NORTH SOUTH UNIVERSITY

The first private university in Bangladesh

(Established by the North South University Foundation)

Department of Mathematics & Physics

Experimental Physics
General Physics-I
PHY-107L

Laboratory Manual

Plot #15, Block # B, Bashundhara, Dhaka-1229, Bangladesh

Phone: +88 2 55668200, Fax: +88 2 55668202, Web: www.northsouth.edu
Content:

1. Experiment Number 1: Introduction to Measurement and Statistical Error

2. Experiment Number 2: Bouncing Ball experiment
3. Experiment Number 3: Demonstration of Hooke’s Law using spiral spring
4. Experiment Number 4: Determination of sheer modulus using Dynamic Method
5. Experiment Number 5: Period of Oscillation for a Simple Pendulum
6. Experiment Number 6: Compound Pendulum and Acceleration due to gravity
 Expt-1: Introduction to Measurement and Statistical Error
Objective:

1. To familiarize the student with random error and bias in laboratory measurements (ruler, Vernier
caliper, screw gauge).

2. To introduce the concepts of arithmetic mean, standard deviation and experimental error.

Apparatus:
Vernier caliper, screw gauge, centimeter ruler, a small cylinder.

Theory:
Measurement of different shapes:
The Vernier Caliper
The Vernier caliper is designed to facilitate the estimation of a fractional part of a scale or ruler. The Vernier
consists of an auxiliary scale, called the Vernier scale, which is capable of sliding along the edge of a main
scale (Figure 1). With the help of the Vernier scale, length can be measured with an accuracy greater than
that obtainable from the main scale. The graduations on the Vernier scale are such that n divisions of this
scale are generally made to coincide with (𝑛 – 1) divisions of the main scale. Under this condition, lengths
1
can be measured with an accuracy of 𝑛 of the main scale division.

Figure 1: Parts of Vernier Caliper

For example, in the following figure ten units of the Vernier scale have the same length as nine units of the
main scale. Each unit on the Vernier scale is therefore 1/10 mm smaller than the smallest unit of the main
scale. Thus, the line on the Vernier which is aligned with a line on the main scale indicates the number of
tenths of a millimeter that the index is past the last whole millimeter of the main scale. The index in Figure
1 is located to the right of 3.2 centimeters. Hence, the reading is a little more than 3.2 centimeters, but not
as large as 3.3 centimeters. The line indicating the third unit of the Vernier scale is directly beneath a line
on the main scale. It is the fifth line on the Vernier scale that lines up. This tells us that the reading is 3.25
centimeters

.2

0 1
2 3 4

.05

3 Measured Value: 3.25 cm

Figure 2: How to Read a Vernier Caliper.

An instrumental error or zero error exists when, with the two jaws touching each other, the zero of the
Vernier scale is ahead of or behind the zero of the main scale. The error is positive when the Vernier zero
is on the right and is negative when the Vernier zero is cm the left side of the main scale zero. If the
instrumental error is positive it is to be subtracted from the measured length to obtain the correct length. If
the error in negative is to be added to the measured length.

The Screw Gauge

It consists of a U-shaped piece of steel, one arm of which carries a fixed stud and the other arm is attached
to a cylindrical tube. A scale graduated in centimeters or inches is marked on this cylinder. An accurate
screw provided with a collar, moves inside the tube. The screw moves axially when it is rotated by the
milled head. The fixed and the movable studs are provided with jaws (plane surfaces). The principle of the
instrument is the conversion of the circular motion of the screw head into the linear motion of the movable
stud.
 Figure 3: Screw gauge and measuring a shape.

