, voice begins to crack,
reproductive organs develop and start producing releasing sperms. In case of girls,
development of mammary glands occurs, menstruation starts.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

One pair of testes are present in a bag-like structure called scrotum which lies outside
the abdominal cavity, hence they are extra abdominal in position. This is so because
the testes have to be maintained at 1-3 degree lesser temperature than the body in
order to produce functional sperms.

Functions of testes-

 To produce male gametes i.e. the sperms.

 To produce a male reproductive hormone called testosterone which is
responsible for producing sperms as well as secondary sexual characteristics in
males.

Sperms move into the sperm duct or the vas-deferens. Each vas-deferens rises up
and enters into the abdominal cavity. It unites with the duct coming from the urinary
bladder to form a common duct called urethra which passes through the penis and
opens to the outside. Along the way the ducts of the accessory glands ( Prostate
gland and Seminal Vesicles)also open and pour their secretions into the vas
deferens. A pair of Seminal Vesicles produce a fluid which provides nutrition as well as
medium for locomotion to the sperms. The fluid secreted by the Prostate gland
reduces the acidity
The secretions of the three glands along with the sperms is known as semen
Function of the vas-deferens: It is meant for the passage of the sperms in the
male body.
Function of the urethra: It is the common passage for both semen and urine from
the body to the outside.
Penis: It is the organ which is used to introduce semen into the female body. It is
richly supplied with blood vessels.

Female Reproductive System

At the time of birth each girl child already contains thousands of immature ova/eggs
in her ovaries. These ova start maturing only from the time of puberty. Only one ovum
is produced by one ovary in one month and each ovary releases an ovum in alternate
months. The release of an ovum from the ovary into the fallopian tube is known as
ovulation

Functions of ovary

 To produce and release ova/eggs.

 To produce female reproductive hormones: estrogen and progesterone.

There are two fallopian tubes. The end lying close to the ovary has finger like
structures called fimbriae. The two fallopian tubes unite with an elastic bag like
structure called uterus/womb.

Function of the fallopian tubes: It is the site of fertilization between the male and
the female gametes and formation of the zygote early embryo. The inner lining of the
uterus is richly supplied with blood vessels and is known as endometrium. The narrow
opening of the uterus is called cervix.

Function of the uterus: The embryo formed in the fallopian tube comes down and
gets attached to the uterine wall (implantation) and develops for the next nine
months ( Gestation period) till the baby is delivered.

Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. The vagina (Birth
Canal) is a muscular tube through which the baby is delivered at the end of gestation
period. It also serves as the canal for receiving the semen at the time of copulation.

The sperms travel upwards and reach the fallopian tube where one sperm fuses with
the ovum to form the zygote. The zygote divides repeatedly as it descends into the
uterus and the embryo gets implanted in the uterine wall which thickens so as to
receive the embryo.
The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue
called placenta, which is a disc-like structure embedded in the uterine wall. It
contains finger-like villi on the embryo side, while on the mother’s side blood spaces
surround the villi. Villi provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass
from the mother to the developing embryo and the wastes to pass from the embryo to
the mother through the placenta. When the embryo starts resembling a human is
formed, it is termed as a foetus. The foetus continues to develop inside the uterus for
almost nine months after which the baby is delivered as a result of rhythmic
contractions of the uterine muscles.

Menstruation: It is the loss of blood, mucous along with the unfertilized ovum and
the ruptured cells and tissues of the uterine walls through the vagina of the female. It
is a 28-day cycle which occurs in every reproductively active female (from puberty).. If
the ovum does not get fertilized, then the uterine wall starts sloughing off and there is
loss of blood and mucous etc. through the vagina.

In case the ovum gets fertilized, then the uterine wall becomes thick and spongy for
nourishing the embryo and hence menstruation does not occur. The beginning of
menstruation at puberty is known as menarche. The end of menstruation when the
woman is 45-55 yrs of age is called menopause.

Reproductive Health:

Diseases that occur as a result of sexual contact are known as sexually transmitted
diseases (STDs). They can be caused by bacteria for example; syphilis, gonorrhoea;
or caused by a virus for example; HIV-AIDS, warts etc.

Birth control measures: They can be of three types – mechanical/physical, chemical

and surgical.

1.Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the
fallopian tube . For eg Use of condoms by males and Diaphragm & cervical caps by
females.

2.Chemical methods

 Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop: It is fixed in the uterine wall
where it secretes copper ions which prevents the implantation of the embryo in
the uterine wall.H
 Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal pills which prevent ovulation so the
eggs are not available for fertilization.

3.Surgical methods

 Vasectomy in Males: It involves cutting and ligating the vas deferens in males
so that the sperms are not present in the semen for fertilization.
 Tubectomy in females: It involves cutting and ligating the fallopian tubes in
females so that the eggs are not available at the site of fertilization.
Advantages of contraception: Helps in birth control, prevents sexually transmitted
diseases ( Only Mechanical/physical methods of contraception), prevent unwanted
pregnancies thus maintaining female health, keeps population explosion in check .