Unit 3: Kinship, Marriage and Family

1. Kinship
2. Dimensions
3. Significance of Kinship
4. Kinship Groups

5. Family
6. Types of Family
7. Function
8. Significance
9. Indian Joint Family
10.Changing patterns of family

11.Marriage
12.Types of Marriage
13.Function
14.Significance
15.Rules of Marriage
16.Changing patterns of marriage

Meaning and Definition of Kinship

Kinship is the most universal and basic of all human relationships and is based on ties of blood,
marriage, or adoption.

According to the anthropologist George Peter Murdock:

“Kinship is a structured system of relationships in which kins are bound to one another by
complex interlocking ties.”

‘Kinship encompasses the norms, roles, institutions and cognitive processes referring to all the
social relationships that people are born into, or create later in life, and that are expressed
through, but not limited to a biological idiom.’– Laurent Dousset

Claude Levi Strauss- “Kinship and its related notions are at the same time prior and exterior to
biological relations to which we tend to reduce them”.
• L.H. Morgan defines kin terms are, “reflected the forms of marriage and the related makeup of
the family (system of consanguinity and affinity of woman family 1871).

• A.R. Radcliffe- Brown (1952) agreed that “Kinship terms are like signposts to interpersonal
conducts or etiquette, with the implication of appropriate reciprocal right, duties privileges and
obligations.

• MacLennan Writes that kinship terms are merely forms of solution and was not related to
actual blood ties at all.

• J. Beattie, “Kinship is not set of genealogical relationships; it is set of social relationships”.

Types

Most social scientists agree that kinship is based on two broad areas: birth and marriage; others
say a third category of kinship involves social ties. These two types of kinship are:

1. Consanguineal:

This kinship is based on blood—or birth: the relationship between parents and children as
well as siblings. Siblings are the children of the same parents. The bond between parents
and their children and that between siblings is consanguineous kinship. This is the most
basic and universal type of kinship. Also known as a primary kinship, it involves people
who are directly related.

Thus, son, brother, sister, uncle (chacha), elder uncle (taoo), nephew and cousin are
consanguineous kin. i.e., related through blood. In this connection it may be pointed out
that blood relationship may be actual as well as supposed.

Among polyandrous tribes the actual father of a child is unknown. An adopted child is
treated as if it were one’s own biologically produced child. Thus, blood relationship may
be established not only on biological basis but also on the basis of social recognition.
 2. Affinal:

This kinship is based on marriage. The relationship between husband and wife is also
considered a basic form of kinship.

When a person marries, he establishes relationship not only with the girl whom he
marries but also with a number of other people in the girl’s family. Moreover, it is not
only the person marrying who gets bound to the family members of the girl but his family
members also get bound to the family members of the girl.

Thus, a host of relations are created as soon as a marriage takes place. For example, after
marriage a person becomes not only a husband, but he also becomes brother-in-law and
son-in- law. Here it may be noted that in English language a number of relations created
by marriage are referred by the same term. Thus, the same term ‘brother-in-law is used
for bahnoi, sala, jija and sadahu. On marriage a person also becomes foofa, nandoi and
mausa.

Likewise a girl on marriage becomes not only a wife but also becomes daughter-in-law,
she also becomes chachi, bhabhi, devrani, jethani, mami etc. Thus, marriage creates a
host of relationships which are called affinal kin.

Degree of Kinship:

Any relationship between two individuals is based on the degree of closeness or distance of that
relationship. This closeness or distance of any relationship depends upon how individuals are
related to each other. Kinship basically has three degrees, which can be explained in the
following ways (Figure 3):
 1. Primary Kinship:
Primary kinship refers to direct relations. People who are directly related to each other are known
as primary kin. There are basically eight primary kins—wife father son, father daughter mother
son, wife; father son, father daughter, mother son, mother daughter; brother sister; and younger
brother/sister older brother/sister. Primary kinship is of two kinds:

a- Primary Consanguineal Kinship:

Primary consanguineal kin are those kin, who are directly related to each other by birth. The
relationships between parents and children and between siblings form primary kinship. These are
the only primary consanguineal kin found in societies all over the world.

b- Primary Affinal Kinship:

Primary affinal kinship refers, to the direct relationship formed as a result of marriage. The only
direct affinal kinship is the relationship between husband and wife.

