2.

3 Thermal Processes
Chapter 2: Thermal Physics
There are three types: Conduction, Convection and Radiation.
Transfer of thermal energy is always from a high temperature region to a low temperature region (Temperature
gradient).
Conduction Convection Radiation
Medium Solids Liquid (fluid) Vacuum (doesn’t require
Gases (fluid) medium but can travel through
matter)
Process  Vibration of atoms/ Movement of atoms/molecules Electromagnetic Waves
Molecules in the form of convection by (infrared) (no medium
 Movement of free electrons currents set up by density required)
(if any, i.e. metals) For change in parts of the fluid
solids, their being heated.
atoms/molecules are in
fixed positions

2.3.1 Conduction:
Conduction is the process by which heat is transmitted
through a medium by lattice vibration from its hotter part to
its colder part until they are both at the same temperature.
 Molecules in a solid are arranged very close to each other.
 When one end of the metal rod is heated, the molecules at
this end vibrate faster due to the increased kinetic energy.
 The molecules collide with the neighboring molecules and
cause them to vibrate faster. This process is repeated until
the molecules of the rod at the other end vibrate faster.
 Thus heat has been transferred from one end of the rod to the other
end.
A direct contact between media is necessary for conduction.

Thermal Conductors
Materials which allow heat to flow through it well are called thermal
Conductors.
Metals are the best solid conductors because of their free electrons. The
electrons can leave the atoms and move freely among positively charged ions.
Examples: copper, Aluminum, iron, gold etc.

Thermal Insulators
Materials which do not allow heat to flow through it well are called thermal insulators or poor conductors.
Liquids and gases are poor conductors because their molecules are not closely packed together in fixed
positions like solids.
Examples: Glass, Water, Plastics, Rubber, Wood etc.
Materials containing air (wool, fiberglass, plastic foam, expanded polystyrene)

1
Comparing Metal Conductivity:
 Take different metallic rods of same size, length and
cross-sectional area.
 Place a blob of wax at one end.
 Heat them all equally from the other end.
 Best conductor is the one on which the wax melts
first.

Water is Bad Conductor:

Objective: To show that water is a bad
conductor of heat.
Procedure:
Place ice cubes in a test tube full of water.
Push it down to the end of the tube by a
metallic gauze.
Heat the test tube over a burner at the top.
Observation
The water at the top of the test tube boils
while water at the bottom of the test tube
remains cold and the ice does not melt. The
experiment shows that water is a bad
conductor of heat.

Application of Conduction:
 All metals are good conductors of heat. So cooking pans, kettles, electric iron are made of copper,
aluminum or steel.
 Plastic and wood are poor conductors (good insulators). Therefore handles of cooking utensils are made of
plastics or wood.
 Air is a very good insulator. So if a substance contains a layer of trapped air, it can stop the conduction of
heat. For example, wool keeps you warm because it traps a lot of air. The air trapped in and between our
clothes and blankets keeps us warm.
 In the same way, the air trapped in fur and feathers keeps animals warm. Birds fluff up their feathers in
winter to trap more air.

2.3.2 Convection:
Convection occurs when particles with more heat energy move and take the place of particles with less heat
energy. Because this process requires the movement of particles, it can only occur in liquids or gases.
It is more efficient than conduction (heat moves through the substance faster) and requires less energy than
radiation, so most of the heat is transferred by convection in liquids and gases.
Convection is a circulating current in a fluid (liquid or gas).

2
Experiment to show convection currents in liquid:
In the experiment below, the bottom of the beaker is being gently heated in one
place only. Potassium permanganate crystals color the water so that one can see
the current. As the water above the flame become warmer, it expands and become
less dense. It raises upwards as cooler, dense water sinks and displaces the less
dense water. The result is a circulating stream, called convection current. Where
the water is heated, its particles circulate; they transfer energy to the other parts of
the beaker.

Experiment to show convection in gases:

In the set-up shown in the diagram, smoke

is been to move through the box. The
candle heats the air above it and causes
less dense air to rise, setting up convection
currents. The denser colder air is force into
the box.

Applications of Convection:
Atmospheric convection: Air on equator gets warmed by sun, moves upward to be replaced by denser colder
air from North and south poles. The result is huge convection current in the Earth’s atmosphere. These cause
winds across all oceans and continents.
Night Breeze: At night the sea is warmer than the land, which cools down quickly, warmer air now rises above
the sea, as it is displaced by cooler air moving out from the land. This process is called night breeze.
Refrigerator: Cold air sinks below the freezer compartment. This sets up a circulating current of air which cools
all the food in the refrigerator.

3
2.3.3 Radiation:
Radiation is the process by which heat is transmitted from a hot object to another in the form of
electromagnetic waves (infrared). This process does not require any medium. It can take place in a vacuum.
Different objects give out different amounts of radiation, depending on their temperature and their surface.

What is the relation between the heat in an object and the wavelength of emitted EM?
The hotter the object the shorter the wave length emitted.
What happens when heat radiations fall on an object?
Part of the radiation is absorbed and the other part is reflected.

Emitters and Absorbers

Some surface are better at emitting (sending out) thermal radiation than others.
Good emitters of thermal radiation are also good absorbers.
Black colour is good absorber and also good emitter of thermal radiation.
White and silver colour are bad absorber and emitter of thermal radiation but good reflector of radiation.

Comparing Absorbers:
 Put room temperature water in two cans, one painted
black and the other painted silver.
 Cover both cans with a lid and put thermometers in
each can and keep the can in direct sunlight.
 Notice the rise in temperature over a period of time on
both cans.
 The temperature of black colour can is higher than the
silver coloured can. This means black colour is good
absorber of heat

4
Comparing Emitters:
 Put hot boiling water in two cans, one painted matt black the other painted silver.
 Cover both cans and put a thermometer into each. Keep it in a dark room.
 Notice the fall in temperature over time in both the cans.
 It is found that the reading of the thermometer in the black can falls more quickly than the silver
can.
 This means black colour is good emitter of thermal radiation.

Application of Radiation:
Greenhouse:
Light and short-wavelength infrared from the Sun penetrate the glass of a greenhouse and are absorbed by the
soil, plants, etc., raising their temperature.
These in turn emit infrared but, because of their relatively low temperature, this has a long wavelength and is
not transmitted by the glass. The greenhouse thus acts as a ‘heat-trap’ and its temperature rises.
Greenhouse Effects:
Carbon dioxide and other gases such as methane in the Earth’s atmosphere act in a similar way to the glass of a
greenhouse in trapping heat; this has serious implications for the global climate.

Vacuum Flask:
A vacuum or Thermos flask keeps hot liquids hot or cold liquids cold.
It is very difficult for heat to travel into or out of the flask.
Type of heat How it is reduced
transfer
Convection Vacuum between the double glass walls.
stopper.
Conduction Vacuum between the double glass walls and
case.
Radiation Shiny silvered inner surface of the glass walls.

5
Design of a House to limit heat transfer: