CHAPTER – 8

How do Organisms Reproduce

– Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new
individuals similar to themselves.
– Reproduction ensured continuity of life on earth.
– Reproduction - A bridge to hereditary transmission.
– It involves continuation of characters from the parents to daughter cells by
Copying of DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules present in the
chromosomes of the cell.
– Copying of DNAs is also not a foolproof exercise, even minute changes bring
about Variation in the blue print of the offsprings.
– The useful variations are retained while the harmful one does not go beyond.
– Actually variations help the species to withstand drastic environmental
changes, thus save the species from becoming extinct and promotes its
survival for a longer time.
– This inbuilt tendency of variation is the "fuel" for Evolution.
REPRODUCTION

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

1. A single parent is involved 1. Both Parents involved
2. Gametes not formed 2. Gametes are formed
3. Progeny is Identical to parent 3. Progeny is only genetically
eg. Fission in Amoeba similar to the parent.

– Asexual Reproduction is extremely useful as a mean of rapid multiplication.

It is common in lower plants and animals.
– Different form of Asexual Reproduction.
1. FISSION : the parent cell divides/splits into two daughter cell-Binary
Fission; splits into many cells-multiple Fission

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2. BUDDING : A new organism is produced as an outgrowth of the parent
body part.

3. Spore Formation : Spores are

small, bulb like structure develops
at the top of the erect hyphae of the
fungus plant, released into the air
and germinate, into new
individuals after landing into food
or soil.

4. FRAGMENTATION : It is the accidental process when the broken pieces

of an organism (fragments) grows into a complete organism.

eg. fragmentation in
spirogyra

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 5. REGENERATION : When the simple animals like Hydra Planaria
develop a new individual from their broken older part it is known as
regeneration. It is carried out by specialised cells which grow large numbers
of cells.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION :
A mode of reproduction in which part like the stem, root, leaves develop into new
plant under favourable conditions.
Benefits
1. Plants can bear flowers, fruits earlier than those produced from seeds.
2. Growing Banana, orange, rose, jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce
seeds.
3. Genetical similarity is maintained in the plants.
eg. Sugarcane, rose, grapes by layering or grafting.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
When reproduction takes place as a result of fusion between two gamets, one from
each parent, it is called sexual reproduction.
– This process of fusion between two gamets is called fertilization.
– The formation of gamets involves exchange of chromosomal (genetic)
fragments between homologous chromosomes causing genetic
recombination which leads to variation.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
It occurs mostly in flowering plants. In fact flowers are the reproductive organ of
plants.

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 FLOWERS

Bisexual Flowers Unisexual Flowers

Both male and female Either male or female
reproductive part i.e., stamen & reproductive part is present.
carpel present. Eg. Papaya, Watermelon
Eg. Hibiscus, mustard

A typical flower consists of four main whorls namely calyx (sepals), Corolla
(Petals), Androecium (Stamens) and Gynoecium (Carpels).

Reproductive Part of Flower

STAMEN CARPEL
(male part (female part)
(2n) Style Stigma
Filament Anther Ovary
(2n)
MEIOSIS Egg cell (ovule) [n]
(n) Pollen grain
(male gamet)
– Pollen grains of a flower transfer to stigma of the carpel of the same flower
(Self-Pollination) or to the carpel of the another flower (Cross-Pollination).
– This transfer of pollens is achieved by agent like wind, water or animals.
– After Pollination, the pollen grains reach to the egg cell in the form of a pollen
tube.

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– Fertilization : The fusion between the pollen grain and female egg cell. It
occurs inside the ovary. Zygote is produced in this process.

– Zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule
develops a tough coat and is converted into a seed.
– Ovary grows rapidly and ripens to forms a fruit, while the seed contains the
future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under suitable
condition. This process is known as Germination.
REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS
– Humans use a Sexual Mode of reproduction.
– It needs sexual maturation which includes creation of the germ cells ie, egg
(ova) in the female and sperm in the male partener & this period of sexual
maturation is called Puberty.
– Human beings have a well developed male and female reproductive system.
– The formation of male germ cell (sperms) takes place in the testes (male
reproducture organ)
– Actually a pair of testes are located inside scrotum situated outside the
abdominal cavity. It is meant to keep relatively a low temperature needed for
the production of sperms by testes.
– Moreover testes release a male sex hormone called testosterone whose
function is to:
1. Regulate the production of sperm
2. Brings about changes in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty.

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– The sperms along with the secretion of prostate gland and seminal vesicle,
together constitute semen, which is released and made to enter into the female
genital tract during Copulation.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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The female germ cells or eggs are made in the ovaries, a pair of which is
located in both side of abdomen.
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When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature eggs.
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At the puberty, some of these Eggs start maturing. One egg is produced every
month by one of the ovaries.
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The Egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a fallopian tube. These
two fallopian tube unite into an elastic bag like structure known as Uterus.
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The Uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
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Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube of female genital tract.
The fertilized egg also called zygote (2n) gets implanted in the lining of the
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Uterus, and start dividing. Actually uterus is richly supplied with blood to
nourish the growing embryo. If zygote is not formed, the inner wall of uterus
breaks which causes bleeding through vagina. This process is called
MENSTRUATION. It occurs at a regular interval of 28 days.
The Embroyo gets nutrition fromthe mother's blood with the help of a special
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tissue called PLACENTA. It provides a large surface area for glucose and
oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo. Similarly the wastes from
developing embryo are removed to mother's blood through placenta.
The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the
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uterus. after Nine months (36 weeks) of development inside mother's womb.
It is also called Gestation Period.

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 The sexual cycle in a woman continues upto the age of 45 to 50 years. After
that the ovary do not release egg. This stage is called Menopause. It a also
marks the end of menstruation in the woman.
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Reproductive Health means a total well-being in all aspects of reproductive,
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ie., physical emotional, social and behavioural.
Contraception : It is the avoidance of pregnancy. It can be achieved by
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Methods of contraception

PHYSICAL SURGICAL CHEMICAL

BARRIER METHOD METHOD

To prevent union of Also called sterilization Oral contraceptive

sperm & egg. in Vasectomy, the vas (OCs) - changes the
Use of condoms, deferens of male is hormonal balance to
Diaphragm & cervical blocked to prevent check the egg release in
caps. sperm transfer. females. OCs cause side
In Tubectomy, the effect.
fallopian tube of female
is blocked to prevent
egg to reach uterus.
Copper-T or loop is
placed in uterus to
prevent pregancy.

Healthy society needs a balanced sex ratio that can be achieved by educating
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the people to avoid malpractices like female foeticide & pre-natal sex
determination.
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STDs)

VIRAL STDs Bacterial STDs

Eg. H.I.V. - AIDS Eg. Syphilis &
Warts Gonorrhoea
STDs are communicated during unsafe sexual contact.

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 EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
1. Where is the DNA present in the cell?
2. What is bisexual/hermaphrodite?
3. Write suitable condition necessary for seed germmration.
4. Write the function of the secretion of seminal vesicle and prostate gland.
5. Name the part of female body in which the egg is fertilized.
6. Name the chemical method to prevent the pregnancy.
2 Marks
7. What is importance of DNA copying in reproduction.
8. Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the
individual?
9. Why is vegetative propagation practised for growing some types of plants?
10. Name any two STDs. What measures can you suggest to prevent them.
11. Distinguish between male & female gamete.
12. Write two important function of testosterone.
13. What is placenta. Also write its two functions?
14. Draw a well labelled diagram of human female reproductive system.
Explain the menstrual cycle of female.
15. Draw a labelled diagram to explain the fertilization in the higher plant.

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