2. Secondary Kinship:
Secondary kinship refers to the primary kin’s of primary kin. In other words, those who are
directly related to primary kin (primary kin’s primary kin) become one’s secondary kin. My
father is my primary kin and his brother is my secondary kin. Similarly, sister is my primary kin
but her husband is my secondary kin. There are 33 such secondary kin.

Secondary kinship is also of two kinds:

 a- Secondary Consanguineal kinship:
This type of kinship refers to the primary consanguineal kin’s primary consanguineal kin. The
most basic type of secondary consanguineal kinship is the relationship between grandparents and
grandchildren. In the Figure 3, there is a direct consanguineal relationship between Ego and his
parents. For Ego, his parents are his primary consanguineal kin. However, for Ego’s parents,
their parents are their primary consanguineal kin. Therefore, for Ego, his grandparents are his
primary consanguineal kin’s (his parents) primary kin. For him, they become secondary
consanguineal kin.

b- Secondary Affinal Kinship:

Secondary affinal kinship refers to one’s primary affinal kins primary kin. This kinship includes
the relationships between an individual and all his/her sisters-in-law, brothers-in-law, and
parents-in-law. For an individual, his/her spouse is his/her primary affinal kin, and for the
spouse, his/her parents and siblings are his/her primary kin. Therefore, for the individual, the
parents of brother/sister-in-law will become his/her secondary affinal kin. Similarly, any
sibling’s spouse or sibling’s parents-in-law will become secondary affinal kin for an individual.

3. Tertiary Kinship:
Tertiary kinship refers to the primary kin of primary kin’s primary kin or secondary kin of
primary kin primary kin of secondary kin. Thus the wife of brother-in-law(sala)called sarhaj in
Hindi is tertiary kin because brother-in- law is my secondary kin and his wife is the primary kin
of brother-in-law. Similarly the brother-in-law of my brother is my tertiary kin because the
brother is my primary kin and his brother-in-law is the secondary kin of my brother. Roughly
151 tertiary kin have been identified. Tertiary kinship also has two categories:

a- Tertiary Consanguineal Kinship:

Tertiary consanguineal kinship refers to an individual’s primary consanguineal kin (parents),
their primary kin (parents’ parents), and their primary kin (parent’s parent’s parents). Thus, the
relationship is between great grandchildren and great grandparents, and great grand aunts and
uncles, and consequently the relationship between great grand uncles and aunts and great grand
nieces and nephews.
In Figure 3, Ego’s primary kin are his parents, their primary kin are his grandparents and his
grandparent’s primary kin (who are Ego’s primary kin’s primary kin’s primary kin) are his great
grandparents. Thus, tertiary kin are primary kin’s primary kin’s primary kin.

This relationship can be seen in different ways – Ego’s tertiary kin are his primary kin’s (parents)
secondary kin (father’s grandparents), thus showing that tertiary kin are primary kin’s secondary
kin. Another way of looking at this same relationship is by showing that Ego’s tertiary kin are his
secondary consanguineal kin’s (his grandparents) primary kin (grandfather’s parents), which
proves that tertiary kin can be secondary kin’s primary kin.

b- Tertiary Affinal Kinship:

Tertiary affinal kinship refers to primary affinal kin’s primary kin’s primary kin, or secondary
affinal kin’s primary kin, or primary affinal kin’s secondary kin. These relationships are many,
and some examples will suffice at this stage of tertiary affinal kin can be spouse’s grandparents,
or grand uncles and aunts, or they can be brother or sister-in-law’s spouses or their children.

