Materials Science

Jane Blackford

4 lectures “Metals”

E-mail: [email protected]
Room: S141, Sanderson Building
 Outline
• Introduction
• Strengthening mechanisms
• Classification of metals
ferrous (e.g. steel, cast iron) & non ferrous (e.g. Al, Ni)
• Applications ↔ properties
• Ferrous Metallurgy
bcc ↔ fcc; Fe-C phase diagram
microstructure ↔ properties
effects of %C and heat treatment
• Specific types of steels - tool, stainless, cast iron
• Non-ferrous metals
 Introduction - metals
• Extraction • Physical metallurgy -
metallurgy - how to get the metal
obtaining metals into the most useful
from ores condition of
hardness, strength
and toughness
 Metals are crystalline

• in reality they are not perfect

- they contain dislocations

dislocation
 A pure metal is very soft and weak

• Because dislocations move easily

(plastic deformation)
• Physical metallurgy aims to restrict
movement of dislocations →
↑ strength and hardness

[shorthand ⊥ = dislocation]
 Strengthening mechanisms in metals
• Grain boundaries • These mechanisms
• Solid solution influence the
hardening microstructure which
• Work hardening in turn influences the
material properties
• Precipitation hardening
 Grain boundaries
act as barriers to ⊥ movement
∴ ↓ grain size → ↑strength

Hall Petch σy = σo + k (1/√d)

σy = yield stress
σo and k = material constants
d = grain size
see Callister 7.8
 Solid solution hardening
• lattice strain interactions between
impurity atoms and dislocations
increase strength

• see Callister 7.9

 Work hardening
• Work hardening = strain hardening
(~ cold work)
• plastic deformation → ↑ in ⊥ density
∴ ↑ repulsive ⊥ - ⊥ strain field
interactions
• strength ↑ with ↑ plastic deformation
• example paper clip
• see Callister 7.10
 Precipitation hardening
• Formation of a uniform distribution of
very small particles → ↑ in resistance to
⊥ motion because of lattice strains near
particles
• important in many alloy systems e.g.
tempered martensite, Al alloys
• see Callister 11.7, 11.8
Classification of metal alloys

ferrous non- ferrous

cast iron steels

grey white low alloy high alloy
low medium high
carbon
tool stainless
 Steel
• Advantages • Disadvantages
• Low cost • heavy (high density)
• high strength • poor corrosion
• relatively high resistance
toughness
• weldable
 Applications

see table of properties and

applications on handout
 Ferrous metallurgy
• Definition : Steel = iron with ≤ 1.7 wt % carbon (C)
• Iron is allotropic/polymorphic i.e. has different crystal
structures in the solid state

912°C 1495 ° C 1538 ° C

• bcc ↔ fcc ↔ bcc ↔ liquid
• solubility of carbon in bcc (α) = 0.02 wt %
and in fcc (γ) = 2.1 wt %
• Iron carbon phase diagram (useful for slow cooling
and predicting microstructures).
• See handout and Callister Chapt 9.
• bcc = body centre cubic

• fcc = face centre cubic

• Properties of steels depend on their
microstructure
• Now consider how different microstructures can be
formed by :
1. Slow cooling from γ to room temperature
2. Fast cooling from γ to room temperature
1. slow cooling:
γ (austenite) → α (ferrite) + Fe3C (cementite)
α + Fe3C = pearlite

As ↑ C → ↑ Fe3C →↑ strength ↑ hardness ↓ ductility

Mechanical properties of SLOW cooled carbon steels
1000 elongation 30
UTS
stress elongation %
(MPa)
500 σy

UTS = ultimate tensile

stress 0 0
σy = yield stress 0 0.5 1 % carbon

- relate properties to microstructures

- NB can obtain very different properties by fast cooling
- see Callister Chapt. 10
 Iron-carbon phase diagram

• see handout including constituents, symbols and

description [Callister Chapt. 9]
Formation of pearlite
 Microstructures in 0.4% C ferrite + pearlite
slow cooled steels

0% carbon - pure ferrite

1.4% C ferrite + cementite

 Three-dimensional analogy
Two-dimensional to the morphology of
morphology of pearlite, pearlite, i.e. the cabbage
apparently consisting of represents a single
alternating layers of crystal of pearlite, and the
cementite and ferrite. water in the bucket the
single crystal of ferrite.