The beveled end of the rotating barrel is generally divided into 50 or 100 equal divisions forming a circular
scale. Depending upon the direction of rotation of the screw the collar covers or uncovers the straight scale
divisions. When the movable stud is made to touch the fixed stud, the zero of the linear (straight) scale
should coincide with the zero of the circular scale. If they do not coincide then the screw gauge is said to
possess an instrumental error.
The pitch of the screw is defined as its axial displacement for a complete rotation. The least count (L.C.)
of the screw gauge refers to the axial displacement of the screw for a rotation of one circular division. Thus,
if n represents the number of divisions on the circular scale and the pitch of the screw is m scale divisions,
𝑚
then the least count (L.C.) of the screw gauge = 𝑛 scale divisions.
Back-lash error: When a screw moves through a threaded hole there is always some misfit between the
two. As a result, when the direction of rotation of the screw is reversed, axial motion of the screw takes
place only after the screw head is rotated through a certain angle. This lag between the axial and the circular
motion of the screw head is termed the back-lash error. In order to get rid of this error, the screw head
should always be rotated in the same direction while measurement is made.
Experimental Error:
Accuracy is the degree to which a measurement agrees with an accepted value for those measurements. The
accuracy of a measurement is dependent upon the production and calibration of the instrument. When an
instrument is calibrated according to a reliable standard then measurement will be more closely aligned
with the accepted value for that measurement.
Measurement can be evaluated in absolute or relative terms. The absolute error is the absolute value of the
difference between the accepted value and the measurement. This can be written as an equation as shown
below.
Absolute error = |Observed value - Accepted known value|
Ea = |O - A| (1i)
This can be expressed as a percentage error also as:
|𝑂−𝐴|
𝐸𝑎 = 𝐴
× 100% (1ii)
Data can also be evaluated in terms of how measurements, which are made in the same manner, deviate
from one another. The deviation of experimental data is dependent upon the reproducibility with which the
experimenter can take data. This is known as precision and is evaluated in terms of absolute and relative
deviation. Absolute deviation is the absolute value of the difference between the mean or average value and
the measured value. This is expressed below in the equation.
Absolute deviation = |Observed value - Mean value|
Da = |O - M| (2i)
Another way to express the deviation is as a percentage. This is the relative deviation and is expressed as
follows.
Relative deviation = Average absolute deviation × 100%
Dr = Da × 100% (2ii)
Statistically the uncertainty of a measurement can be determined using a quantity called the standard
deviation, σ.

The standard deviation for a sample of N measurements is defined as follows:

1
𝜎=√ ∑𝑁 (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 (3i)
𝑁−1 𝑖=1 𝑖

∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
where 𝑥̅ = , N is the number of observation and xi each observation.
𝑁

The standard deviation is a measure of spread. If the standard deviation is small, then the spread in the
measured values about the mean is small, and so the uncertainty is low but the precision in the
measurements is high. The standard deviation is always positive and has the same units as the measured
values. Therefore, the measured value of X can be written as: 𝑋 = 𝑋̅ ± 𝜎𝑋 .

Standard error SE: one can measure the standard error of the measurement using the relation:
𝜎
𝑆𝐸 = (3ii)
√𝑁

1
The standard error is smaller than the standard deviation by a factor of , this reflects the fact that we
√𝑁
expect the uncertainty of the average value to get smaller when we use a larger number of measurements,
N.

Graphical interpretation of the standard deviation in normal distribution

Suppose, N number of trials has been taken to measure the value of X. If you now make one more
measurement, you can reasonably expect with about 68% confidence that the new measurement will be
within one standard deviation of the mean value 𝑥̅ ± 1𝜎, 95% of the readings will be in the interval two
standard deviations of the mean value 𝑥̅ ± 2𝜎, and nearly all (99.7%) of readings will lie within three
standard deviations from the mean, 𝑥̅ ± 3𝜎. So, for example, if an experimental data point lies 3𝜎 from
prediction, there is a strong chance that either the prediction is not correct or there are systematic errors
which affect the experiment.

The distribution of values symmetric with respect to the mean the so called “normal” distribution, or bell-
shaped curve. Schematically shown below:
Propagation of Error

Suppose A and B are two physical quantities with standard deviations σA and σB respectively. Let F defines
a new physical variable that is determined by F = f(A,B). Using statistical analysis, the average value and
the standard deviation of F can be calculated as follows:
If F = f(A,B) = A ± B, corresponding mean value and the standard deviation are given by

𝐹 = 𝐴̅ ∓ 𝐵̅ (4)

𝜎𝐹 = √𝜎𝐴2 + 𝜎𝐵2 (5)

If F = f(A,B,C) = ABC, corresponding mean value and the standard deviation are given by

𝐹 = 𝐴̅ × 𝐵̅ × 𝐶̅ (6)

𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎𝐹 = |𝐹| × √( 𝐴𝐴̅ )2 + ( 𝐵̅𝐵 )2 + ( 𝐶𝐶̅ )2 (7)

Significant Figures
According to the discussion in the previous sections, it is clear that the accuracy of the measurement
depends on the number of trials in addition to other factors. The question is how many digits we need to
keep in a calculation or measurement. There is no fixed answer, however, more digits means better
accuracy. As for example, the numbers 2, 2.0, 2.00, looks same. But 2.00 has better accuracy than 2. This
feature is expressed by the notion of significant figures. The rule to find the significant figures in a number
is the following: express the number in the scientific form

abcd... = a.bcd... × 10d ,

where a,b,c,d etc are digits (i.e., 0,1,2,3, ...). The number of nonzero digits before the exponential factor is
called the significant figure. That is, 2 is a one significant number, 2.0 a two significant number, 2.00 a
three significant number, and so on. Similarly 2.05, 0.00375, 9.11 × 10−11 are all three significant numbers.

