CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals

or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the workpieces and
adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become a
strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the
weld. This is in contrast with soldering and brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-
point material between the workpieces to form a bond between them, without melting the
workpieces.

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an
electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process,
welding can be done in many different environments, including open air, under water and in
outer space. Regardless of location, welding remains dangerous, and precautions are taken to
avoid burns, electric shock, eye damage, poisonous fumes, and overexposure to ultraviolet light.

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge welding,
which blacksmiths had used for centuries to join iron and steel by heating and hammering them.
Arc welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to develop late in the century,
and resistance welding followed soon after. Welding technology advanced quickly during the
early 20th century as World War I and World War II drove the demand for reliable and
inexpensive joining methods. Following the wars, several modern welding techniques were
developed, including manual methods like shielded metal arc welding, now one of the most
popular welding methods, as well as semi-automatic and automatic processes such as gas metal
arc welding, submerged arc welding, flux-cored arc welding and electroslag welding.

Developments continued with the invention of laser beam welding, electron beam
welding, electromagnetic pulse welding and friction stir welding in the latter half of the century.
Today, the science continues to advance. Robot welding is commonplace in industrial settings,
and researchers continue to develop new welding methods and gain greater understanding of
weld quality and properties.

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1.1 Early History of Welding

The history of joining metals goes back several millennia, with the earliest examples of
welding from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age in Europe and the Middle East. The ancient
Greek historian Herodotus states in The Histories of the 5th century BC that Glaucus of Chios
was the man who single-handedly invented iron-welding. Welding was used in the construction
of the iron pillar in Delhi, India, erected about 310 AD and weighing 5.4 metric tons.

Fig 1.1

(The iron pillar of Delhi)

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1.2 Beginning of Modern Welding Technology

The Middle Ages brought advances in forge welding, in which blacksmiths pounded
heated metal repeatedly until bonding occurred. In 1540, Vannoccio Biringuccio published De la
pirotechnia, which includes descriptions of the forging operation. Renaissance craftsmen were
skilled in the process, and the industry continued to grow during the following centuries.

In 1802, Russian scientist Vasily Petrov discovered the electric arc and subsequently
proposed its possible practical applications, including welding. In 1881–82 a Russian inventor
Nikolai Benardos created the first electric arc welding method known as carbon arc welding,
using carbon electrodes. The advances in arc welding continued with the invention of metal
electrodes in the late 1800s by a Russian, Nikolai Slavyanov (1888), and an American, C. L.
Coffin (1890). Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger released a coated metal electrode in Britain,
which gave a more stable arc. In 1905 Russian scientist Vladimir Mitkevich proposed the usage
of three-phase electric arc for welding. In 1919, alternating current welding was invented by C. J.
Holslag but did not become popular for another decade.

Resistance welding was also developed during the final decades of the 19th century, with
the first patents going to Elihu Thomson in 1885, who produced further advances over the next
15 years. Thermite welding was invented in 1893, and around that time another process, oxyfuel
welding, became well established. Acetylene was discovered in 1836 by Edmund Davy, but its
use was not practical in welding until about 1900, when a suitable blowtorch was developed. At
first, oxyfuel welding was one of the more popular welding methods due to its portability and
relatively low cost. As the 20th century progressed, however, it fell out of favor for industrial
applications. It was largely replaced with arc welding, as metal coverings (known as flux) for the
electrode that stabilize the arc and shield the base material from impurities continued to be
developed.

World War I caused a major surge in the use of welding processes, with the various
military powers attempting to determine which of the several new welding processes would be
best. The British primarily used arc welding, even constructing a ship, the Fulagar, with an
entirely welded hull. Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during the war as well, as some
German airplane fuselages were constructed using the process. Also noteworthy is the first
welded road bridge in the world, designed by Stefan Bryła of the Warsaw University of
Technology in 1927, and built across the river Słudwia Maurzyce near Łowicz, Poland in 1929.

During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding technology, including the
introduction of automatic welding in 1920, in which electrode wire was fed continuously.
Shielding gas became a subject receiving much attention, as scientists attempted to protect welds
from the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the

Page 3
primary problems, and the solutions that developed included the use of hydrogen, argon, and
helium as welding atmospheres. During the following decade, further advances allowed for the
welding of reactive metals like aluminum and magnesium. This in conjunction with
developments in automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc
welding during the 1930s and then during World War II.

During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. 1930 saw
the release of stud welding, which soon became popular in shipbuilding and construction.
Submerged arc welding was invented the same year and continues to be popular today. In 1932 a
Russian, Konstantin Khrenov successfully implemented the first underwater electric arc welding.
Gas tungsten arc welding, after decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941, and gas
metal arc welding followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non-ferrous materials but
requiring expensive shielding gases. Shielded metal arc welding was developed during the
1950s, using a flux-coated consumable electrode, and it quickly became the most popular metal
arc welding process. In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding process debuted, in which the self-
shielded wire electrode could be used with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly increased
welding speeds, and that same year, plasma arc welding was invented. Electroslag welding was
introduced in 1958, and it was followed by its cousin, electrogas welding, in 1961. In 1953 the
Soviet scientist N. F. Kazakov proposed the diffusion bonding method.

Other recent developments in welding include the 1958 breakthrough of electron beam
welding, making deep and narrow welding possible through the concentrated heat source.
Following the invention of the laser in 1960, laser beam welding debuted several decades later,
and has proved to be especially useful in high-speed, automated welding. Electromagnetic pulse
welding is industrially used since 1967. In 1991 friction stir welding was invented in the UK and
found high-quality applications all over the world. All of these four new processes continue to be
quite expensive due the high cost of the necessary equipment, and this has limited their
applications. [1]

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CHAPTER 2

WELDING PROCESSES
A weld occurs when pieces of metal are joined by causing the interface to melt
and blend prior to solidifying as a uniform metal joint. This process may be caused by heat,
pressure or a combination of both. When heat alone is used the process is called fusion welding.

Pressure welding usually involves heating the surfaces to a plastic state and then
forcing the metal together. The heating can be by electric current of by friction resulting from
moving one surface relative to the other. The methods and equipment used for welding metal are
also associated with cutting metal. There are a large number of welding and allied processes.
Such as,

 Arc welding process

 Resistance welding process
 Solid state welding process
 Gas welding process
 Energy beam welding process

2.1 ARC WELDING PROCESS

These processes use a welding power supply to create and maintain an electric arc
between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. They can use
either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes.
The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as a
shielding gas, and filler material is sometimes used as well.

