Chapter2notesphysics - Mayank

2.1.
1 States of matter
-> Solids- Definite shape and volume, particles are close together and in fixed
positions, low kinetic energy levels, very strong molecular bonds, small
intermolecular spacing, incompressible, particles vibrate in fixed positions
-> Liquids- Definite volume but not definite shape, particles are farther apart
than in solids, higher kinetic energy levels than particles in solids,
irregularly arranged, weaker intermolecular forces than in solids, slightly
compressible, larger intermolecular spacing, particles can slide over each other
-> Gases- No definite shape nor volume, no intermolecular bonds, highest
kinetic energy levels, very irregularly arranged, compressible, very large
molecular spacing, particles move in random directions at high speeds
2.1.2 Particle model

The pressure on the walls of a container is due to the gas particles colliding
with it and creating a force per unit area.
The random motion of microscopic particles in a suspension is the evidence for
the kinetic particle model of matter. Microscopic particles may be moved by
collisions with light fast-moving molecules. This motion is called Brownian
motion. Brownian motion is described as the random collisions between the
microscopic particles in a suspension and the particles of the gas or liquid.
2.1.3 Gases and the absolute scale of temperature

The effect on the pressure of a a fixed mass of gas when the temperature or
volume changes.
As the temperature increases, the pressure, that is the force per unit area
increases. This is because as the temperature rises, the average speed and
kinetic energy of the particles increases and the number of collisions of the gas
particles with the walls of the container increases.
As the volume decreases, the pressure, force per unit area, increases. This is
because as the volume decreases, the internal surface of the container decreases.
Therefore since pressure is equal to force divided by the area, and the area has
decreased due to the decrease in the volume, the pressure increases.
T (in K) = θ (in °C) + 273
pV=constant
2.2.1 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases

All three states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) expand when heated. The
atoms themselves do not expand, but the volume they take up does.
When a solid is heated, its atoms vibrate faster about their fixed points. The
relative increase in the size of solids when heated is therefore small.
Liquids expand for the same reason, but because the bonds between separate
molecules are usually less tight they expand more than solids.
Molecules within gases are further apart and weakly attracted to each other.
Heat causes the molecules to move faster, (heat energy is converted to kinetic
energy) which means that the volume of a gas increases more than the volume
of a solid or liquid. However, gases that are contained in a fixed volume cannot
expand - and so increases in temperature result in increases in pressure.
Uses- ’Shrink-fitting’ of axels into gear wheels, Bimetallic strip- thermostat
and fire alarm
Consequences- Buckling of train tracks, bridges, etc.
2.2.2 Specific Heat Capacity

A rise in temperature causes an increase in its internal energy. Internal
energy is the total kinetic and potential energy of all the particles in an object.
As the kinetic energy increases due to the rise in temperature, the internal
energy also increases.
Specific heat capacity is the energy required per unit mass per unit
temperature increase.
c= ∆E/m∆θ
∆E= Power*time
Power= voltage*current
therefore c=V*I*t/m*∆θ
2.2.3 Melting, boiling and evaporation

Melting and solidification
The energy absorbed in melting is the energy that enables the particles of a
solid to overcome the intermolecular forces that hold them in place, and when it
exceeds a certain value, they break free. In the reverse process of solidification
in which the liquid returns to the solid state, where the range of movement of
the particles is less, potential energy is transferred from the particles to thermal
energy in the surroundings. The energy input in melting is used to increase
the potential energy of the particles, but not their average kinetic energy as
happens when the energy input causes a temperature rise.
Vaporisation and condensation

If liquid particles are to overcome the forces holding them together and gain the
freedom to move around independently as gas particles, they need a large
amount of energy. This energy increases the potential energy of the particles
but not their kinetic energy. Energy is also required to push the surrounding
atmosphere in the large expansion that occurs when a liquid vaporises. In the
reverse process of condensation, in which vapour returns to the liquid state,
where the particles are closer together, potential energy is transferred from the
particles to thermal energy in the surroundings.
Boiling
For a pure liquid, boiling occurs at a definite temperature called its boiling
point and is accompanied by bubbles that form within the liquid, containing
the gaseous or vapour form of the particular substance.
Evaporation
Evaporation occurs when faster-moving particles escape from the surface of a
liquid. The average speed and therefore the average kinetic energy of the
particles left behind decreases, that is the temperature of the liquid falls.
Evaporation causes the cooling of a liquid.
Conditions affecting evaporation

-> Temperature
-> Surface area of the liquid
-> A wind or draught
Differences between boiling and evaporation
Boiling-> occurs throughout the liquid, has a fixed temperature
Evaporation-> occurs only at the top surface of the liquid, has a range of
temperatures
2.3 Conduction, convection and radiation
Conduction
-> Conduction is the flow of thermal energy(heat) through matter from places
of higher temperature to places of lower temperature without movement of the
matter as a whole.
-> Thermal energy is conducted faster through a rod that has a large cross-
sectional area, is short and has a large temperature difference between its ends.
-> Poor conductors are also known as thermal insulators.
-> Thermal conduction is the process that takes place in all solids by two ways
in the form of atomic or molecular lattice vibrations and in the movement of
free(delocalised) electrons in metallic conductors.
Two processes occur during conduction in metals. Metals have a large number
of ‘free’ (delocalised) electrons which move about within the metal. When one
part of a metal is heated, the electrons present there move faster (their kinetic
energy increases) and move further. As a result, they are able to interact with
the particles in the cooler parts, so passing on their energy and raising the
temperature of these parts. This process occurs quickly.
The second process, however is much slower. The atoms or molecules at the hot
part make colder neighbouring particles vibrate more vigorously. These atomic
or molecular lattice vibrations are less important in metals but the only way
conduction can occur in non-metals since these do not have free electrons;
hence non-metals are poor conductors of heat and are good insulators.
-> Why are there many solids that conduct thermal energy better than
thermal insulators but do so less well than good thermal conductors?
Ans- There are many solids which have fewer free electrons available to transfer
thermal energy than metals do and so are less good thermal conductors than
metals but better thermal conductors than insulators. For example, the
semiconductors used in electrical circuits can have a range of thermal
conductivities between those of metals and insulators.
-> Describe, in terms of particles, why thermal conduction is bad in gases and
most liquids?
Ans- Liquids and gases are generally less dense than solids and their
particles are further apart. They do not have a regularly ordered particle
structure, so it is difficult to set up lattice vibrations, and they do not usually
have free electrons. They are therefore less good thermal conductors than solids.
Convection
-> Convection is the usual method by which thermal energy(heat) travels
through fluids such as liquids and gases. It is the flow of thermal energy from
places of higher temperature to places of lower temperature by the movement of
fluid itself.
-> Streams of warm, moving fluids are called convection currents. They arise
when a fluid is heated because it expands, becomes less dense and is forced
upwards by surrounding cooler, denser fluid which moves under it. We say
‘hot water (or hot air) rises.
-> Sea breeze and land breeze
Radiation
-> Thermal radiation is infrared radiation and all objects emit this radiation.
-> Thermal energy transfer by thermal radiation does not require a medium.
For an object to be at constant temperature it needs to transfer energy away
from the object at the same rate that is receives energy.
-> If the average energy radiated is less than that absorbed, the temperature of
the object will rise. If the average energy radiated is less more than that
absorbed, the temperature of the object will fall.

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2.1.

2.1.2 Particle model

2.1.3 Gases and the absolute scale of temperature

2.2.1 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases

2.2.2 Specific Heat Capacity

2.2.3 Melting, boiling and evaporation

Vaporisation and condensation

Conditions affecting evaporation

2.3 Conduction, convection and radiation

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