Procedure:

1. Measure the length and diameter of the cylindrical rod using your ruler. Use eyeball guessing to
approximate the value when necessary. Record the values in Table-1.
2. Before using the Vernier Ruler, find the Vernier constant using the formula:

𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

Vernier constant = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

3. Find the length of the cylinder using the Vernier scale and record in Table-2, each data will be
calculated using the formula: Vernier scale reading = Main scale reading + Vernier Scale division ×
Vernier constant

5. Measure the length of the cylinder by putting in between the jaws of the Vernier scale. Read the
main scale and Vernier scale readings, and record these in the Table-2. Use eyeball guessing to
approximate the value when necessary. Compute the total reading using the formula given in the
previous step.

6. Compute the average length and using Eq.(2), compute the standard deviation of the length
measurement (or simply called error in measurement), and write it in the Table-2.

7. Before using the screw gauge find out the pitch (the distance along the linear scale traveled by
circular scale when it is completed one rotation) and the total number of divisions of the circular
scale of the screw gauge and calculate least count (L.C) using the formula:

Pitch (m)
Least Count =
Total number of divisions in the circular scale (n)

8. Now measure the diameter of the cylinder, by setting in between the studs of the screw gauge.
Read the linear scale and circular scale readings, use the expression below, find out the diameter
of the cylinder and record these in the Table-3.

Screw gauge reading = Linear scale reading + Circular scale division × Least count

**Note:

-Please carefully consider the instrumental error. You should add or subtract accordingly where needed.

-In order to get rid of the backlash error, the screw head should always be rotated in the same direction
while measurement is made.
Data Tables:

Table 1: Ruler measurements

Data No. Length, L (cm) Radius, R (cm) 𝐿̅ (cm) 𝑅̅ (cm)

1
2
3
4
5
6

Table 2: Finding Length using Vernier Scale

Vernier constant: _____________________ cm

Vernier
Data Main Scale Length 𝐿̅ (𝐿̅ − 𝐿𝑖 )2 𝜎𝐿
scale
No. reading (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm2) (cm)
division, d

Table-3: Data for the radius of the cylinder

 Least count, LC= ________cm

Instrumental error (if any) = _______________ cm

Linear Circular
Instrume Radius, Mean
scale scale Diameter
ntal Corrected D radius, 𝑟̅ (𝑟̅ − 𝑟𝑖 )2
reading, reading, r=
Data x+y diameter, D 2 𝜎𝑟
error (cm)
x y = d × Lc (cm)
(cm) (cm)
(cm) (𝑐𝑚2 )
(cm) (cm)
(cm)

6
Calculation for Volume and its error:
Volume of a cylinder = 𝛑𝒓𝟐 𝒍
1. Using the ordinary ruler: Volume of the cylindrical rod, V1 =

2. Using the Vernier scale and screw gauge: Volume of the cylinder, V2 =

3. Error in volume calculation from Vernier ruler and screw gauge measurement (use propagation of
error, equations 6,7),

σV =

4. Final result, V2 ± σV =

Result:

Discussions:
 Exp-2: Bouncing Ball experiment

Objective:
1. Observe the potential and kinetic energy conversion and dissipation of total energy due to friction,
etc.
2. Observe the coefficient of bouncing for different balls.

Apparatus:

Meter scale, Tape, Assorted types of balls, for example tennis ball, golf ball and table tennis ball

Theory:

The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be
transformed.
In the Bouncing Ball Drop experiment, we would see energy transformation.