While examples of forge welding go back to the Bronze Age and the Iron Age,
arc welding did not come into practice until much later. In 1802, Vasily Petrov discovered the
continuous electric arc and subsequently proposed its possible practical applications, including
welding. The French electrical inventor Auguste de Méritens produced the first carbon arc torch,
patented in 1881, which was successfully used for welding lead in the manufacture of lead-acid
batteries. In 1881-1882 a Russian inventor Nikolai Bernardos created the electric arc welding
method for steel known as carbon arc welding, using carbon electrodes. The advances in arc
welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in the late 19th century by a Russian,
Nikolai Slavyanov (1888), and an American, C. L. Coffin. Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger
released in Britain a coated metal electrode which gave a more stable arc. In 1905 Russian
scientist Vladimir Mitkevich proposed the usage of three-phase electric arc for welding. In 1919,

Page 5
Page 6
alternating current welding was invented by C.J. Holslag but did not become popular for another
decade.[2]

To SUPPLY the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number
of different power supplies can be used. The most common classification is constant current
power supplies and constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding, the voltage is directly
related to the length of the arc, and the current is related to the amount of heat input.

Typical currents are 50 to 500 amps, depending on the size of weld required; 100
amps is typical for manual welders. Voltage output is typically 20 to 50 volts during welding,
though some power supplies also include a small high voltage source to aid in initially striking
the arc. The direction of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding.
Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding
generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or negatively. In
welding, the positively charged anode will have a greater heat concentration and, as a result,
changing the polarity of the electrode has an impact on weld properties. If the electrode is
positively charged, it will melt more quickly, increasing weld penetration and welding speed.
Alternatively, a negatively charged electrode results in more shallow welds.

Non-consumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use
either type of direct current (DC), as well as alternating current (AC). With direct current
however, because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a
positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes
deeper welds. Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-
penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every
zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that produce a square
wave pattern instead of the normal sine wave, eliminating low-voltage time after the zero
crossings and minimizing the effects of the problem.

There are further types of Arc Welding that can be classified as, Consumable
electrode methods and second is Non-consumable electrode methods. In this chapter we are
describing the following type of arc welding processes.

 S.M.A.W. (MMA)
 G.M.A.W. (MIG)
 G.T.A.W. (TIG)
 F.C.A.W.
 P.A.W.

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2.1.1 S.M.A.W. (M.M.A.)

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc (MMA)
welding, flux shielded arc welding or informally as stick welding, is a manual arc welding
process that uses a consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld. An electric current, in
the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding power supply, is used to
form an electric arc between the electrode and the metals to be joined. As the weld is laid, the
flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and
providing a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.

Because of the versatility of the process and the simplicity of its equipment and
operation, shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's most popular welding processes. It
dominates other welding processes in the maintenance and repair industry, and though flux-cored
arc welding is growing in popularity, SMAW continues to be used extensively in the
construction of steel structures and in industrial fabrication. The process is used primarily to
weld iron and steels (including stainless steel) but aluminum, nickel and copper alloys can also
be welded with this method.[3]

To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the workpiece
by a very light touch with the electrode to the base metal then is pulled back slightly. This
initiates the arc and thus the melting of the workpiece and the consumable electrode, and causes
droplets of the electrode to be passed from the electrode to the weld pool. As the electrode melts,
the flux covering disintegrates, giving off shielding gases that protect the weld area from oxygen
and other atmospheric gases. In addition, the flux provides molten slag which covers the filler
metal as it travels from the electrode to the weld pool. Once part of the weld pool, the slag floats
to the surface and protects the weld from contamination as it solidifies. Once hardened, it must
be chipped away to reveal the finished weld. As welding progresses and the electrode melts, the
welder must periodically stop welding to remove the remaining electrode stub and insert a new
electrode into the electrode holder. This activity, combined with chipping away the slag, reduce
the amount of time that the welder can spend laying the weld, making SMAW one of the least
efficient welding processes. In general, the operator factor, or the percentage of operator's time
spent laying weld, is approximately 25%.[8]

The actual welding technique utilized depends on the electrode, the composition
of the workpiece, and the position of the joint being welded. The choice of electrode and welding
position also determine the welding speed. Flat welds require the least operator skill, and can be
done with electrodes that melt quickly but solidify slowly. This permits higher welding speeds.
Sloped, vertical or upside-down welding requires more operator skill, and often necessitates the
use of an electrode that solidifies quickly to prevent the molten metal from flowing out of the

Page 8
weld pool. However, this generally means that the electrode melts less quickly, thus increasing
the time required to lay the weld.

Shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's most popular welding processes,
accounting for over half of all welding in some countries. Because of its versatility and
simplicity, it is particularly dominant in the maintenance and repair industry, and is heavily used
in the construction of steel structures and in industrial fabrication. In recent years its use has
declined as flux-cored arc welding has expanded in the construction industry and gas metal arc
welding has become more popular in industrial environments. However, because of the low
equipment cost and wide applicability, the process will likely remain popular, especially among
amateurs and small businesses where specialized welding processes are uneconomical and
unnecessary

SMAW is often used to weld carbon steel, low and high alloy steel, stainless steel, cast
iron, and ductile iron. While less popular for nonferrous materials, it can be used on nickel and
copper and their alloys and, in rare cases, on aluminium. The thickness of the material being
welded is bounded on the low end primarily by the skill of the welder, but rarely does it drop
below 0.05 in (1.5 mm). No upper bound exists: with proper joint preparation and use of multiple
passes, materials of virtually unlimited thicknesses can be joined. Furthermore, depending on the
electrode used and the skill of the welder, SMAW can be used in any position.[4]

Fig 2.1
(Weld area of S.M.A.W.)

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2.1.2 G.M.A.W. (M.I.G.)
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal
inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a semi-automatic or automatic
arc welding process in which a continuous and consumable wire electrode and a shielding gas
are fed through a welding gun. A constant voltage, direct current power source is most
commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as well as alternating current, can be
used. There are four primary methods of metal transfer in GMAW, called globular, short-
circuiting, spray, and pulsed-spray, each of which has distinct properties and corresponding
advantages and limitations.

Originally developed for welding aluminum and other non-ferrous materials in the
1940s, GMAW was soon applied to steels because it allowed for lower welding time compared
to other welding processes. The cost of inert gas limited its use in steels until several years later,
when the use of semi-inert gases such as carbon dioxide became common. Further developments
during the 1950s and 1960s gave the process more versatility and as a result, it became a highly
used industrial process. Today, GMAW is the most common industrial welding process,
preferred for its versatility, speed and the relative ease of adapting the process to robotic
automation. The automobile industry in particular uses GMAW welding almost exclusively.
Unlike welding processes that do not employ a shielding gas, such as shielded metal arc welding,
it is rarely used outdoors or in other areas of air volatility. A related process, flux cored arc
welding, often does not utilize a shielding gas, instead employing a hollow electrode wire that is
filled with flux on the inside.

