REPRODUCTION

Reproduction: is the process by which an organism produce/make more (new

offsprings) of the same kind.
There are two types of reproduction:
I-Asexual reproduction is the process resulting in the production of genetically
identical offsprings from one parent by mitosis.
Advantages: Often rapid, no need to find a partner (two parents, male and
female)
Disadvantages:
 Harmful if disease causing organisms use this, as it is rapid
 Produces identical strains, therefore it is useful if parent is good strain
 No variety in offspring, therefore a change in the environment may kill
them due to lack of adaptation
 Harmful genes in parents will be given to offspring
 Overcrowding may cause competition for food.
Examples
Binary fission in Bacteria:
1. the nuclear material replicates
2. the nuclear material then becomes constricted in the middle and divides into
two
3. the cytoplasm also becomes constricted
4. a cell wall forms in the middle, separating the replication and the original
5. the new cells then divide
Fungi:
1. under favorable conditions the tip becomes filled with cytoplasm, nuclei, and
nutritive substances
2. the tip swells up, forming a sporangium
3. the sporangium forms a large number of cells called spores
4. when the sporangium becomes mature, it ruptures, releasing the spores into
the air (usually carried by wind)
5. if the spores land on a suitable medium, they germinate and produce new
hyphae that grow to form a new fungus
6. if they do not fall on a suitable medium, they remain dormant until the
conditions become suitable.
Potatoes (tuber formation):
1. the potato has grooves called eyes
2. in favorable conditions they grow to form a shoot and root using the food
stored in the potato tuber
3. the roots grow downwards and the shoots form leaves
4. underground side stems grow from the base of the main stem
5. food is stored in these underground stems forming tubers
6. the leaves and stems of the old tuber die, and the new tuber remains dormant,
waiting for suitable conditions.
Sexual reproduction is the process involving the fusion of of two gametes to form
a zygote and the production of genetically dissimilar offsprings from each other
and from their parents.
Examples
Flowering plants

Functions of FLOWER PARTS:

Sepals: protect the flower while it is closed
Petals: attract insects with scent; some have guide lines to guide insects to
nectary gland. Used to allow for insects to land, while surrounding and protecting
the reproductive organs of the flower
Anther: produces pollen grains (male gamete)
Stigma: receives pollen grains, and produces nutritive materials for the
germination of the pollen
Ovary: produces ovules (which contain female gametes)
Pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the plant (anther
of stamen) to the female part of the plant (stigma).
Agents of pollination: 1. wind 2. insects 3. animals 4. water 5. humans
Steps of fertilization:
1. pollen grain falls on stigma, and stigma produces a sticky, nutritious substance
2. the pollen grain absorbs the fluid, and makes a pollen tube, and the nucleus of
the pollen goes down the tube
3. pollen tube grows toward the ovule until it reaches the micropyle
4. the tip of the pollen tube then ruptures, and the nucleus of the pollen fuses
with the egg nucleus, producing a zygote (fertilization).
Seed Structure: The plumule, radical, and cotyledons form the embryo.
1. Testa: non-permeable, softens and ruptures during germination (soaked in
water)
2. Cotyledon: stores food
3. Radicle: grows into root
4. Plumule: grows into shoot This is then covered in the fruit for protection.
Functions:
Testa: tough cover to protect the seed
Cotyledon: stores food to be used by the seed in early stages of germination.
Micropyle: it allows water to enter the seed during germination.
Plumule: grows upwards into a shoot system.
Radical: grows downwards into a root system.
After fertilization:
1. The sepals, petals, stamen, stigma and style dry up and fall
2. The ovule develops into a seed
3. The ovary wall enlarges and becomes the fruit after fertilization has occurred,
the zygote divides many times by mitosis and forms an embryo, which is like a
miniature plant. This embryo has a radicle, plumule, and two special leaves called
cotyledons. The cotyledons then constantly receive food via phloem from the
parent plant. They eventually grow so large that they enclose the rest of the
embryo. The outer wall of the cotyledons then become harder and thicker, to
form the testa. Seed and fruit dispersal by wind and by animals provides means of
colonising new areas.
Fruit formation