Before dropping a ball, you must lift it up from its’ resting surface. When you do this, you are transferring
energy from your muscles to the ball. You are giving the ball potential energy, specifically gravitational
potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy (PE) is the energy gained by an object as its height above ground level
increases. An object’s GPE is determined using this formula:

PE = height × mass × acceleration due to gravity, g

Objects that are the same weight will gain more GPE the higher they are positioned. If one object is heavier
than the other at the same height, the heavier object will have more GPE.
As the ball falls towards the ground, its gravitational potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy
(KE).
Kinetic energy is the energy of mass in motion. An object that has motion (velocity v) no matter the direction
1
has kinetic energy. KE = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
The kinetic energy of the ball will continue increasing as the ball gains momentum, until it finally collides
with a surface (floor).

At the floor, PE must equal the kinetic energy on impact, PE = KE, thus velocity of the falling ball,
𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ
Newton’s third law says that the floor will then push back on the ball, sending it rising. Thus KE will
transform to PE again to send the ball at bounce height.

For an ideal case of elastic collision, the ball would reach the drop height after the bounce. However, a ball
dropping (not thrown) is an example of an inelastic collision where part of the kinetic energy is changed
to some other form when colliding with a surface. Thus, a ball that is dropped never bounces back up to
the original height, and will rise less with each bounce.

When a ball hits a surface, some energy is transformed into sound energy, some is transformed into thermal
energy from the friction created, and some becomes elastic potential energy resulting from the
instantaneous deformation of the ball when it collides.

Now due to the elastic PE the ball is able to bounce, or rebound. When the ball bounces back up from the
ground its elastic PE is converted back into KE. At the bounce height KE again converted to gravitational
PE as the ball resumes its original shape. In this experiment you would see how the velocity of the ball
changes before and after the impact with the floor.

Some balls, however, are more efficient in how they store and release their elastic PE than others. The more
efficiently a ball stores and converts elastic PE back into KE, the higher the ball bounces.

For a ball the ratio of drop height and bounce height (= H1 / H2), which we call the coefficient of bouncing,
should be roughly the same for each height. In this lab you would see the efficiency of ball bouncing for
different balls.

In the ball dropping experiment the total mechanical energy, E = KE + PE decreases with each bounce of
the ball. In this lab you would see that with each successive bounce, it dissipates more energy to friction,
air resistance and heat.
Procedure:

1. Measure the mass of each ball by using the top pan balance.
2. Divide the activities so that one student drops the ball, one student watches the bounce and
estimates the height to which it bounces, and one student records the data. Tape/hold the scale to
the edge of a table (you need to do this on a hard surface).
3. The height to which the ball bounces is to be estimated as carefully as possible. Both the height of
drop (H1) and the height of bounce (H2) should be recorded in data Table A.

4. Select one ball, for example table tennis ball and drop the ball and record how high it rebounds.
5. Drop the ball at least five times and average of the bounce heights.
6. Find the potential energy of before it dropped, PE1 = m g H1 (J) and potential energy of ball after
one bounce, PE2 = m g H2 (J)
7. Find the velocity of falling, 𝑣1 = √2𝑔𝐻1 and velocity of bouncing, 𝑣2 = √2𝑔𝐻2
8. Calculate the KE during falling and bouncing, and record in Table B.
9. Now repeat this whole process for each of the other balls, and record in Table B.

Study of bouncing coefficient

10. Take the table tennis/golf ball and drop the ball from different dropping heights (mentioned in the
table C).
11. Both the height of drop (H1) and the height of bounce (H2) should be recorded in data Table C.
12. Draw a graph of bounce height (H2) vs drop height (H1), use the standard deviation values as error
bars.
13. Draw a best fit line for the data points. Note: This is NOT a line drawn to connect each point. It is
a line which best shows the relationship involved - in this case a straight line.
 0.8

0.7
Bounce Height, H2 (m)
0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1
Drop Height, H1 (m)

14. Use the graph to predict the height of the bounce for a ball dropped half way between two drop
heights, for example 0.85 m. This method is called interpolation, when the value to be calculated
lies within your data.
15. Use your graph to predict the height of the bounce for a ball dropped from more than 1 m height,
for example 1.10 m. This method is similar to interpolation, but is called extrapolation, when the
value to be calculated lies outside the data.
16. Find the slope of fitted line and calculate the bouncing efficiency of the ball.
 Data tables:

Table A
First Bounce height (m) Mean Ratio of
Drop Height, H1 Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial bounce heights,
(m) 1 2 3 4 5 height, H2 H1/H2
(m)
Tennis