GMAW is currently one of the most popular welding methods, especially in

industrial environments. It is used extensively by the sheet metal industry and, by extension, the
automobile industry. There, the method is often used for arc spot welding, thereby replacing
riveting or resistance spot welding. It is also popular for automated welding, in which robots
handle the workpieces and the welding gun to speed up the manufacturing process. Generally, it
is unsuitable for welding outdoors, because the movement of the surrounding air can dissipate
the shielding gas and thus make welding more difficult, while also decreasing the quality of the
weld. The problem can be alleviated to some extent by increasing the shielding gas output, but
this can be expensive and may also affect the quality of the weld. In general, processes such as
shielded metal arc welding and flux cored arc welding are preferred for welding outdoors,
making the use of GMAW in the construction industry rather limited. Furthermore, the use of a
shielding gas makes GMAW an unpopular underwater welding process, but can be used in space
since there is no oxygen to oxidize the weld.

The basic TECHNIQUE for GMAW is quite simple, since the electrode is fed
automatically through the torch. By contrast, in gas tungsten arc welding, the welder must handle
a welding torch in one hand and a separate filler wire in the other, and in shielded metal arc
welding, the operator must frequently chip off slag and change welding electrodes. GMAW

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requires only that the operator guide the welding gun with proper position and orientation along
the area being welded. Keeping a consistent contact tip-to-work distance (the stick out distance)
is important, because a long stickout distance can cause the electrode to overheat and will also
waste shielding gas. Stickout distance varies for different GMAW weld processes and
applications. For short-circuit transfer, the stickout is generally 1/4 inch to 1/2 inch, for spray
transfer the stickout is generally 1/2 inch. The position of the end of the contact tip to the gas
nozzle are related to the stickout distance and also varies with transfer type and application. The
orientation of the gun is also important—it should be held so as to bisect the angle between the
workpieces; that is, at 45 degrees for a fillet weld and 90 degrees for welding a flat surface. The
travel angle, or lead angle, is the angle of the torch with respect to the direction of travel, and it
should generally remain approximately vertical. However, the desirable angle changes somewhat
depending on the type of shielding gas used—with pure inert gases, the bottom of the torch is
often slightly in front of the upper section, while the opposite is true when the welding
atmosphere is carbon dioxide.

1. Direction of travel
2. Contact tube
3. Electrode
4. Shielding Gas
5. Molten weld metal
6. Solidified weld metal
7. Workpiece

Fig 2.2
(Weld area of G.M.A.W.)

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 1. Torch handle
2. Threaded metal nut
3. Shielding gas diffuser
4. Contact tip
5. Molten weld metal
6. Nozzle output face

Fig 2.3
(G.M.A.W. torch nozzle cutaway image)

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2.1.3 G.T.A.W. (T.I.G.)
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG)
welding, is an arc welding process that uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode to produce the
weld. The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by a shielding gas (usually an
inert gas such as argon), and a filler metal is normally used, though some welds, known as
autogenous welds, do not require it. A constant-current welding power supply produces energy
which is conducted across the arc through a column of highly ionized gas and metal vapors
known as a plasma.

GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non-
ferrous metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. The process grants the operator
greater control over the weld than competing processes such as shielded metal arc welding and
gas metal arc welding, allowing for stronger, higher quality welds. However, GTAW is
comparatively more complex and difficult to master, and furthermore, it is significantly slower
than most other welding techniques. A related process, plasma arc welding, uses a slightly
different welding torch to create a more focused welding arc and as a result is often automated.
[5]

After the discovery of the electric arc in 1800 by Humphry Davy, arc welding
developed slowly. C. L. Coffin had the idea of welding in an inert gas atmosphere in 1890, but
even in the early 20th century, welding non-ferrous materials like aluminum and magnesium
remained difficult, because these metals reacted rapidly with the air, resulting in porous and
dross-filled welds. Processes using flux-covered electrodes did not satisfactorily protect the weld
area from contamination. To solve the problem, bottled inert gases were used in the beginning of
the 1930s. A few years later, a direct current, gas-shielded welding process emerged in the
aircraft industry for welding magnesium.

This process was perfected in 1941, and became known as heliarc or tungsten
inert gas welding, because it utilized a tungsten electrode and helium as a shielding gas. Initially,
the electrode overheated quickly, and in spite of tungsten's high melting temperature, particles of
tungsten were transferred to the weld. To address this problem, the polarity of the electrode was
changed from positive to negative, but this made it unsuitable for welding many non-ferrous
materials. Finally, the development of alternating current units made it possible to stabilize the
arc and produce high quality aluminum and magnesium welds.[6]

Manual gas tungsten arc welding is often considered the most difficult of all the
welding processes commonly used in industry. Because the welder must maintain a short arc
length, great care and skill are required to prevent contact between the electrode and the
workpiece. Similar to torch welding, GTAW normally requires two hands, since most
applications require that the welder manually feed a filler metal into the weld area with one hand
while manipulating the welding torch in the other. However, some welds combining thin

Page 13
materials (known as autogenous or fusion welds) can be accomplished without filler metal; most
notably edge, corner, and butt joints.

To strike the welding arc, a high frequency generator (similar to a Tesla coil)
provides an electric spark; this spark is a conductive path for the welding current through the
shielding gas and allows the arc to be initiated while the electrode and the workpiece are
separated, typically about 1.5–3 mm (0.06–0.12 in) apart. This high voltage, high frequency
burst can be damaging to some vehicle electrical systems and electronics, because induced
voltages on vehicle wiring can also cause small conductive sparks in the vehicle wiring or within
semiconductor packaging. Vehicle 12V power may conduct across these ionized paths, driven by
the high-current 12V vehicle battery. These currents can be sufficiently destructive as to disable
the vehicle; thus the warning to disconnect the vehicle battery power from both +12 and ground
before using welding equipment on vehicles.

An alternate way to initiate the arc is the "scratch start". Scratching the electrode
against the work with the power on also serves to strike an arc, in the same way as SMAW
("stick") arc welding. However, scratch starting can cause contamination of the weld and
electrode. Some GTAW equipment is capable of a mode called "touch start" or "lift arc"; here
the equipment reduces the voltage on the electrode to only a few volts, with a current limit of one
or two amps (well below the limit that causes metal to transfer and contamination of the weld or
electrode). When the GTAW equipment detects that the electrode has left the surface and a spark
is present, it immediately (within microseconds) increases power, converting the spark to a full
arc.

