Name : Siddhesh Chunale

Gr no.:-21810376

Roll no.:-212015

● Experiment No. 01 Batch: __B1__ Roll

No.: 212015

■ Title: Statistical analysis for electronic components

(Resistor)

■ Date of Performance:

■ Date of Submission:

■ Checked By (Sign and Date)

■ Remarks:
Experiment No. 1.
___________________________________________________________________________

a. AIM: - Statistical analysis for electronic components (Resistor).

■
using calibrated DMM.
● Calculate mean, standard deviation, average deviation, and variance.
● Calculate probable error.
● Plot Gaussian curve.

b. OBJECTIVES:
1.b.1 Understand the concept of an error in the instruments.
1.b.2 Explain the different types of errors.
1.b.3 Describe the statistical analysis of errors.
1.b.4 Understand the arithmetic mean, deviation mean, average deviation, standard
deviation and variance

c. REFERENCES:
Dr. R.S. Sedha, “Electronic Measurements and Instrumentations”, S.
Chand & Copany Pvt. Ltd.

d. SOFTWARE REQUIRED: - MS OFFICE

e. OPERATING SYSTEM: - WINDOWS 98/2000/XP/2008/2010

f. HARDWARE MATERIAL REQUIRED:-

1.f.1 Various Resistors, connecting wires
1.f.2 Measuring instruments:- Digital Multimeter (DMM)
Various DMM available in Lab:
● Scienetch ultimeter 4011
● Rish ax 10 3 ¾ digit
● Rish Multi 16 3 ¾ digit ( True RMS)
● Mecho 9A06
● Tectronics 4040 6 ½ digit
g. THEORY:
1.g.1 Statistical Analysis
To make statistical analysis meaningful, a large number of measurements are usually
required. The systematic and random errors are evaluated and studied by statistical
procedures. The systematic errors should be small as compared to random errors,
because statistical data cannot remove fixed bias contained in all the measurements.

The mathematical analysis of the various measurements is called

statistical analysis of data. For statistical analysis, the same reading is taken number of
times by using different instruments in different ways.
The analysis of data is done by different method as listed below:
● Arithmetic Mean
● Deviation from the Mean
● Average Deviation
● Standard Deviation
● Variance
1.g.2 Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean is, also called the average or average value, it is the
quantity obtained by summing two or more numbers or variables and then
dividing by the number of numbers or variables. The arithmetic mean is
important in statistics. The best approximation will be made when the number
of readings of the same quantity is very large. Theoretically, an infinite
number of readings would give the best, although in practice, only a finite
number of measurements can be made. The arithmetic mean is given by the
following expression.

1.g.3 Deviation from the Mean

Deviation is the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the
group of readings. Let the deviation of the first reading, x1 be d1, and for the
 second reading, x2 be d2 and so on. Then deviations from the mean can be
expressed as

The deviation from the mean may have a positive or a negative value and the
algebraic sum of all deviations must be zero.

1.g.4 Average Deviation

The average deviation is an indication of the precision of the instruments used
in making the measurements. The average deviation is the sum of the absolute
values of the deviations divided by the number of readings. The absolute value
of the deviation is the value without the sign.
Average deviation is expressed as

1.g.5 Standard Deviation

It shows how much variation there is from the average (mean) value. It also
knows as root mean–square deviation. The standard deviation σ of an infinite
number of data is the square root of the sum of all the individual deviations
squared, divided by the number of readings. Standard deviation is expressed
as

In actual practice, the possible number of observations is finite. The standard

deviation of a finite number of data is given by,
1.g.6 Variance or Mean Square Deviation
It describes how far values lie from the mean. The variance is the square of
the standard deviation. It is denoted as V.

Variance for finite number,

where V = Variance

1.g.7 Median
If the number of readings of a particular measurement are more, then it is
difficult to calculate the mean or average value. Here, calculate the median
value and it will be approximately equal to mean value.
median: middle value in a set of data that has been arranged in order of size
Measures of central tendency are generally known as averages and include
such measures as the mean and median. The mean is calculated by summing
the values in a set of data and dividing the total by the number of values. If
the data are arrayed in order from the highest value to the lowest, the median
is the middle value, where half of the values are higher and the other half are
lower
h. Variance and Standard Deviation: Step by Step
1.h.1.1 Put all the reading in excel sheet and sort it in ascending or
descending order.
1.h.1.2 Find center value as a Median, middle value, where half of
the
● values are higher and the other half are lower.
1.h.1.3 Calculate the mean, 𝑥. (use Average function from excel)
1.h.1.4 Find the deviation d from the mean for each (reading
subtracts the
● mean from each observed value 𝑑 = 𝑥 − 𝑥. )
1.h.1.5 Find Square each of the differences 𝑑 2 .

1.h.1.6 Add all the differences 𝑑 2 in the respective column find sum.
1.h.1.7 Divide sum by n -1 where n is the number of items in the
sample
● This is the variance 𝜎 2 .
1.h.1.8 To get the standard deviation σ we take the square root of the
● variance.

i. Measurement Errors:
■ An error is defined as the difference between the measured value (xm)
and the true value (xtrue).

Error = xm - xtrue
● System accuracy is the magnitude of the maximum expected error. This
measure of system performance is usually specified for a piece of test equipment
as a percentage of full-scale value.
● System precision is an estimate of repeatability. A precise system, making
repeated measurements of the same thing, will consistently produce the same
result. The more precise an instrument, the less random error affects the result.
● System resolution is the smallest possible discernible increment. The higher the
resolution, the smaller the smallest increment value.