Golf 1.0
Table
Tennis

Mass of the Tennis ball = kg

Mass of the Golf ball = kg
Mass of the Table Tennis ball = kg

Table B

Ball PE1 (J) v1 (m/s) KE1 (J) PE2 (J) v2 (m/s) KE2 (J) Lost % Energy
energy (J) loss
E1=
E2 =
PE1+
PE2 +
KE1
KE2 (J)
(J)

Tennis

Golf

Table
Tennis
You have already learned how to calculate standard deviation, σ (see Experiment 1). The standard
deviation of a distribution of measurements is defined as follows:
𝑁
1
𝜎 = √𝑁−1 ∑𝑁 ̅ 2 ̅ ∑𝑖=1 𝐻𝑖
𝑖=1(𝐻𝑖 − 𝐻 ) Where 𝐻 = 𝑁

You can easily do it by using your scientific calculator in STAT mode.

Table C
Drop Height, H1 (m) First Bounce height (m) Mean bounce Standard
Trial Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 height, H2 (m) deviation,
1 σH2 (m)
1.0

0.9

0.8
Golf ball
0.7

0.6

Calculations from graph:

Slope 1 coefficient of bouncing for table golf ball =
Interpolated bounce height for example at 0.85 m =
Extrapolated bounce height for example at 1.10m =

Result:

Discussions:
 Expt-3: Demonstration of Hooke’s Law using spiral spring

Objective:
1. To measure the spring constant of a spiral spring and corresponding elastic potential energy using
the Hooke’s Law.

2. To determine the effective mass of the spring.

Apparatus:
Stand with a clamp, a set of slotted masses, spiral spring, meter scale, weighing scale and stop watch.

Theory:

Hooke's of elasticity states that, for relatively small deformations of an object, the displacement or size of
the deformation is directly proportional to the deforming force or load.
Consider a spring in its relaxed state that is, neither compressed nor extended. One end is fixed, and a
particle-like object a block, say is attached to the other, free end. If we stretch the spring by pulling the
block, the spring pulls on the block in the opposite direction. Similarly, if we compress the spring by
pushing the block, the spring now pushes on the block in the opposite direction. This is because a spring
force acts to restore the relaxed state, called the restoring force.

Figure 1: Spring mass system setup for Hooke’s Law demonstration

To a good approximation for many springs, the force from a spring is proportional to the displacement of
the free end from its position when the spring is in the relaxed state. The spring force is given by

F = −kx (1)
which is known as Hooke’s law for a spring mass system. The minus sign indicates that the direction of
the spring force is always opposite the direction of the displacement of the spring’s free end.

The constant k is called the spring constant (or force constant) and is a measure of the stiffness of the
spring. The larger k is, the stiffer the spring; that is, the larger k is, the stronger the spring’s pull or push for
a given displacement. The SI unit for k is the Newton per meter.

In figure 1, xo is the length of the spring with the mass holder hanging at rest at the equilibrium point. The
displacement, x, is measured relative to the equilibrium point. Hooke’s Law is valid within the elastic limit
of the spring.

𝑥
The work done by the spring force: 𝑊 = − ∫𝑥 𝑓 𝐹𝑑𝑥 (since force and displacement oppositely directed)
𝑖
𝑥𝑓 1 1
= ∫𝑥 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑘𝑥𝑖2 − 2 𝑘𝑥𝑓2 (2)
𝑖
1
If xi = 0, 𝑊 = − 𝑘𝑥 2 (work done by a spring force)
2

We know that the work done by a variable force could also be represented by the area under the force-
displacement curve.
Also the corresponding elastic potential energy can be expressed as,
1
𝑈 = −𝑊 = 2 𝑘𝑥 2 (3)
The theoretical period of a system composed of a mass M oscillating at the end of a mass less spring of
force constant k is given by,
𝑀
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ (4)
𝑘
In a real spring–mass system, since no spring is mass less, the equation should modify by considering the
effective mass me of the spring, which is defined as the mass that needs to be considered to correctly predict
the behavior of the system.
𝑚0 +𝑚𝑒
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑘
, (5)
where m0 is the applied load.