Fig 2.4
(Weld area of G.M.A.W.)

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 While the aerospace industry is one of the primary users of gas tungsten arc welding, the
process is used in a number of other areas. Many industries use GTAW for welding thin
workpieces, especially nonferrous metals. It is used extensively in the manufacture of space
vehicles, and is also frequently employed to weld small-diameter, thin-wall tubing such as those
used in the bicycle industry. In addition, GTAW is often used to make root or first pass welds for
piping of various sizes. In maintenance and repair work, the process is commonly used to repair
tools and dies, especially components made of aluminum and magnesium. Because the weld
metal is not transferred directly across the electric arc like most open arc welding processes, a
vast assortment of welding filler metal is available to the welding engineer. In fact, no other
welding process permits the welding of so many alloys in so many product configurations. Filler
metal alloys, such as elemental aluminum and chromium, can be lost through the electric arc
from volatilization. This loss does not occur with the GTAW process. Because the resulting
welds have the same chemical integrity as the original base metal or match the base metals more
closely, GTAW welds are highly resistant to corrosion and cracking over long time periods,
GTAW is the welding procedure of choice for critical welding operations like sealing spent
nuclear fuel canisters before burial.
The equipment required for the gas tungsten arc welding operation includes a welding
torch utilizing a non-consumable tungsten electrode, a constant-current welding power supply,
and a shielding gas source.
The electrode used in GTAW is made of tungsten or a tungsten alloy, because tungsten
has the highest melting temperature among pure metals, at 3,422 °C (6,192 °F). As a result, the
electrode is not consumed during welding, though some erosion (called burn-off) can occur.
Electrodes can have either a clean finish or a ground finish—clean finish electrodes have been
chemically cleaned, while ground finish electrodes have been ground to a uniform size and have
a polished surface, making them optimal for heat conduction. The diameter of the electrode can
vary between 0.5 and 6.4 millimetres (0.02 and 0.25 in), and their length can range from 75 to
610 millimetres (3.0 to 24 in).
Filler metals are also used in nearly all applications of GTAW, the major exception being
the welding of thin materials. Filler metals are available with different diameters and are made of
a variety of materials. In most cases, the filler metal in the form of a rod is added to the weld
pool manually, but some applications call for an automatically fed filler metal, which often is
stored on spools or coils.[7]

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2.1.4 F.C.A.W. (Flux-cored arc welding)

Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW or FCA) is a semi-automatic or automatic arc welding

process. FCAW requires a continuously-fed consumable tubular electrode containing a flux and
a constant-voltage or, less commonly, a constant-current welding power supply. An externally
supplied shielding gas is sometimes used, but often the flux itself is relied upon to generate the
necessary protection from the atmosphere. The process is widely used in construction because of
its high welding speed and portability.
FCAW was first developed in the early 1950s as an alternative to shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW). The advantage of FCAW over SMAW is that the use of the stick electrodes
used in SMAW is unnecessary. This helped FCAW to overcome many of the restrictions
associated with SMAW.
One type of FCAW requires no shielding gas. This is made possible by the flux core in
the tubular consumable electrode. However, this core contains more than just flux, it also
contains various ingredients that when exposed to the high temperatures of welding generate a
shielding gas for protecting the arc. This type of FCAW is attractive because it is portable and
generally has good penetration into the base metal. Also, windy conditions need not be
considered. Some disadvantages are that this process can produce excessive, noxious smoke
(making it difficult to see the weld pool); under some conditions it can produce welds with
inferior mechanical properties; the slag is often difficult and time-consuming to remove; and
operator skill can be a major factor.
Another type of FCAW uses a shielding gas that must be supplied by an external supply.
This is known informally as "dual shield" welding. This type of FCAW was developed primarily
for welding structural steels. In fact, since it uses both a flux-cored electrode and an external
shielding gas, one might say that it is a combination of gas metal (GMAW) and flux-cored arc
welding (FCAW). This particular style of FCAW is preferable for welding thicker and out-of-
position metals. The slag created by the flux is also easy to remove. The main advantages of this
process is that in a closed shop environment, it generally produces welds of better and more
consistent mechanical properties, with fewer weld defects than either the SMAW or GMAW
processes. In practice it also allows a higher production rate, since the operator does not need to
stop periodically to fetch a new electrode, as is the case in SMAW. However, like GMAW, it
cannot be used in a windy environment as the loss of the shielding gas from air flow will produce
visible porosity (small craters) on the surface of the weld. [8]

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 Fig 2.5
(A drawing of F.C.A.W. at the weld point)

ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

 FCAW may be an "all-position" process with the right filler metals (the consumable
electrode)
 No shielding gas needed making it suitable for outdoor welding and/or windy conditions
 A high-deposition rate process (speed at which the filler metal is applied) in the 1G/1F/2F
Some "high-speed" (e.g., automotive applications)
 Less precleaning of metal required
 Metallurgical benefits from the flux such as the weld metal being protected initially from
external factors until the flux is chipped away
 Used on the following alloys:
 Mild and low alloy steels
 Stainless steels
 Some high nickel alloys
 Some wear facing/surfacing alloys
DISADVANTAGES

 Melted Contact Tip – happens when the electrode actually contacts the base metal, thereby
fusing the two
 Irregular wire feed – typically a mechanical problem
 Porosity – the gases (specifically those from the flux-core) don’t escape the welded area
before the metal hardens, leaving holes in the welded metal
 More costly filler material/wire as compared to G.M.A.W.

Page 17
2.1.5 P.A.W. (Plasma arc welding)

Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process similar to gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW). The electric arc is formed between an electrode (which is usually but not
always made of sintered tungsten) and the workpiece. The key difference from GTAW is that in
PAW, by positioning the electrode within the body of the torch, the plasma arc can be separated
from the shielding gas envelope. The plasma is then forced through a fine-bore copper nozzle
which constricts the arc and the plasma exits the orifice at high velocities (approaching the speed
of sound) and a temperature approaching 20,000 °C. Plasma arc welding is an advancement over
the GTAW process. This process uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode and an arc
constricted through a fine-bore copper nozzle. PAW can be used to join all metals that are
weldable with GTAW (i.e., most commercial metals and alloys). Several basic PAW process
variations are possible by varying the current, plasma gas flow rate, and the orifice diameter,
including:

 Micro-plasma (< 15 Amperes)

 Melt-in mode (15–400 Amperes)
 Keyhole mode (>100 Amperes)
 Plasma arc welding has a greater energy concentration as compared to GTAW.
 A deep, narrow penetration is achievable, with a maximum depth of 12 to 18 mm (0.47 to
0.71 in) depending on the material.[1]
 Greater arc stability allows a much longer arc length (stand-off), and much greater tolerance
to arc length changes.
 PAW requires relatively expensive and complex equipment as compared to GTAW; proper
torch maintenance is critical
 Welding procedures tend to be more complex and less tolerant to variations in fit-up, etc.
 Operator skill required is slightly greater than for GTAW.
 Orifice replacement is necessary. [9]

GASES

At least two separate (and possibly three) flows of gas are used in PAW:

 Plasma gas – flows through the orifice and becomes ionized

 Shielding gas – flows through the outer nozzle and shields the molten weld from the
atmosphere
 Back-purge and trailing gas – required for certain materials and applications.