Kinship Usages and Behaviour

Kinship usage refers to the pattern of behavior between kins in society. It establishes what
constitutes proper and acceptable role relationships. As a result, it regulates social life. Some
examples of kinship usages are relations of avoidance and joking, teknonymy, avunculate,
amitate, couvades.

1. Avoidance : It is a type of usage through which some restrictions are imposed on close
interaction of certain kinsmen. Among the Hindus, as a result of such restrictions, certain
relatives avoid talking to each other directly, avoid physical contact and maintain
minimum social interaction with each other and so on. Some of the kins covered by such
restrictions among the Hindus are parent-in-law and daughter-in-law ,mother-in-law and
son-in-law, husband’s elder brother and younger brother’s wife etc.
2. Joking relationship: It is just the opposite of avoidance. The relatives are free to crack
jokes at each other’s expense, tense each other and make fun of each other under this
 form of behavior. The relatives under this category are expected to not take offence or to
mind each other’s conduct. Joking relationship is generally between a man and his wife’s
younger sister or between a woman and her husband’s younger brother.
3. Teknonymy: When the two kinsmen do not address each other directly rather through a
third person or a symbol, the usage is known as teknonymy. For example, women
generally do not utter the names of their husbands or elderly in-laws. Women refer to
their husbands as father of her child.
4. Avunculate : It is kind of behavior or usage which gives the maternal uncle an important
status so far as his sister’s children are concerned. The maternal uncle is considered more
important than even the father. The maternal uncle transfers his property to his nephew
(i.e. the sister’s son). The nephew works for him rather than his own father. Sometimes
the sister’s children are brought up in their maternal uncle’s family. Avunculate is
common in matrilineal societies.
5. Amitate : The kinship behavior which assigns a special role to one’s father’s sister is
called amitate. Her role is similar to that of the maternal uncle under avunculate. The
children show special respect to their father’s sister. Sometimes, the children are brought
up in her house and inherit her property. She is called female-father in societies
practicing amitate. It is usually found in patrilineal societies .
6. Couvade: It is kinship behavior in which a husband imitates the behavior of his wife
during pregnancy and child birth. The husband also leads the life of an invalid along with
his wife whenever she gives birth to a child. He refrains from active life , goes on sick
diet and observes certain taboos. This practice is common among Khasi tribes of Assam
and Toda tribe of Nilgiri Hills.

Importance

1. Regulation of Social structure and relationship- Kinship usage regulates kinship role
relationships, such as how one kinsman should act in the presence of another or what one
kinsman owes to another. It establishes appropriate and acceptable role relationships between
father and daughter, brother and sister, son-in-law and mother-in-law, and fellow lineage
 members and clansmen. As a result, kinship regulates social life and maintains the social
system's unity. Kinship sets guidelines for communication and interactions between people
and defines acceptable relationship between kins.

2. Group Formation- The primary function of kinship in primitive society was group
formation. As a result of marriage, each woman is assigned a husband and her children
become his children, forming a unique group of father, mother, and children that we refer to
as "family. The groups formed on basis of kinship ties become relevant for determining rules
of inheritance, for instance in a patrilineal society the agnatic members have the rights of
inheritance and succession. Kin groups also regulate marriage behavior by defining marriage
rules like exogamy and endogamy.

3. In relation to Family, Property and Land: The prime property of any rural family is land.
So, land is related to all the kin members of the family. The sons, grandsons and other kins,
who are related by blood and marriage, have their economic interests in land. The
emancipation movement of women demands that women should not be deprived of the
inheritance rights and should get all equal share of the property. The family members also
gain status by the ownership of land. Even political status is determined by kinship relations
in some cases. In the case of kin relations, related by blood and marriage, many economic
and political concessions are given to the members of the kin..
4. Kinship and Marriage: Based on descent and lineage, kinship determines family-line
relationships—and even sets rules on who can marry whom. In every society, marriage has
certain rules, such as endogamy, exogamy, incest taboos and other restrictions. These rules
are applicable to all the kins of the family. Usually, the rural people are more serious and
strict in observing the rules related to marriage. Exogamy is commonly followed in most of
the villages of India. The members of the villages do not prefer to marry within their own
village. However, this rule can vary on the basis of the severity of rules of marriage.