The effective mass of the spring, in a spring-mass system when using an ideal spring of uniform linear
1
density is 1/3 of the mass of the spring, i.e. 𝑚𝑒 = 𝑚𝑠 and is independent of the direction of the spring-
3
mass system. Note that this effective spring mass is responsible for elongation when the spring is vertical.
Procedure:

1. Measure the mass of the spring M by using the digital balance.

2. Hang the spring vertically from the clamp and measure the length with meter stick.
3. Add masses, one at a time, beginning with 150 grams. Increment the mass by 50 grams and record
the length of the spring, X.
4. Compute the length of the spring for each added mass. Record the data in Table 1.
5. Determine the Force = mg (N) applied for each mass and record it in Table-1.
6. Slightly change the position of the mass holder and then release it - do not apply any external forces.
The mass should be oscillating straight up and down. If not, stop it and try again until you get
vertical oscillation.
7. With the digital stop watch count the time for 10 cycles for each mass added twice and then find
the average time period. Note: All of your time values should have to the same first two digits -
otherwise your experimental setup might have some flaws. Record your results in Table 1.
8. To gather the best results, one has to be very careful and consistent. The base of the apparatus
should be firmly held and not allowed to move. Any motion of the apparatus outside the spring and
the holder will increase the error in your results.
9. Plot the Force Applied (F) vs. Total Elongation (L), and determine the slope of the line. See Figure
2.
10. Using the slope of the graph determine the value of the spring constant, k.

Figure 2: Extension vs Force and T2 vs load graph for a spring mass system

11. For a specific load and extension find the area from F-L graph, for a triangle: area = ½ × base×
height, this is the work done, W.
12. For the above load and extension find the corresponding elastic potential energy using the relation,
1
𝑈 = 2 𝑘𝑥 2
13. Plot another graph with m (abscissa) against T2 (ordinate) as shown in Figure 2 (right). Find out the
effective mass (me) by taking the point of intercept of the resulting lines on horizontal axis.
Data tables:

Table 1. Static Determination of the Spring Constant, k

Mass Force, Length Time for 10 Oscillations Average Time Time

added to m×g after (sec) Period (𝑻𝒂𝒗 ) Period2
the (N) stretch, X (sec) (𝑻𝟐 )
spring, m (m) (sec2)
(kg)
0.000 - - - -

0.150 - - - -

0.200 - - - -

0.250

0.300
0.350

0.400

0.450

0.500

Table2. Calculation of Effective mass

Mass of spring by digital balance, Ms kg

Effective mass of the spring kg

(take x intercept from the T2 vs m graph), me

Mass of the spring, Ms,exp = 3 × me Kg

Percentage Error
Calculations for work done and potential energy (using graph obtained from Table 1):

𝑑𝐿
From graph-1, Slope = 𝑑𝐹 = m/N

Spring constant, k = slope-1 = N/m

Work done from the F-L graph, W = J
Elastic potential energy, U = J

Result:

Discussions:
 Experiment-:4 Determination of sheer modulus using Dynamic Method

Objective:

1. Understand how a torsional pendulum works.

2. To determine the sheer modulus of the element of wire by the method of oscillation with the prior
knowledge of Angular force and Simple Harmonic motion.

Apparatus:

A uniform wire, a cylindrical bar, suitable clamp, stopwatch, screw gauge, slide calipers, meter scale.
Theory:
A torsion pendulum consists of a mass suspended from a thin wire. When the mass is twisted about the axis
of the wire, the wire exerts a torque on the mass, tending to rotate it back to its original position. If twisted
and released, the mass will oscillate back and forth to its original position executing a simple harmonic
motion.
For example, a cylindrical mass is suspended by a vertical wire of length l and radius r as shown in Fig.
1.1. The axis of the wire passes through its center of gravity. If at any instant the angle of twist is θ, the
restoring torque exerted by the wire will be proportional to the angular displacement,

𝜏 = −𝐶𝜃 (1)
And the time period for torsional oscillations will be,

𝐼
𝑇 = 2π√𝐶 (2)

where I is the moment of inertia of the cylindrical body and C is the couple per angle of twist.
1
Given by, 𝐼 = 2 𝑀𝑎2 , ‘M’ and ‘a’ are the mass and radius of the cylinder respectively.