These gases can all be same, or of differing composition.

Page 18
 Fig 2.6
(Plasma Arc Welding Layout)

PLASMA ARC CUTTING

When used for cutting, the plasma gas flow is increased so that the deeply penetrating
plasma jet cuts through the material and molten material is removed as cutting dross. PAC differs
from oxy-fuel cutting in that the plasma process operates by using the arc to melt the metal
whereas in the oxy-fuel process, the oxygen oxidizes the metal and the heat from the exothermic
reaction melts the metal. Unlike oxy-fuel cutting, the PAC process can be applied to cutting
metals which form refractory oxides such as stainless steel, cast iron, aluminum, and other non-
ferrous alloys. Since PAC was introduced by Praxair Inc. at the American Welding Society show
in 1954, many process refinements, gas developments, and equipment improvements have
occurred.[10]

Page 19
2.2 RESISTANCE WELDING PROCESS

Electric resistance welding (ERW) refers to a group of welding processes such as spot
and seam welding that produce coalescence of faying surfaces where heat to form the weld is
generated by the electical reistance of material vs the time and the force used to hold the
materials together during welding. Some factors influencing heat or welding temperatures are the
proportions of the workpieces, the coating or the lack of coating, the electrode materials,
electrode geometry, electrode pressing force, weld current and weld time. Small pools of molten
metal are formed at the point of most electrical resistance (the connecting surfaces) as a high
current (100–100,000 A) is passed through the metal. In general, resistance welding methods are
efficient and cause little pollution, but their applications are limited to relatively thin materials
and the equipment cost can be high (although in production situations the cost per weld may be
as low as $0.04 USD per weld depending on application and manufacturing rate).[11]

2.2.1 SPOT WELDING

Spot welding (RSW)[12] is a process in which contacting metal surfaces are joined by
the heat obtained from resistance to electric current flow. Work-pieces are held together under
pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets are in the 0.5 to 3 mm (0.020 to 0.12 in)
thickness range. The process uses two shaped copper alloy electrodes to concentrate welding
current into a small "spot" and to simultaneously clamp the sheets together. Forcing a large
current through the spot will melt the metal and form the weld. The attractive feature of spot
welding is a lot of energy can be delivered to the spot in a very short time (approximately ten
milliseconds).That permits the welding to occur without excessive heating to the rest of the
sheet.

The amount of heat (energy) delivered to the spot is determined by the resistance
between the electrodes and the amplitude and duration of the current. The amount of energy is
chosen to match the sheet's material properties, its thickness, and type of electrodes. Applying
too little energy won't melt the metal or will make a poor weld. Applying too much energy will
melt too much metal, eject molten material, and make a hole rather than a weld. Another
attractive feature of spot welding is the energy delivered to the spot can be controlled to produce
reliable welds.

Projection welding is a modification of spot welding. In this process the weld is

localized by means of raised sections, or projections, on one or both of the workpieces to be
joined. heat is concentrated at the projections, which permits the welding of heavier sections or
the closer spacing of welds. The projections can also serve as a means of positioning the
workpieces. Projection welding is often used to weld studs, nuts, and other screw machine parts

Page 20
to metal plate. It's also frequently used to join crossed wires and bars. This is another high-
production process, and multiple projection welds can be arranged by suitable designing and
jiggings.

Spot welding is typically used when welding particular types of sheet metal. Thicker
stock is more difficult to spot weld because the heat flows into the surrounding metal more
easily. Spot welding can be easily identified on many sheet metal goods, such as metal buckets.
Aluminum alloys can be spot welded, but their much higher thermal conductivity and electrical
conductivity requires higher welding currents. This requires larger, more powerful, and more
expensive welding transformers.

Perhaps the most common application of spot welding is in the automobile

manufacturing industry, where it is used almost universally to weld the sheet metal to form a car.
Spot welders can also be completely automated, and many of the industrial robots found on
assembly lines are spot welders (the other major use for robots being painting). Spot welding is
also used is in the orthodontist's clinic, where small scale spot welding equipment is used when
resizing metal "molar bands" used in orthodontics.

Good design practice must always allow for adequate accessibility. Connecting surfaces
should be free of contaminants, such as scale, oil, and dirt, for quality welds. Metal thickness is
generally not a factor in determining good welds

Fig 2.7
(Spot Welding weld area)

Page 21
 Fig 2.8

(Spot Welding finish weld)

Spot welding involves three stages; the first of which involves the electrodes being
brought to the surface of the metal and applying a slight amount of pressure. The current from
the electrodes is then applied briefly after which the current is removed but the electrodes remain
in place in order for the material to cool. Weld times range from 0.01 sec to 0.63 sec depending
on the thickness of the metal, the electrode force and the diameter of the electrodes themselves.

The equipment used in the spot welding process consists of tool holders and electrodes.
The tool holders function as a mechanism to hold the electrodes firmly in place and also support
optional water hoses which cool the electrodes during welding. Tool holding methods include a
paddle-type, light duty, universal, and regular offset. The electrodes generally are made of a low
resistance alloy, usually copper, and are designed in many different shapes and sizes depending
on the application needed.

The two materials being welded together are known as the workpieces and must conduct
electricity. The width of the workpieces is limited by the throat length of the welding apparatus
and ranges typically from 5 to 50 inches. Workpiece thickness can range from 0.008in. to 1.25in.
After the current is removed from the workpiece, it is cooled via the coolant holes in the center
of the electrodes. Both water and a brine solution may be used as coolants in spot welding
mechanisms.

It is common for a spray of molten metal droplets (sparks) to be ejected from the area of
the weld during the process. While spot welding does not generate UV light as intensely as arc
welding, eye protection is still required. Welding goggles with a 5.0 shade are recommended.
[13]

Page 22
2.2.2 SEAM WELDING
Resistance seam welding is a process that produces a weld at the faying surfaces of two
similar metals. The seam may be a butt joint or an overlap joint and is usually an automated
process. It differs from butt welding in that butt welding typically welds the entire joint at once
and seam welding forms the weld progressively, starting at one end. Like spot welding, seam
welding relies on two electrodes, usually made from copper, to apply pressure and current. The
electrodes are disc shaped and rotate as the material passes between them. This allows the
electrodes to stay in constant contact with the material to make long continuous welds. The
electrodes may also move or assist the movement of the material.

