Physical Measurement and Units

Fundamental physical quantity: It is defined as the physical quantity which does

not depend upon any other physical quantity for its measurement. It is an
independent physical quantity.

There are seven (7) fundamental physical quantities as follows.

Length, Mass, Time, Temperature, Electric current, Luminous intensity, Amount of
substance

Derived physical quantity: It is defined as the physical quantity which is derived

from the combination of fundamental quantities. It is a dependent physical
quantity. For example: Force, Acceleration, Velocity, Density etc.

Unit: Unit is the standard used for measurement of a physical quantity.

Requirements of a good unit:

1) Unit should be universally accepted.

2) Unit should be invariable.

3) Unit should be easily available.

4) Unit should be easily reproducible.

5) Unit should be easy to convert into other unit of the different system of units.
For example, metre to centimetre, metre to inch etc.

System of Units: It is the complete set of units for all physical quantities.

Different System of Units: 1) CGS 2) MKS 3) FPS 4) SI

Fundamental Unit: The unit which does not depend upon any other unit for its
measurement is called as fundamental Unit. It is an independent unit.

For example: meter (m), kilogram (kg), ampere (A)

Derived Unit: The unit which is derived from the combination of fundamental
units is called as a derived unit. It is a dependent unit.
For example: newton (N), m/s, watt (W), joule (J), J/kg etc.

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The seven (7) fundamental physical quantities, their SI units & their symbols in SI
system are as follows.

Sr. No. Fundamental Physical Quantity Name of SI unit Symbol of SI unit

1 Length meter m
2 Mass kilogram kg
3 Time second s
4 Electric current ampere A
5 Temperature kelvin K
6 Luminous intensity candela cd
7 Amount of substance mole mol

Rules and conventions for writing SI units and their symbols:

1) While writing the full name of a unit, the unit's name should not be written
with a capital initial letter.

For example: newton, watt

2) While writing the symbol of a unit named after a scientist, the first letter of the
symbol should be written with a capital letter.

For example: N for newton, A for ampere, Wb for weber

3) No full stop or other punctuation marks should be used within or at the end of
symbols.
For example: 50 m and not as 50 m.
4) The symbols of the units do not take the plural form.

For example: 10 kg not as 10 kgs

5) When temperature is expressed in kelvin, the degree sign is omitted.

For example: 273 K not as 273 °K

Error: Error is a fault which may occur even in most careful observation. OR
Error is the difference between true value and observed value.

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Types of errors: There are three different types of errors.
1) Instrumental errors: This error arises due to imperfect design or calibration of
the measuring instrument.
For example: a thermometer may be inadequately calibrated (it may read
104 °C at the boiling point of water at STP whereas it should read 100 °C), or an
ordinary metre scale may be worn off at one end. Then some amount of error will
occur in every reading.
This error can be removed by adjusting observed reading with zero error or
recalibrating the instrument.
2) Systematic errors (Personal errors): This error occurs due to improper setting
of the experiment, imperfection in experimental technique or procedure. This
error also occurs due to the human limitation to senses (hearing, watching,
smelling), individual’s bias or individual’s carelessness in taking observations.
For example: if you, by habit, always hold your head a bit too far to the right
while reading the position of a needle on the scale, you will introduce an error
due to parallax.
Systematic errors can be minimised or eliminated by detecting their causes
and setting certain rules or procedures which will govern those errors. Also, by
improving experimental techniques and removing personal bias as far as possible.
3) Random errors: The random errors are those errors, which occur due to
random and unavoidable fluctuations in experimental conditions. Hence, they are
random with respect to sign and size. If the measurable quantity is less than the
least count of instrument used for measurement, then this also amounts to
random error.
For example: unpredictable fluctuations in room temperature and voltage
supply, mechanical vibrations of experimental set-ups, etc.
These errors cannot be completely removed; only best estimate can be
calculated. The mean of several measurements of the same quantity is the best
estimate of that quantity.
Methods (Procedures) to minimize errors:
1) Take more no. of readings and then take the mean value of that.
2) Take large magnitude of the quantity to be measured.
3) Use apparatus with least count as small as possible for measurement.

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Important facts:

➢ value = reading
➢ true value = actual value = exact value = accepted value = theoretical value
➢ observed value = measured value = experimental value
➢ In absence of true value, mean or average value is considered as true value.
➢ Accuracy: The closeness of the measured value to a true value.
➢ Precision: The closeness of two or more measurements to each other is
known as the precision.
➢ Precision is independent of accuracy.

Difference Between Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy Precision

Accuracy refers to the level of agreement Precision implies the level of variation that
between the actual measurement and the lies in the values of several measurements of
absolute measurement. the same physical quantity.

Represents how closely the results agree Represents how closely results agree with
with the standard value. one another.

Multiple measurements or factors are

Single-factor or measurement are needed.
needed to comment about precision.