𝜂𝜋𝑟 4
and 𝐶 = 2𝑙
(3)

η is the modulus of rigidity of the material of the wire, l is the length of the wire, r is the radius of the wire.
From above equations, we get
4π2 𝐼 8𝜋 𝐼 𝑙
𝑇2 = 𝐶
= 𝜂𝑟 4
(4)

8𝜋 𝐼 𝑙
by rearranging the expression, 𝜂= 𝑇2𝑟4
(5)
 A

Fig 1 Torsional Pendulum

Procedure:

1. Find out the value of one smallest division of the main scale and the total number of divisions of
the Vernier scale of the slide calipers and calculate Vernier constant (V.C).
2. Find out the value of pitch (the distance along the linear scale traveled by circular scale when it is
completed one rotation) and the total number of divisions of the circular scale of the screw gauge
and calculate least count (L.C).
3. Measure the radius, a of the cylinder by using the slide calipers.
1
4. Measure the mass, M of the cylinder. Calculate moment of inertia, I = 2 𝑀𝑎2 .
5. Measure the radius, r of the wire by using the screw gauge.
6. Measure the length, l of the wire from the point of suspension and the point at which the wire is
attached to the cylinder with a meter scale.
7. Twist the cylinder from its equilibrium position through a certain angle and release so that it begins
to oscillate. Measure the time for 20 complete oscillations with a stop watch. Find out time period
(T) of the oscillation.
8. Calculate the value of the modulus of rigidity (η) of the material of the given wire.
Data Tables:
Vernier Constant (V.C.) of the slide calipers,

The value of one smallest division of the main scale

V .C =
Total number of divisions in the vernier scale

Least Count (L.C.) of the Screw Gauge

Pitch
L.C. =
Total number of divisions in the circular scale

Table-1: Data for the radius of the cylinder

Vernier Vernier Mean

Main scale Diameter Radius,
scale constant diameter, 𝐷
No. of reading, x 𝑎=
division, y =x+ Vc × d 2
obs. VC D
(cm) (cm) (cm)
d (cm) (cm)

5
Table-2: Data for the radius of the wire

Linear Least
Circular Diameter Mean Instru- Radius
Correcte
No. scale scale count, diameter, mental D
of reading,
y=x+d× d r=
division, Lc D error diameter, 2
obs. x Lc
d D (cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm)

Table-3: Data for the time period

No. of obs. Time for 10 oscillations, t (sec) Time period, T= t/10 (sec) Mean T (sec)

3
4

Length of the wire, l: (i) __________cm (ii) __________cm (iii) __________cm

Average length of the wire, l = __________cm

Mass of the cylinder, M= ______________ kg

Calculations:

1
Moment of Inertia of the cylinder, I = Ma 2 =
2

8 πI l
Modulus of rigidity of the wire,  = Pa
T2r4

Error Calculation:
Standard value of the modulus of rigidity of the material of the wire = 7.7 × 1010 Pa

Stanard value ~ Experiment al value

Percentage error =  100 %
Standard value

= _____________________

Result:

Discussions:
 Expt-5: Period of Oscillation for a Simple Pendulum

Objective:
1. To determine whether the period of oscillation is dependent on the mass, the angle of displacement
or the length of the pendulum.
2. To measure the acceleration due to gravity.

Apparatus:
Digital stop watch, sample masses with hooks, meter stick, stand with clamp, digital weight balance,
masses. The students need to bring a protractor for angle measurements.

Theory:

A simple pendulum consists of a mass suspended by a light string of length L. By observation, one notices
the very regular motion it takes, which makes one curious as to what affects this regular motion or period.
This regular motion can be thought of, ideally, as being simple harmonic in nature. The period, T, can be
defined as the point where the mass is released to the time where it returns to its original position.

θ L

FT

mgsin θ

mg

Figure 1: Free-Body Diagram of the Forces.

Outside of its equilibrium position (when it is at rest) the following diagram (Figure 1) with the forces
labelled will apply. Consider the forces acting on the mass, we see that mg is the weight due to the force of
gravity and that FT is the tension in the string. The tangential component of the gravitational force acting
on the mass is the following:

Ftangential = mgsinθ. (1)

The direction of this force is always toward the equilibrium and can be thought of as the restoring force.
Now let us make an approximation that says that the period of oscillation for the pendulum is small and for
small angles the following statement is true: sinθ ≈ θ.

Since the angles are small, determining the arc length that is sweeped can be defined as s = Lθ or rearranging
it we get θ = s/L. Applying both the approximation and the arc length to equation (1) we get the following:
Ftangential = mgsinθ ≈ mgθ = (mg/L)s (2)

Hooke’s Law (F = kx) also works in a similar fashion, which is called Simple Harmonic Motion.