A transformer supplies energy to the weld joint in the form of low voltage, high current
AC power. The joint of the work piece has high electrical resistance relative to the rest of the
circuit and is heated to its melting point by the current. The semi-molten surfaces are pressed
together by the welding pressure that creates a fusion bond, resulting in a uniformly welded
structure. Most seam welders use water cooling through the electrode, transformer and controller
assemblies due to the heat generated. Seam welding produces an extremely durable weld because
the joint is forged due to the heat and pressure applied. A properly welded joint formed by
resistance welding is typically stronger than the material from which it is formed.[14]

A common use of seam welding is during the manufacture of round or rectangular steel
tubing. Seam welding has been used to manufacture steel beverage cans but is no longer used for
this as modern beverage cans are seamless aluminum.

Fig 2.9

(Layout of Seam Welding)

Page 23
2.3 SOLID STATE WELDING PROCESS

Like the first welding process, forge welding, some modern welding methods do not
involve the melting of the materials being joined. One of the most popular, ultrasonic welding, is
used to connect thin sheets or wires made of metal or thermoplastic by vibrating them at high
frequency and under high pressure. The equipment and methods involved are similar to that of
resistance welding, but instead of electric current, vibration provides energy input. Welding
metals with this process does not involve melting the materials; instead, the weld is formed by
introducing mechanical vibrations horizontally under pressure. When welding plastics, the
materials should have similar melting temperatures, and the vibrations are introduced vertically.
Ultrasonic welding is commonly used for making electrical connections out of aluminum or
copper, and it is also a very common polymer welding process.

Another common process, explosion welding, involves the joining of materials by

pushing them together under extremely high pressure. The energy from the impact plasticizes the
materials, forming a weld, even though only a limited amount of heat is generated. The process
is commonly used for welding dissimilar materials, such as the welding of aluminum with steel
in ship hulls or compound plates. Other solid-state welding processes include friction welding
(including friction stir welding), electromagnetic pulse welding, co-extrusion welding, cold
welding, diffusion welding, exothermic welding, high frequency welding, hot pressure welding,
induction welding, and roll welding.[15]

2.3.1 ULTRASONIC WELDING

Ultrasonic welding is an industrial technique whereby high-frequency ultrasonic

acoustic vibrations are locally applied to workpieces being held together under pressure to create
a solid-state weld. It is commonly used for plastics, and especially for joining dissimilar
materials. In ultrasonic welding, there are no connective bolts, nails, soldering materials, or
adhesives necessary to bind the materials together.

For joining complex injection molded thermoplastic parts, ultrasonic welding equipment
can be easily customized to fit the exact specifications of the parts being welded. The parts are
sandwiched between a fixed shaped nest (anvil) and a sonotrode (horn) connected to a
transducer, and a ~20 kHz low-amplitude acoustic vibration is emitted. (Note: Common
frequencies used in ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics are 15 kHz, 20 kHz, 30 kHz, 35 kHz, 40
kHz and 70 kHz). When welding plastics, the interface of the two parts is specially designed to
concentrate the melting process. One of the materials usually has a spiked energy director which

Page 24
contacts the second plastic part. The ultrasonic energy melts the point contact between the parts,
creating a joint. This process is a good automated alternative to glue, screws or snap-fit designs.
It is typically used with small parts (e.g. cell phones, consumer electronics, disposable medical
tools, toys, etc.) but it can be used on parts as large as a small automotive instrument cluster.
Ultrasonics can also be used to weld metals, but are typically limited to small welds of thin,
malleable metals, e.g. aluminum, copper, nickel. Ultrasonics would not be used in welding the
chassis of an automobile or in welding pieces of a bicycle together, due to the power levels
required.

Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics causes local melting of the plastic due to

absorption of vibration energy. The vibrations are introduced across the joint to be welded. In
metals, Ultrasonic welding occurs due to high-pressure dispersion of surface oxides and local
motion of the materials. Although there is heating, it is not enough to melt the base materials.
Vibrations are introduced along the joint being welded.[16]

Fig 2.9

(Layout of Ultrasonic Welding)

Page 25
 Practical application of ultrasonic welding for rigid plastics was completed in the 1960s.
At this point only hard plastics could be welded. The patent for the ultrasonic method for
welding rigid thermoplastic parts was awarded to Robert Soloff and Seymour Linsley in 1965.[1]
Soloff, the founder of Sonics & Materials Inc., was a lab manager at Branson Instruments where
thin plastic films were welded into bags and tubes using ultrasonic probes. He unintentionally
moved the probe close to a plastic tape dispenser and the halves of the dispenser welded
together. He realized that the probe did not need to be manually moved around the part but that
the ultrasonic energy could travel through and around rigid plastics and weld an entire joint.[1]
He went on to develop the first ultrasonic press. The first application of this new technology was
in the toy industry.

The first car made entirely out of plastic was assembled using ultrasonic welding in
1969. Even though plastic cars did not catch on ultrasonic welding did. The automotive industry
has used it regularly since the 1980s.bIt is now used for a multitude of applications.[17]

Ultrasonic welding can be used for both hard and soft plastics, such as semicrystalline
plastics, and metals. Ultrasonic welding machines also have much more power now. The
understanding of ultrasonic welding has increased with research and testing. The invention of
more sophisticated and inexpensive equipment and increased demand for plastic and electronic
components has led to a growing knowledge of the fundamental process.[2] However, many
aspects of ultrasonic welding still require more study, such as relating weld quality to process
parameters. Ultrasonic welding continues to be a rapidly developing field.

Benefits of Ultrasonic welding are that it is much faster than conventional adhesives or
solvents. Drying time is very quick, the pieces do not need to remain in a jig for long periods of
time waiting for the joint to dry or cure. The welding can easily be automated also, making clean
and precise joints. Site of the weld is also very clean not needing any touch up to material and
bond.[18]

Page 26
2.3.2 EXPLOSION WELDING

Explosion welding (EXW) is a solid state process where welding is accomplished by

accelerating one of the components at extremely high velocity through the use of chemical
explosives. This process is most commonly utilized to clad carbon steel plate with a thin layer of
corrosion resistant material (e.g., stainless steel, nickel alloy, titanium, or zirconium). Due to the
nature of this process, producible geometries are very limited. They must be simple. Typical
geometries produced include plates and tubing.

