BASIC MEASUREMENTS AND ERROR ANALYSIS

EXPERIMENT CODE: E1

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

o Understanding the concepts of accuracy and significant figures

o Calculation of different types of error

o Analyzing sources of error

INTRODUCTION

Sources of error:

Measurement errors can be broadly categorized into two main types: systematic errors and
random errors. These types of errors affect data differently and arise from various sources
in the measurement process.

Systematic Errors:

Systematic errors, or biases, are consistent and repeatable errors that push measurements in
the same direction (either all too high or all too low). They arise from flaws in the measurement
system and can be minimized but are hard to eliminate. Types of systematic errors include:

o Instrumental Errors: Result from faults or calibration issues in the

measuring instruments.

o Environmental Errors: Arise from external conditions like temperature,

humidity, or pressure, which affect measurements.

o Observational Errors: Due to human error, like misreading instruments or

reaction time lags.

o Theoretical Errors: Caused by simplifying assumptions in theoretical

models that don't fully account for real-world complexities.

Random Errors:

Random errors are unpredictable and vary from one measurement to the next due to
uncontrollable factors. They scatter around the true value and usually cancel each other out
over many measurements. Sources of random errors include:

o Environmental Variability: Minor fluctuations in environmental conditions.

o Human Factors: Inconsistencies in human reaction time or slight changes in

interpretation.

o Instrument Precision Limits: Limitations in the instrument's ability to

measure fine-scale variations.

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Uncertainty in a measurement:

Measurements always have uncertainties. If you make a length measurement using an

ordinary ruler, your measurement is reliable only to the nearest millimeter. Consider such a
measurement of a length x where the result is

𝑥𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 3 𝑚𝑚.

There is uncertainty in this result due to the sensitivity of the device which is 𝛥𝑥 = 1 mm.
This means that the true value of x is in the interval

2 𝑚𝑚 < 𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 < 4 𝑚𝑚

or

𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 = 3 ± 1 𝑚𝑚.

In general, the true value of a measurement can be written as

𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 = 𝑥𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 ± 𝛥𝑥.

This indicates the accuracy of a measured value that is how close it is likely to be to the true
value. When a more sensitive device is used the interval becomes smaller, which results in
higher accuracy.

In many cases, the uncertainty of a number is not stated explicitly but indicated by the number
of meaningful digits, or significant figures, in the measured value. Here, the measurement
result 𝑥𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 3 mm has one significant figure. It would be wrong to state the
measurement result as 3.00 mm; given the limitations of the measuring device, you can’t tell
whether the actual length is 3.00 mm, 2.85 mm, or 3.11 mm. However, if the same
measurement is carried out using a micrometer caliper, a device that measures distances
reliably to the nearest 0.01 mm, the result will be 2.91 mm. Note that this result has three
significant figures. This means that the first two digits are known to be correct, while the third
digit is uncertain. The last digit is in the hundredths place, so the uncertainty is about 0.01
mm.

In conclusion, the measurement using the micrometer caliper has a smaller uncertainty; it’s a
more accurate measurement. The uncertainty is also called error because it indicates the
maximum difference there is likely to be between the measured value and the true value. The
uncertainty or error of a measured value depends on the measurement technique used.

Compound error:

When a quantity is calculated using measurement results, accuracy worsens with the
contribution of each measurement due to uncertainties and/or rounding-off errors. Compound
error is a measure of error due to measurement uncertainties. Consider a quantity 𝑧 = 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦),
where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are measured with uncertainties 𝛥𝑥 and 𝛥𝑦, respectively. The compound error
can be obtained by using the following equation.

𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
∆𝐹 = |( ) ∆𝑥| + |( ) ∆𝑦| + ⋯
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Here, the first term represents the error due to the uncertainty in the 𝑥 measurement. Similarly,
the second term represents the error due to the uncertainty in the 𝑦 measurement. If there are
other measurements involved, their contributions are similarly added to the total.

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Mean value:

To minimize the error in measurements, repeated measurements are taken, and the arithmetic
mean of the obtained results is calculated. The arithmetic mean expression is:
𝑛
1
𝑥𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1

Here, 'n' represents the number of measurements taken, 'i' indicates the measurement number
and 'xᵢ' is the result obtained in the i-th measurement.

Standard deviation:

Standard deviation is a measure that shows how much a distribution deviates from its mean
value. It can be obtained by using the following equation.
1
𝑛 2
1
𝜎 = [ ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 )2 ]
𝑛
𝑖=1

It is widely used to assess how much random error affects a set of measurements. A high
standard deviation indicates high variability and, therefore, a greater amount of random error.
1
Note that as the sample size, 𝑛, increases standard deviation decreases as 𝜎 ∼ 𝑛, which
√
shows that random effects cancel each other over many repetitions of an experiment, in
general.

Absolute error:

Absolute error is a measure of the total error for an experiment result. It can be obtained by
comparison of the experimental and theoretical values using the following equation.

𝜀 = |𝑥𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑥𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 |

Relative error:

Relative error is the ratio of absolute error to the theoretical value

𝜀
Relative error = |𝑥
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 |

Percent error:

Percent error is calculated by multiplying the relative error by one hundred.

𝜀
Percent error = |𝑥 × 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 |

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REPORT 1
Student Name and Number:

Group No:

DATA AND RESULTS

Please answer the following questions based on the information provided in the
corresponding section. Record the calculation results in SI units using scientific notation.

Section A

Consider the following measurements for a cylindrical shell.

Mass: 𝑚 = 12.0 𝑔 (𝛥𝑚 = 0.1 𝑔)

Height: ℎ = 2000 𝑚𝑚 (𝛥ℎ = 1 𝑚𝑚)

Inner radius: 𝑟𝑖𝑛 = 2.0 𝑚𝑚 (𝛥𝑟𝑖𝑛 = 0.1 𝑚𝑚)

Outer radius: 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 10.0 𝑚𝑚 (𝛥𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚)

Here, the uncertainties of the measurements are given in parentheses.

A1. Calculate the volume of the shell. Record the result and the number of significant figures
in the result.

𝑉= ………

The number of sig. fig. = …

A2. Calculate the density of the shell. Record the result and the number of significant figures
in the result.

𝜌= ………

The number of sig. fig. = …

A3. Calculate the compound error for the density.

𝛥𝜌 = ………

A4. If you could redo just one measurement using a more sensitive device, which one would
you choose to improve the accuracy of the density? Please explain your answer.

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Section B

Measurements in Section A are repeated for similar cylindrical shells made of the same metal
(platinum). The density of platinum is known to be

𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 21,450 kg/m3

The dimensions of the cylinders are recorded in the table below. Note that the results for the
first cylindrical shell are in A1 and A2.

m (g) h (mm) 𝑟𝑖𝑛 (mm) 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 (mm) V (m3) 𝜌 (kg/m3)

12.0 2000 2.0 10.0

6.0 1000 2.6 10.0

4.0 800 2.8 11.0

2.5 500 2.0 9.5

B1. Calculate the volume and the density of each cylinder and record it on the table above.

B2. Calculate the mean density.

𝜌𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = ………

B3. Calculate the standard deviation in density.

𝜎= ………

B4. Calculate the absolute error comparing the mean and real values of the density.

𝜀= ………

B5. Calculate the relative error.

𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ………

B6. Calculate the percent error.

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =………

B7. Comparing compound error, standard deviation and absolute error, what do you think of
the main source of error, is it systematic or random? What would you do to reduce the error?
Explain your answer in detail.

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CALCULATIONS

Please record your calculations for the above questions, in detail.

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QUIZ 1
Student Name and Number: