Chapter 11 - Applications & Process. of Metal Alloys

Chapter 11: Applications and
Processing of Metal Alloys
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are metal alloys classified and what are their
common applications?
• What are some of the common fabrication techniques
for metals?
• What heat treatment procedures are used to improve the
mechanical properties of both ferrous and nonferrous alloys?
Chapter 11 - 1
Classification of Metal Alloys
Metal Alloys
Adapted from Fig.

Ferrous Nonferrous 11.1, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C
T(ºC) microstructure: ferrite,

1600 graphite/cementite

1400 L
+L Adapted from Fig. 9.24, Callister &
1200  1148ºC L+Fe3C Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 9.24 adapted from
austenite Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Eutectic: Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief),
1000 4.30
ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
+Fe3C 1990.)
800 727ºC Fe3C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 +Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C Chapter 11 - 2
Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C
heat
Name plain HSLA plain
plain tool stainless
treatable
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304, 409
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ varies
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ varies
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades Very corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 11 - 3
Ferrous Alloys
Iron-based alloys
• Steels
• Cast Irons
Nomenclature for steels (AISI/SAE)

10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (1.00 - 1.65%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.40 - 0.90%), Mo (0.20 - 0.30%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)
where xx is wt% C x 100
example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C
Stainless Steel >11% Cr
Chapter 11 - 4
Cast Irons
• Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
– more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt% C
• Low melting – relatively easy to cast
• Generally brittle
• Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C → 3 Fe () + C (graphite)
– generally a slow process
Chapter 11 - 5
Types of Cast Iron
Adapted from Fig.
11.3(a) & (b),
Gray iron Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
• graphite flakes
• weak & brittle in tension
• stronger in compression
• excellent vibrational dampening
• wear resistant
Ductile iron
• add Mg and/or Ce
• graphite as nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite – stronger
but less ductile
Chapter 11 - 6
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
Adapted from Fig.
11.3(c) & (d),
White iron Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
• < 1 wt% Si
• pearlite + cementite
• very hard and brittle
Malleable iron
• heat treat white iron at 800-900ºC
• graphite in rosettes
• reasonably strong and ductile
Chapter 11 - 7
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
Compacted graphite iron

• relatively high thermal conductivity
• good resistance to thermal shock
• lower oxidation at elevated
temperatures
Adapted from Fig. 11.3(e),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 11 - 8
Chapter 11 - 9
Chapter 11 - 10
Production of Cast Irons
Adapted from Fig.11.5,

Chapter 11 - 11
Limitations of Ferrous Alloys
1) Relatively high densities

2) Relatively low electrical conductivities
3) Generally poor corrosion resistance
Chapter 11 - 12
Thermal Processing of Metals
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):
stresses resulting from: Make very soft steels for
- plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
- nonuniform cooling below Teutectoid & hold for
- phase transform. 15-25 h.
• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
Annealing good forming. Heat
to get , then furnace-cool
to obtain coarse pearlite.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effects of
• Normalize (steels): Deform
cold working by
(recovery/ steel with large grains. Then heat
recrystallization) treat to allow recrystallization
and formation of smaller grains.
Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 11 - 13

Heat Treatment Temperature-Time Paths
a) Full Annealing A
b) Quenching P
c) Tempering
(Tempered
Martensite) A
B
Fig. 10.25,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
b) a)
c)
Chapter 11 - 14
Hardenability -- Steels
• Hardenability – measure of the ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test used to measure hardenability.
Adapted from Fig. 11.11,
flat ground Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
specimen (Fig. 11.11 adapted from
(heated to  A.G. Guy, Essentials of
Materials Science,
phase field) Rockwell C McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York,
24ºC water hardness tests 1978.)
• Plot hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC
Adapted from Fig. 11.12,

Distance from quenched end

Chapter 11 - 15
Reason Why Hardness Changes with
Distance
• The cooling rate decreases with distance from quenched end.
Hardness, HRC
60
40
20 distance from quenched end (in)

0 1 2 3
T(ºC) 0%
600 100%
Adapted from Fig. 11.13, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 11.13 adapted from H.
400 Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal
Transformation and Cooling
M(start) Transformation Diagrams, American
200 Society for Metals, 1977, p. 376.)
A→M
0 M(finish)
0.1 1 10 100 1000

Time (s)
Chapter 11 - 16
Precipitation Hardening
• Particles impede dislocation motion.
• Ex: Al-Cu system 700
T(ºC) L CuAl2
• Procedure:
-- Pt A: solution heat treat
600 +L  +L
A
(get  solid solution) 500 
-- Pt B: quench to room temp. C +
400
(retain  solid solution)
-- Pt C: reheat to nucleate 300
small  particles within 0 B 10 20 30 40 50
(Al) wt% Cu
 phase. composition range
available for precipitation hardening
• Other alloys that precipitation
Adapted from Fig. 11.24, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
harden: Temp. (Fig. 11.24 adapted from J.L. Murray, International
• Cu-Be Pt A (sol’n heat treat) Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985.)
• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al Pt C (precipitate )
Adapted from Fig.

11.22, Callister & Time
Rethwisch 8e. Pt B
Chapter 11 - 17
Summary
• Ferrous alloys: steels and cast irons

• Non-ferrous alloys:
-- Cu, Al, Ti, and Mg alloys; refractory alloys; and noble metals.
• Metal fabrication techniques:
-- forming, casting, miscellaneous.
• Hardenability of metals
-- measure of ability of a steel to be heat treated.
-- increases with alloy content.
• Precipitation hardening
--hardening, strengthening due to formation of
precipitate particles.
--Al, Mg alloys precipitation hardenable.
Chapter 11 - 18
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:
Core Problems:
Self-help Problems:
Chapter 11 - 19

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Chapter 11: Applications and

Processing of Metal Alloys

Adapted from Fig.

T(ºC) microstructure: ferrite,

Nomenclature for steels (AISI/SAE)

• Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

– generally a slow process

Compacted graphite iron

Adapted from Fig.11.5,

1) Relatively high densities

• Full Anneal (steels):

Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 11 - 13

• Plot hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Adapted from Fig. 11.12,

Distance from quenched end

20 distance from quenched end (in)

0.1 1 10 100 1000

Adapted from Fig.

• Ferrous alloys: steels and cast irons

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