Unlike other forms of welding such as arc welding (which was developed in the early
19th century), explosion welding was developed relatively recently, in the decades after World
War II. Its origins, however, go back to World War I, when it was observed that pieces of
shrapnel sticking to armor plating were not only embedding themselves, but were actually being
welded to the metal. Since the extreme heat involved in other forms of welding did not play a
role, it was concluded that the phenomenon was caused by the explosive forces acting on the
shrapnel. These results were later duplicated in laboratory tests and, not long afterwards, the
process was patented and put to use.

In 1962, DuPont applied for a patent on the explosion welding process, which was
granted in 1964 and resulted in the use of the Detaclad trademark to describe the process. On
July 22, 1996, Dynamic Materials Corporation completed the acquisition of DuPont's Detaclad
operations for a purchase price of $5,321,850. [19]

Explosion welding can produce a bond between two metals that cannot necessarily be
welded by conventional means. The process does not melt either metal, instead it plasticizes the
surfaces of both metals, causing them to come into intimate contact sufficient to create a weld.
This is a similar principle to other non-fusion welding techniques, such as friction welding.
Large areas can be bonded extremely quickly and the weld itself is very clean, due to the fact
that the surface material of both metals is violently expelled during the reaction.

A major disadvantage of this method is that an expansive knowledge of explosives is

needed before the procedure may be attempted. Explosion welding is therefore far less
commonly used than fusion welding alternatives.

Page 27
 Fig
2.10

(Overview of Explosion Welding)

2.4 OXY-FUEL WELDING & CUTTING

Page 28
 Oxy-fuel welding (commonly called oxyacetylene welding, oxy welding, or gas welding
in the Pakistan) and oxy-fuel cutting are processes that use fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut
metals, respectively. French engineers Edmond Fouché and Charles Picard became the first to
develop oxygen-acetylene welding in 1903.[20] Pure oxygen, instead of air (20% oxygen/80%
nitrogen), is used to increase the flame temperature to allow localized melting of the workpiece
material (e.g. steel) in a room environment. A common propane/air flame burns at about 3,630
°F (2,000 °C), a propane/oxygen flame burns at about 4,530 °F (2,500 °C), and an
acetylene/oxygen flame burns at about 6,330 °F (3,500 °C).

Oxy-fuel is one of the oldest welding processes, though in recent years it has become less
popular in industrial applications. However, it is still widely used for welding pipes and tubes, as
well as repair work. It is also frequently well-suited, and favored, for fabricating some types of
metal-based artwork.

In oxy-fuel welding, a welding torch is used to weld metals. Welding metal results when
two pieces are heated to a temperature that produces a shared pool of molten metal. The molten
pool is generally supplied with additional metal called filler. Filler material depends upon the
metals to be welded.

In oxy-fuel cutting, a cutting torch is used to heat metal to kindling temperature. A stream
of oxygen is then trained on the metal, and metal burns in that oxygen and then flows out of the
cut (kerf) as an oxide slag.

Torches that do not mix fuel with oxygen (combining, instead, atmospheric air) are not
considered oxy-fuel torches and can typically be identified by a single tank (Oxy-fuel
welding/cutting generally requires two tanks, fuel and oxygen). Most metals cannot be melted
with a single-tank torch. As such, single-tank torches are typically used only for soldering and
brazing, rather than welding.[21]

FUELS

Oxy-fuel processes may use a variety of fuel gases, the most common being acetylene.
Other gases that may be used are propylene, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), propane, natural gas,
hydrogen, and MAPP gas. Many brands use different kinds of gases in their mixes.

Here we are describing only the famous Gas acetylene which is mostly used in Pakistan.

ACETYLENE

is the primary fuel for oxy-fuel welding and is the fuel of choice for repair work and
general cutting and welding. Acetylene gas is shipped in special cylinders designed to keep the

Page 29
gas dissolved. The cylinders are packed with porous materials (e.g. kapok fibre, diatomaceous
earth, or (formerly) asbestos), then filled to around 50% capacity with acetone, as acetylene is
acetone soluble. This method is necessary because above 207 kPa (30 lbf/in²) (absolute pressure)
acetylene is unstable and may explode.

There is about 1700 kPa (250 psi) pressure in the tank when full. Acetylene when
combined with oxygen burns at a temperature of 3200 °C to 3500 °C (5800 °F to 6300 °F),
highest among commonly used gaseous fuels. As a fuel acetylene's primary disadvantage, in
comparison to other fuels, is high cost.

As acetylene is unstable at a pressure roughly equivalent to 33 feet/10 meters underwater,

water submerged cutting and welding is reserved for hydrogen rather than acetylene.[22]

THE ROLE OF OXYGEN

Oxygen is not the fuel. It is what chemically combines with the fuel to produce the heat
for welding. This is called 'oxidation', but the more specific and more commonly used term in
this context is 'combustion'. In the case of hydrogen, the product of combustion is simply water.
For the other hydrocarbon fuels, water and carbon dioxide are produced. The heat is released
because the molecules of the products of combustion have a lower energy state than the
molecules of the fuel and oxygen. In oxy-fuel cutting, oxidation of the metal being cut (typically
iron) produces nearly all of the heat required to "burn" through the workpiece.

The word "oxygen" is often shortened to 'oxy', as in the term 'oxy-acetylene torch'.

Oxygen is usually produced elsewhere by distillation of liquified air and shipped to the
welding site in high pressure vessels (commonly called "tanks" or "cylinders") at a pressure of
about 21,000 kPa (3,000 lbf/in² = 200 atmospheres). It is also shipped as a liquid in Dewar type
vessels (like a large Thermos jar) to places that use large amounts of oxygen.

It is also possible to separate oxygen from air by passing the air, while under pressure,
through a zeolite sieve which selectively absorbs the nitrogen and lets the oxygen (and argon)
pass. This gives a purity of oxygen of about 93%. This works well for brazing.

Page 30
 Fig 2.11

(Overview of Oxy-fuel Welding Station )

Page 31
WELDING

The flame is applied to the base metal and held until a small puddle of molten metal is
formed. The puddle is moved along the path where the weld bead is desired. Usually, more metal
is added to the puddle as it is moved along by means of dipping metal from a welding rod or
filler rod into the molten metal puddle. The metal puddle will travel towards where the metal is
the hottest. This is accomplished through torch manipulation by the welder.

The amount of heat applied to the metal is a function of the welding tip size, the speed of
travel, and the welding position. The flame size is determined by the welding tip size. The proper
tip size is determined by the metal thickness and the joint design.