Seed/fruit dispersal by animals: some plants, like the burdock, have hooks to
cling to the fur of animals or the feathers of birds, to be carried from one place to
another. Other plants, like the strawberry, have indigestible so that the animal
that eats it will remove it in his stool in another area, where it can germinate.
Seed/fruit dispersal by wind: some plants, like the sycamore, have small fruits
with wing-like structures elongation of ovary wall, to allow it to be carried by wind
across large distances. Other plants, like the poppy, have the remains of their
stigmas still on them, to enable them to glide, while scattering seeds through
pores. Other plants, like the dandelion, have hair that provides a large enough
surface area to glide in air.

Seed germination
The conditions needed for the germination of seeds are:
1. Water, needed to activate the seed’s enzymes, expands the vacuoles of cells so
that roots and shoots grow. Transports food from the cotyledons to growing
regions.
2. Oxygen, used in aerobic respiration to supply the embryo with required energy.
3. Suitable temperature, around 35-40°C, as this is when enzymes are most active.
When a seed is exposed to the proper conditions, water and oxygen are taken in
through the seed coat. The embryo's cells start to enlarge. Then the seed coat
breaks open and a root or radicle emerges first, followed by the shoot or plumule
that contains the leaves and stem.
To compensate for lack of oxygen, germinating seeds adapt anaerobic
respiration. This kind of respiration is conditioned predominantly by the internal
factors of the seed, and thus no external oxygen is needed.

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 HUMAN REPRODUCTION
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Functions
1. Ovaries: Produce ova and female hormones (estrogen), every 28 days an ovum
is released by one of the ovaries
2. Oviducts (fallopian tube): the funnel at the front receives the ovum, and it
contains cilia to push this ovum into the uterus, fertilization occurs in the oviduct.
3. Uterus: This is the site of implantation of a fertilized egg (zygote), and where
the embryo is developed (if fertilization occurs), contracts during birth to push out
fetus.
4. Cervix: secretes mucus to help sperm swim.
Closes lower end of uterus to keep the baby in place while the woman is
pregnant. Dilates and relaxes to pass the baby during birth.
5. Vagina: the organ where copulation takes place. Site of sperm deposition.
Is the way out for the baby at birth.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Testis: Produce sperms, and the male sex hormone (testosterone).

2. Scrotum: it is used to hold the testes outside the body, for a lower
temperature, because higher temperatures affect sperm production.
3. Sperm duct: transports sperm from the production site to the urethra,
contracts in a process like peristalsis to help in ejaculation.
4. Urethra: allows the passage of urine and semen, also contacts to help in
ejaculation.
5. Prostate gland: secretes seminal fluid, which mixes with sperms to make
semen, the seminal fluid consists of mucus (to help swimming of sperms), sugars
(to provide energy for sperms), alkaline materials (to neutralize the acidic
conditions of the urethra (due to remains of urine)).
6. Penis: this is the organ of copulation. It contains erectile tissue, which contains
blood cavities, which get filled up due to stimulation, making the penis erect for
copulation. Sperms are mobile, ejaculated in large groups, and much smaller than
eggs. Eggs are immobile, released once every 28 days, and much larger than
sperms.
 Egg cell Sperm cell