from Bhadeshia: http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2001/slides.IB/photo.html

Properties of steels depend on their
microstructure

Now consider how different microstructures

can be formed by :

1. Slow cooling from γ to room temperature

2. Fast cooling from γ to room temperature

 Mechanical properties of RAPIDLY
cooled carbon steels
2000 elongation 30
UTS
stress elongation %
(MPa)
1000 σy

UTS = ultimate tensile

stress 0 0
σy = yield stress 0 0.5 1 % carbon
 Rapidly cooled carbon steels -
martensite
• Fast cooling from γ to room temperature
γ (austenite) → α’ (martensite)
very hard and brittle

Cooling rates required :

critical
• Pure Fe 10 °C/s5 • Fe-0.8%C 200 °C/s cooling
rates
so α’ difficult to achieve in thick sections
and may → component distortion [Callister chpt 10]
Martensite...

• Adding Mo, Mn, Cr, Ni, C decreases the

critical cooling rate required for α’ formation
• Steels containing 2-7% of these elements
=low alloy steels. They have high
hardenability i.e. form α’ readily .
• Also these elements increase strength by
solid solution strengthening
• USES: crankshafts, spanners, high tensile
bolts
Martensite
• But for most uses α’ is too brittle
• So it is tempered by heat treatment at 200-600°C
• α’→ α (ferrite) + Fe3C (as fine particles)
• Fe3C fine particles increase strength by precipitation
hardening
• These steels are known as quench and tempered
steels
 Stainless steel
• Plain carbon steels rust and oxidise if heated
in air
• Adding Cr → Cr2O3 formation, an oxide which
protects the underlying alloy
• Definition:
Fe with >11 wt% Cr = stainless steel
 Classification of stainless steel
Ferritic Austenitic

Martensitic Duplex
 Ferritic stainless steel
• bcc structure
• Typical alloy Fe-15Cr-0.6C, used in quench
and tempered condition
• strengthened by carbide precipitation
• Uses rust-free ball bearings, scalpels, knives
 Austenitic stainless steel
• fcc structure (stabilised by adding Ni)
• Typical alloy Fe-18Cr-8Ni-1Mn-0.1C
• Disadvantage work harden rapidly so more
difficult to shape and machine
• Advantages of ALL fcc metals and alloys
– ↑ toughness
– ↑ ductility
– ↑ creep resistance
 Cast Iron
• Steel can be cast but tends not to be as it’s
technically difficult (due to high melting
temperature), and high cost
• Definition: Fe with >1.7wt% C =cast iron
• Advantages can be sand cast to intricate
shapes using basic technology
• Disadvantage BRITTLE so can’t be used for
high stress or shock loading
 Classification of Cast Iron
• WHITE
– microstructure based on Fe + Fe3C
• GREY
– Silicon (Si) added e.g. Fe-2%Si-C
– Si stabilises the Fe-C system, rather than Fe-Fe3C
– so microstructure based on Fe + C (free graphite)
– the properties of grey cast iron are strongly
dependant on the shape of the graphite flakes:
• flakes
• spheroids - relatively high toughness and ductility; formed by
adding Ce or Mg
 Fe-2.8wt%C-1.8wt%Si (White cast iron)

The cementite makes white cast iron

very hard and abrasion resistant. It is
commonly used for rollers and wear
resistant surfaces. It is brittle and
almost impossible to machine.
Fe 3.4wt%C 2.5wt%Si 0.01wt%P (Low P, high grade cast Iron)
pearlitic grey cast iron

Grey cast irons have good

mechanical properties in
compression, and are
particularly effective in
damping vibration. They are
commonly used for the bases
of heavy machinery for this
reason.

Grey cast irons also have low

cost, good wear resistance and
high fluidity with low
shrinkage during casting.
Fe 3.4wt%C 2.5wt%Si 0.01wt%P 0.03wt%Mg
pearlitic ductile or nodular iron
.

Removing the graphite flakes

improves the tensile
strength, ductility and
toughness.

Typical applications include

gears, valves and camshafts.