Welding gas pressures using oxy-acetylene are set in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations. The welder will modify the speed of welding travel to maintain a uniform
bead width. Uniformity is a quality attribute indicating good workmanship. Trained welders are
taught to keep the bead the same size at the beginning of the weld as at the end. If the bead gets
too wide, the welder increases the speed of welding travel. If the bead gets too narrow or if the
weld puddle is lost, the welder slows down the speed of travel. Welding in the vertical or
overhead positions is typically slower than welding in the flat or horizontal positions.

The welder must add the filler rod to the molten puddle. The welder must also keep the
filler metal in the hot outer flame zone when not adding it to the puddle to protect filler metal
from oxidation. Do not let the welding flame burn off the filler metal. The metal will not wet into
the base metal and will look like a series of cold dots on the base metal. There is very little
strength in a cold weld. When the filler metal is properly added to the molten puddle, the
resulting weld will be stronger than the original base metal.

Fig 2.12

(Oxy-fuel Welding Torch)

Page 32
 Fig 2.13

(Fuel Rich Butane Torch Flame)

(Suitable for welding)

CUTTING

For cutting, the set-up is a little different. A cutting torch has a 60- or 90-degree angled
head with orifices placed around a central jet. The outer jets are for preheat flames of oxygen and
acetylene. The central jet carries only oxygen for cutting. The use of a number of preheating
flames, rather than a single flame makes it possible to change the direction of the cut as desired
without changing the position of the nozzle or the angle which the torch makes with the direction
of the cut, as well as giving a better preheat balance [2]. Manufacturers have developed custom
tips for Mapp, propane, and polypropylene gases to optimize the flames from these alternate fuel
gases. The flame is not intended to melt the metal, but to bring it to its ignition temperature.

The torch's trigger blows extra oxygen at higher pressures down the torch's third tube out
of the central jet into the workpiece, causing the metal to burn and blowing the resulting molten
oxide through to the other side. The ideal kerf is a narrow gap with a sharp edge on either side of
the workpiece; overheating the workpiece and thus melting through it causes a rounded edge.

Cutting is initiated by heating the edge or leading face (as in cutting shapes such as round
rod) of the steel to the ignition temperature (approximately bright cherry red heat) using the pre-
heat jets only, then using the separate cutting oxygen valve to release the oxygen from the central
jet [23]. The oxygen chemically combines with the iron in the ferrous material to instantly
oxidize the iron into molten iron oxide, producing the cut. Initiating a cut in the middle of a
workpiece is known as piercing.

Page 33
 Fig 2.14

(Oxy-fuel Cutting Torch)

Fig 2.15

(Oxy-fuel Cutting Torch)

Oxyacetylene welding/cutting is not difficult, but there are a good number of subtle
safety points that should be learned such as:

 Acetylene is dangerous above 15 psi pressure. It is unstable and explosively decomposes.

 Proper ventilation when welding will help to avoid large chemical exposure.
 Proper protection such as welding goggles should be worn at all times.
 Fuel gases that are denser than air, may collect in low areas if allowed to escape.
 When using fuel and oxygen tanks they should be fastened securely upright to a wall or a
post or a portable cart.
 Flashback is the condition of the flame propagating down the hoses of an oxy-fuel
welding and cutting system. To prevent such a situation a flashback arrestor is usually
employed.

Page 34
2.4 ENERGY BEAM WELDING

Energy beam welding of Electron beam welding (EBW) is a fusion welding process in
which a beam of high-velocity electrons is applied to the materials being joined. The workpieces
melt as the kinetic energy of the electrons is transformed into heat upon impact, and the filler
metal, if used, also melts to form part of the weld. The welding is often done in conditions of a
vacuum to prevent dispersion of the electron beam. German physicist Karl-Heinz Steigerwald,
who was at the time working on various electron beam applications, perceived and developed the
first practical electron beam welding machine which began operation in 1958.

As the electrons strike the workpiece, their energy is converted into heat, instantly
vaporizing the metal under temperatures near 25,000 °C. The heat penetrates deeply, making it
possible to weld much thicker workpieces than is possible with most other welding processes.
However, because the electron beam is tightly focused, the total heat input is actually much
lower than that of any arc welding process. As a result, the effect of welding on the surrounding
material is minimal, and the heat-affected zone is small. Distortion is slight, and the workpiece
cools rapidly, and while normally an advantage, this can lead to cracking in high-carbon steel.
Almost all metals can be welded by the process, but the most commonly welded are stainless
steels, superalloys, and reactive and refractory metals. The process is also widely used to
perform welds of a variety of dissimilar metals combinations. However, attempting to weld plain
carbon steel in a vacuum causes the metal to emit gases as it melts, so deoxidizers must be used
to prevent weld porosity. Electron Beam Welding is a very similar process to laser beam
welding, except that electrons are focused instead of photons in the case of lasers. The advantage
of using an electron beam is that the beam does not have a tendency to diverge as laser beams do
when they contact the workpiece. Some of the uses of EB welding include making aerospace and
automotive parts, as well as semiconductor parts and even jewelry. [24]

The amount of heat input, and thus the penetration, depends on several variables, most
notably the number and speed of electrons impacting the workpiece, the diameter of the electron
beam, and the travel speed. Greater beam current causes an increase in heat input and
penetration, while higher travel speed decreases the amount of heat input and reduces
penetration. The diameter of the beam can be varied by moving the focal point with respect to
the workpiece—focusing the beam below the surface increases the penetration, while placing the
focal point above the surface increases the width of the weld.

Page 35
 Fig 2.16

(Layout of Energy Beam Welding)

The three primary methods of EBW are each applied in different welding environments,

VACUUM WELDING

The method first developed requires that the welding chamber be at a hard vacuum.
Material as thick as 15 cm (6 in) can be welded, and the distance between the welding gun and
workpiece (the stand-off distance) can be as great as 0.7 m (30 in). While the most efficient of
the three modes, disadvantages include the amount of time required to properly evacuate the
chamber and the cost of the entire machine.

Page 36
LOW PRESSURE WELDING

As electron beam gun technology advanced, it became possible to perform EBW in a soft
vacuum, under pressure of 0.1 torr. This allows for larger welding chambers and reduces the time
and equipment required to attain evacuate the chamber, but reduces the maximum stand-off
distance by half and decreases the maximum material thickness to 5 cm (2 in).

IN-AIR WELDING

The third EBW mode is called nonvacuum or out-of-vacuum EBW, since it is performed
at atmospheric pressure. The stand-off distance must be diminished to 4 cm (1.5 in), and the
maximum material thickness is about 5 cm (2 in). However, it allows for workpieces of any size
to be welded, since the size of the welding chamber is no longer a factor.[2] A schematic
drawing may be helpful.

Page 37
CHAPTER 3

WELDING JOINTS

Page 38