Menstrual Cycle: First, the uterus lining builds up (due to oestrogen), this
oestrogen also stimulates follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) production, which
prevents further ova being produced. Luteinizing hormone (LH) is then produced,
causing the ova to be released into the oviduct (ovulation). It also causes the
forming of a “yellow body”. This yellow body secretes progesterone, which
thickens the lining of the uterus and maintains it. Two weeks after ovulation, the
uterus lining breaks down and menstruation occurs. The cycle is then repeated.
Pregnancy
Sexual Intercourse: the penis becomes erect due to stimulation. This erect penis
is then inserted into the vagina, and is moved, getting stimulated, and semen is
ejaculated. The sperms then swim using their tails towards the ovum. Many
sperms reach the egg, and start producing enzymes to digest its way into the egg.
The sperm leaves its tail outside, and has its nucleus fuse with that of the egg.
This is called the zygote, which further divides, without increasing in total size,
forming a ball of cells which gets implanted in the wall of the uterus.
Fetus formation: after the ball of cells is implanted in the uterus lining, it starts to
grow in size as well as multiply. This embryo keeps growing, and, after about 8
weeks, when all its organs are formed, it is called an embryo. As the embryo is
developing, the uterus enlarges to accommodate it. The embryo becomes
enclosed in the amnion sac (which contains amniotic fluid), which protects it from
damage and prevents unequal pressures on the embryo. The embryo and uterus
both grow villi, and where these villi are close together is known as the placenta.
The placenta prevents high pressure blood from reaching the fetus, and prevents
bacteria (not viruses) from passing through. If the blood groups of the mother and
fetus are different, it prevents their mixing and coagulation. It also allows the
exchange of gases between the fetus and mother (Oxygen from mother’s blood
passes through the placenta to reach the embryo; Carbon dioxide from fetus’s
blood passes out to the mother’s blood). It also allows nutrients like glucose and
amino acids as well as minerals to reach the fetus and removes waste from the
fetal blood, like urea. The umbilical cord connects the placenta and fetus, and the
umbilical arteries carry carbon dioxide to the placenta, and the umbilical veins
carry oxygen to the fetus.
NAME OF THE FUNCTION
ORGAN
PLACENTA 1. Nutrition of the baby by providing him with glucose,
amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins and
minerals.
2. Provides baby with oxygen.
3. Removes carbon dioxide and urea from the baby.
4. Provides a barrier that prevents mixing of mother’s and
fetus blood to prevent:
a. Mixing of different blood groups of mother and
fetus that may cause blood clot.
b. Prevents entry of microorganisms and harmful
substances to fetus.
c. Protects delicate blood vessels of the baby from the
high blood pressure of the mother.
5. Secretes progesterone to prevent uterine contractions
and maintains the thickness of the uterine lining.
6. Transfer antibodies from mother to fetus.
UMBILICAL 1. Joins the fetus to the placenta.
 CORD 2. It contains artery which take away carbon dioxide and
urea from the baby’s blood to the mother’s blood.
3. Contains a vein which deliver oxygen and nutrients from
the mother to the baby.
At birth it is tied and cut.
AMNIOTIC Protects the fetus against:
FLUID 1. Mechanical shock.
2. Drying out.
3. Temperature fluctuations.
4. Allows the fetus to practice movement.
5. Provides a sterile environment for fetus and collect fetal
waste.

Ante-natal care must be taken, including:

1. A healthy diet, with sufficient proteins, carbohydrates, fats and minerals
2. Drugs, smoking and alcohol must be avoided
3. Gentle exercise must be done
Labor/Birth: the uterus contracts. The cervix then becomes soft and dilates. The
amniotic sac then ruptures. The uterine contractions eventually push the baby’s
head out, and the rest of the body slides out. The umbilical cord is then tied and
cut. The placenta is then expelled by the uterine contractions. Cold air stimulates
the baby’s lungs, causing the baby to breath.
During pregnancy, the progesterone is needed in the following ways, (mostly in
conjunction with oestrogen):
 Makes the uterus lining develop and secrete fluids after being primed by
oestrogen
 Maintains the functions of the placenta and fights off unwanted cells near the
womb that could cause damage to the placenta or fetus.
 Keeps the uterus lining in a thickened condition
 Stops the uterus making spontaneous movements
 Stimulates the growth of breast tissue
 Prevents lactation until after the birth (with oestrogen)
 Strengthens the mucus plug covering the cervix to prevent infection.
 Strengthens the pelvic walls in preparation for labour.
 Stops the uterus from contracting (thus keeping the baby where it is)