1.i.1 Types of Error:

a) Systematic errors occur in a repeatable way every time a measurement
 occurs under similar conditions. They are also known as ‘bias’ errors.
If a measurement is consistently in error by a constant number, added or
subtracted to the true value, it’s called an offset error.
Offset Error: Xm = Xtrue ± Constant
When the true value can be determined by a ratio of the measured value and a
constant (which can be greater or less than 1), it’s called a scale error.
Scale Error: Xm = Xtrue x Constant
b) Nonlinear errors can result from poor design or from inappropriate system
use. Many components and systems of components are designed to produce
linear output from linear input. However, if those components are improperly
used, either by the designer or the end user, nonlinear ( y= x2, y = cos xt, or y
= log x are examples of nonlinear functions) can result.
Over time, measurement conditions such as ambient temperature and humidity
can change. Electronic components age, and their characteristic values can also
change over time. This phenomenon is called drift.
c) Random errors are different for every measurement event. The defining
characteristic for random errors is that they have an average value of zero. As
a result, it’s often possible to reduce random error in measurement by repeating
the measurement and then averaging the outcomes.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology, www.nist.gov, maintains
many national and international standards of metrology, the science of
measurement. Most sophisticated test equipment needs periodic calibration.
For many design, maintenance, and test facilities, a current certificate of
calibration that is “traceable” to NIST is mandatory. That means that the
equipment has been calibrated by a facility that can credibly claim that the work
was performed by someone who has been trained to calibrate that piece of test
equipment and who used metrology standards that have been endorsed by NIST.

j. The Gaussian or Probability Density Function:

Gaussian or normal PDF – The Gaussian probability density function (also
called the normal probability density function or simply the normal PDF) is the
vertically normalized PDF that is produced from a signal or measurement that has
purely random errors.
The normal probability density function is:
 ● The mean and median are both equal to µ, the expected value (at the peak of the
Distribution). [The mode is undefined for a smooth, continuous distribution.]
● Its plot is commonly called a “bell curve” because of its shape.
● The actual shape depends on the magnitude of the standard deviation. Namely, if σ is
small, the bell will be tall and skinny, while if σ is large, the bell will be short.

k. Measurement Analysis:
1. Measure and record the resistance of each of 40 resistors on your data sheet.
2. Calculate the sample mean, the deviation for each value, the deviation squared for each
value, as shown in the table on the data sheet. Also calculate the sample variance, and
the sample standard deviation.
3. Calculate the PDF and plot the Gaussian Curve use (normdist function from excel)

l. Observation table
DMM model used:- ___________MECO 3
1/2____________________________________
Resistor range on DMM for measuring respective resistance:- ____21-
22K_________
Color code of respective resistor:-
________RED,RED,ORANGE,GOLD___________________________
Value of respective resistor:- ___22K_______________ Tolerance:-
_______5%____
 Sr. Resistor Square▪ ofDthe The Gaussian or
No. Reading standard e Probability
using DMM deviation v Density Function
(𝑥) 𝑑2 i (normdist)
a
t
i
o
n
▪ F
r
o
m
t
h
e
M
e
a
n
𝑑 =𝑥−𝑥
1 21.63 -0.015 0.000225 4.1999
2 21.76 0.115 0.013225 2.0056
3 21.68 0.035 0.001225 3.9678
4 21.62 -0.025 0.000625 4.1055
5 21.79 0.145 0.015625 1.2872
6 21.48 -0.165 0.000225 0.9048
7 21.77 0.125 0.004245 1.7498
8 21.66 0.015 0.009025 4.1923
9 21.58 0.065 0.018225 3.3456
10 21.55 -0.095 0.021025 2.5499
11 21.78 0.135 2.5E-05 1.5000
12 21.5 -0.145 0.002027 4.2992
13 21.66 -0.175 0.021025 4.2456
14 21.58 0.005 2.5E-05 3.3456
15 21.69 0.045 0.000625 1.0834
Mean=𝑥 Standard Variance=𝜎 2
=21.65 deviation=σ=0. =0.724
02121
Median=21.6
4
m. Probable Error :
P.E = 0.676 X 𝜎 = ______0.01435_____
n. Note : Some MS Excel Functions
The electronic spreadsheet program Microsoft Excel offers many built-in statistical
functions that can be used in data analysis. They can be easily accessed from the “insert
function” menu. The salient ones are:

• =SUM(A2:A5) Find the sum of values in the range of cells A2 to A5.

• =AVERAGE(A2:A5) Find the average of the numbers in the range of cells A2 to A5.

• =AVEDEV(A2:A5) Find the average deviation of the numbers in the range of cells
A2 to A5.

• =STDEV(A2:A5) Find the sample standard deviation (unbiased) of the numbers in

the range of cells A2 to A5.

• =STDEVP(A2:A5) Find the sample standard deviation (biased) of the numbers in the
range of cells A2 to A5.
• =NORMDIST(x, mean, standard deviation, false) to find Gaussian normal PDF.
• Use scatter with straight line to plot the graph
• Take the printout of the excel sheet and graph

o. Conclusion:-_We performed the above experiment then it was clear

that value of the resistor follows a gaussian curve.