It is possible for a measurement to be

Results can be precise without being
accurate on certain occasion as a fluke. For
accurate. Alternatively, the results can be
a measurement to be consistently accurate,
precise and accurate.
it should also be precise.

Estimation of errors:

Case 1: In case of availability of true value and single observed value

Error = observed value – true value

Absolute error = |error| = |observed value – true value|

|observed value – true value| Absolute error
Relative error = =
true value true value

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Percentage (%) error = relative error x 100 %
|observed value – true value| Absolute error
Percentage (%) error = X 100 = X 100
true value true value

Case 2: In case of multiple observed values and non-availability of true value

Mean or average reading is considered as true value.

𝐴1 +𝐴2 +𝐴3 +⋯+𝐴𝑛
Average reading (Am) = Am =
𝑛

Absolute error: The magnitude of difference between observed reading and

average reading is called absolute error.

Absolute error = |observed value – average reading |

𝛿𝐴1 = |𝐴1 − 𝐴𝑚 |

𝛿𝐴2 = |𝐴2 − 𝐴𝑚 |

𝛿𝐴𝑛 = |𝐴𝑛 − 𝐴𝑚 |

Average (mean) absolute error: The average of absolute errors is called average
absolute error.

𝛿𝐴1 +𝛿𝐴2 +.…+𝛿𝐴𝑛

Average (mean) absolute error = 𝛿𝐴𝑚 =
𝑛

Relative error: It is the ratio of average absolute error to average reading.

𝛿𝐴𝑚
Relative error =
𝐴𝑚

Average absolute error 𝛿𝐴𝑚

Percentage (%) error: X 100 = x 100
Average reading 𝐴𝑚

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Significant figures (digits): Significant figures are defined as the number of
important single digits (0 through 9) in any place which are most trustworthy.
Rules for writing significant figures:
1. All non-zero digits are significant (1 through 9).
For example, 91 has two significant figures (9 and 1), while 123.45 has five
significant figures (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).
2. Zeros between non-zero digits are significant.
For example, 101.103 have six significant figures: 1, 0, 1, 1, 0 and 3.
3. Leading zeros are never significant.
For example, 0.00052 has two significant figures: 5 and 2.
4. In a number with a decimal point, trailing zeros (those to the right of the last
non-zero digit) are significant provided they are justified by the precision of
their derivation. In most contexts it is understood that trailing zeros are only
shown if they are significant.
For example, 2.0200 have five significant figures.
5. In a number without a decimal point, trailing zeros (those to the right of the
last non-zero digit) are not significant.
For example, in number 8200, the number of significant digits in 8200 are two
(8,2). Use scientific notation to place significant zeroes behind a decimal
point:

8.200 x 103 has four significant digits

8.20 x 103 has three significant digits

8.2 x 103 has two significant digits

Decimal expression Scientific notation Sig. figs.

122200.00 1.2220000 x 10 5 8
0.00003450000 3.450000 x 10 -5 7

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Exercise questions:
1. Define fundamental physical quantities and write its any four examples.
2. Define derived physical quantities and write its any four examples.
3. Classify the following physical quantities as fundamental or derived physical
quantities: a) force b) temperature c) density d) electric field intensity e) time
f) amount of substance
4. Define unit of a physical quantity. Write any four requirements of a good unit.
5. Mention three examples of fundamental unit as well as derived unit.
6. Define system of units. state different system of units.
7. Write all seven fundamental physical quantities with their units & symbols in
SI system.
8. Mention any four rules to be obeyed while writing SI units & their symbols.
9. Define significant figures. Write any four rules to be followed while counting
significant figures.
10.Define error. Explain all three types of errors with examples.

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 significant figures:
Examples ( in significant figures)
rounded
rounded answer
unrounded answer significant
Operation Rule No. expression ( in scientific
answer ( in decimal figures
notation)
expression)
Use least number of i 6.1743 + 2.46 = 8.6343 8.63 3
decimal places
Addition
specified in any of ii 7328.12 + 5.3425 = 7333.4625 7333.46 7.33346 x 10^3 6
input values

Use least number of i 6.1743 - 2.46 = 3.7143 3.71 3

decimal places
Subtraction
specified in any of ii 7328.12 - 5.3425 = 7322.7775 7322.78 7.32278 x 10^3 6
input values

Use least number of i 1530 X 4.0 = 6120 6100 6.1 x 10^3 2

significant figures
Multiplication
specified in any of ii 1530 X 4 = 6120 6000 6 x 10^3 1
input values

Use least number of i 444 ÷ 4 = 111 100 1 x 10^2 1

significant figures
Division
specified in any of ii 444 ÷ 111 = 4 4.00 3
input values

Use the same i 2^10 = 1024 1000 1 x 10^3 1

Exponentiation number of significant
figures as the base ii 2.000^10 = 1024 1024 1.024 x 10^3 4