5. Performance of Rituals: The role and importance of kins can be seen during the occasions,
such as cradle ceremony, marriage and death. During a naming ceremony, it is the father’s
sister, who has to give a name to the newborn. There are certain rites and rituals, which have
 to be performed by mother’s brother during the marriages of daughters. The daughter’s
parents make the payment in cash or kind to the son-in-law’s sister, who occupies an impor-
tant place during a Hindu wedding, especially in South India. It is obligatory on part of the
close kin relatives to offer gifts to the newly wed couples and in the same manner, these close
relatives are equally rewarded from both sides (parents of the couple). Upon death also, it is
obligatory for the kinsmen to observe mourning for about 11 to 14 days (this period varies
from region to region).

Changes in the Kinship Relations in Rural Society

Many changes are taking place in all the institutions of the rural society, including kinship
relations. These changes can be noted as demand for ownership titles by women, rules of
marriage are being challenged and the traditional rules regarding divorce are also getting
weakened.

Though some of the aspects of kinship are losing their importance, few others are gaining
prominence. Kinship is playing an important role in the field of politics, especially in rural
elections to Panchayati Raj Institutions. Favoritisms, while distributing jobs, is being observed
among the kinsmen. Due to the emergence of such new forces, kinship may acquire new
structure and form.

**** Sections of notes on Family and Marriage is in pdfs.

Types of Family
1. On the basis of Structure and Size

a) Nuclear Family– It is a small group consisting of a husband, a wife, and children, natural
or adopted. It is more or less an autonomous unit that is not under the control of adults or
elders of the house.
b) Joint Family– It consists of three or more generations, living together under the same
roof, sharing the same kitchen, and economic expenses. It is a house consisting of three
or more nuclear families living together.

2. On the basis of Birth

a) Family of Orientation: It is in which an individual is born in his family of
orientation.
b) Family of Procreation: It is where an individual sets up after his/her marriage his/her
family of procreation.

3. On the Basis of Marriage:

a) Monogamous Family: It consists of one husband and wife including children based
on monogamous marriages.
b) Polygamous Families: It is also of two types,

i. Polygynous– It consists of one husband, more than one wife, and all the children
born to all the wives or adopted by each of them. This type of family is based on
polygynous marriage (polygyny).
ii. Polyandrous– It consists of one wife and more than one husband, and the
children, either born or adopted with each one of them. This type of family is
based on polyandrous marriage (polyandry).

4. On the basis of Residential Patterns

a) Patrilocal– in which the married couple lives with or near the husband’s house.
b) Matrilocal– in which the married couple lives with or near the wife’s house.
c) Teo-local– in which the married couple lives apart from the parents of both
spouses.

5. On the basis of Ancestry or Descent

a) Patrilineal –where ancestry or descent is traced through the male line, or through
the father’s side.
b) Matrilineal–where ancestry or descent is traced through the female line, or
through the mother’s side house.
c) Bilateral- tracing kinship through both males and females.
6. On the basis of the nature of relations

a) Conjugal Family– It is made up of adults among whom there is a sexual relationship

and they may also have dependents with them. It also refers to partners, vibe have a
long-term sexual relationship, but are not actually married.
b) Consanguine Family– It is made up of members among whom a blood relation
exists, i.e., a family consisting of parent(s) and children, or siblings (brothers and
sisters).

7. On the basis of Patterns of Authority

a) Patriarchal – where a man is the head of the house and authority is vested in him.
b) Matriarchal –where a woman is the head of the house and authority is vested in her.
c) Egalitarian –where men and women share authority.