Methods of birth control

Natural:
1. Abstinence, not having sexual intercourse at all.
2. Rhythm method, avoiding intercourse when the ovum is in the oviduct. You can
tell because there will be a slight rise in temperature, and vaginal mucus becomes
more viscous.
Chemical:
1. Contraceptive pills, these contain oestrogen and progesterone, which prevent
ovulation by the negative feedback effect. It is taken daily for three weeks, and
then stopped for a week to allow mensuration.
2. Spermicides, a creamy substance that kills sperm, applied to the vagina before
the sexual intercourse.
Mechanical:
1. Condoms, sheath of rubber placed on penis during intercourse to prevent
sperms reaching the vagina.
2. Diaphragms, a dome shaped piece of rubber placed over the cervix at the top
of the vagina before intercourse.
3. Femidom, it is like a condom, put for females, and placed inside the vagina
during intercourse.
4. IUD (Intra Uterine Device), prevents implantation as it is put on the uterus
lining.
Surgical:
1. Vasectomy, the sperm ducts are cut and tied in a surgical procedure.
2. Female sterilization, the oviducts are cut and tied, this prevents the sperm from
reaching the ova.

Infertility treatment

Causes of infertility in males Causes of infertility in females

1. Can’t produce sperms 1. Hormonal imbalance.
2. Low count of sperms produced. 2. No ovulation.
3. Sperms can’t swim efficiently. 3. Blockage of the oviduct.
4. Blocked sperm duct.
5. Problems with ejaculation.

Artificial insemination:
This is when fertilization takes place outside the female’s body. First, a mature
ova is taken from the female, and placed in the sperms of the male in certain
apparatus. The sperm fertilize the ova, forming a zygote. The zygote(s) are then
left to divide to form a young embryo (a ball of cells). This embryo is then
implanted into the female’s uterus.
Fertility drugs:
They contain female hormones which stimulate the production of ova by the
ovaries, or, in other cases, the development of the uterus lining. This depends on
the hormone contained in the drug.
Social implications of fertility drugs: it implies that parents are interested in
having offspring that are genetically related to them. It also tends to cause
multiple fertilizations; meaning more than one child is to be born at once.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STI’s): are infections caused by bacteria or
viruses transmitted by body fluids through sexual contact.
Examples:
Gonorrhea: Symptoms/signs: a burning sensation when urinating. The
reproductive organ becomes sore, and discharges a greenish yellow fluid.
Treatment: it can be treated when in early stages using antibiotics. To avoid
gonorrhea, one must use condoms and wash the genitals after intercourse.
AIDS/HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is transferred through the
movement of white blood cells from one person to another. Therefore, it can be
transferred by:
1. Sexual intercourse.
2. Blood transfusion from an infected person.
3. Organ transplant from an infected person.
4. Sharing needles with infected people (usually drug addicts).

To avoid or prevent STI’s from spreading, one should:

1. Safe sex by using a condom.
2. Never inject drugs with used needles.
3. Never share razors or toothbrushes The HIV virus attacks certain types of
lymphocytes, and this weakens the immune system, causing the infected person
to be more vulnerable to disease.
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 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth in terms of a permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in

cell number or cell size or both.
Factors affecting growth are:
1. Genes
2. Nutrition
3. Hormones
Development in terms of increase in complexity, including the specialization of
cells.

Puberty and the role of sex hormones

Female hormones
Name of the hormone Function
Estrogen 1. Thickening of the uterus lining, to be ready
for implantation.
2. Development of the secondary sexual
characteristics in females.
3. Stimulates the release of LH.
Progesterone 1. Keeps the lining of the uterus thickened
ready for implantation and pregnancy.
2. Prevents release of FSH to prevent the
release of more mature ova which ensures
that only one fertilized ovum develops in
the uterus at any one time.
3. Promotes development of mammary
glands.
FSH 1. Stimulates development of graafian follicle
in the ovary around an ovum.
LH 1. Stimulates release of mature ovum from
graafian follicle.
2. Development of the corpus luteum from
remains of follicle.