Comparing both equations, we see that k = mg/L, which makes s similar to the displacement, x, in Hooke’s
Law. Therefore, the period, T, of a simple pendulum can be described similarly to the period of a mass on
a spring, which is already known. Taking that equation and the value of k, it can be transformed into this
final result.
𝑚 𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑘 and 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔 (3)

Now, the length L is the sum of the string length l and the radius of the metal block R. Substituting L = l +
R in Eq. (3), squaring both sides and rearranging, we can write,
4𝜋2 𝑙 4𝜋2 𝑅
𝑇2 = 𝑔
+ 𝑔
(4)

Look carefully at the transformed equation and take notice to what directly affects the period of a simple
pendulum and remember what assumptions and approximations were made to get the final result.

Mass

Figure 2: The Experimental Setup

Procedure:

Part I: Mass Dependence

1. First, the apparatus should look similar to Figure 2.

2. Next, we want to vary the mass, but keep the length and angle of oscillation constant. Use a length
greater than 50cm and record the value. Note that the length of the pendulum is the sum of the length
of the string from the hanging point up to the hook attached with the mass block and the distance from
the top of the hook up to the center of the mass of the block. Note: Use the digital balance to weigh
your masses. The effective length of the pendulum is the sum of the length of the string and the
distance of the center of mass of the mass. Use a protractor to keep the angle of oscillation less than
or equal to 15 degrees.

3. After the first period is recorded press, repeat for two more times. Fill in Table 1 accordingly, where
Tavg is the average period of the three trials.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for two more masses, and complete Table-1.

5. Construct a graph of Tavg2 vs. m. This should like a horizontal line.

Part II: Angle Dependence

1. This time hold the mass constant and record this value. Keep the same length from Part I. Use a
protractor to vary the angle of oscillation to take data. Fill in Table 2 accordingly.

2. Construct a graph of Tavg2 vs. θ. This should look like a nonlinear line.

Part III: Length Dependence

1. Keep the same mass from Part II as well as keep the angle less than or equal to 15 degrees, but vary
the length (l) of the pendulum by increasing or decreasing the string length. Fill in Table 3.

2. Construct a graph of Tavg2 vs. l. Notice that the equation of a simple pendulum can be used to determine
the acceleration due to gravity, g, by manipulating it from Eq. (4), where we see that it is similar to y
= mx + b. The slope, m, equals 4π2/g. Use this expression to calculate the experimental value of
acceleration due to gravity, gexp.
Data tables:

Table 1. Mass Dependence of the Period

Length of Pendulum, L = m

Mass A Single Period Tavg Tavg2

(sec2)
(grams) (sec) (sec)

Table 2. Angle Dependence of the Period

Mass of Pendulum = grams

Angle A Single Period Tavg Tavg2

(sec2)
(degrees) (sec) (sec)
10

15

20

30

40
 Table 3. Length Dependence of the Period

Length A Single Period Tavg Tavg2

l
(m) (sec) (sec) (sec2)
0.40

0.45

0.50

0.55

0.60

Calculations:
1.Calculate the slope using the data from your best-fit line.
2.Calculate gexp using the expression at the end of Part III.
3.Calculate the percent error of your gravitational acceleration, gexp, by comparing it to the accepted
value, g = 9.81m/s2.

Slope of the best fit line= _________________________ s2/m.

gexp = _________________________ m/s2.

Percent error = __________________________

Result:

Discussions:
 Expt-6: Compound Pendulum and Acceleration due to gravity

Objective:

1. To determine the 𝑔, the acceleration due to gravity.

2. To determine k, the radius of the gyration of the pendulum.
Apparatus:
1. Compound pendulum
2. Meter rule
3. Stop watch
4. Digital weigh machine

Theory:
A physical pendulum or compound pendulum is a rigid object, which is free to rotate about a fixed
horizontal axis. In this experiment, we use a special type of compound pendulum which is symmetric about
its center of mass. This compound pendulum is nothing but a metal bar, containing a number of holes with
equal intervals. The pendulum can be suspended by the help of knife edge passing through different holes.
The point of suspension is known as pivot point. If we swing the bar from different holes then the moment
of inertia of the pendulum and the time period will change.

Figure 1: Demonstration of compound pendulum oscillations and corresponding time period vs distance
graph.

Allowing the bar to swing it will approximately follow a simple harmonic motion. According to Newton’s
2nd law of motion for rotation the torque (τ):
𝜏=𝐼𝛼 (1)
where, I is the moment of inertia of the pendulum about the axis of rotation, and 𝛼 the angular acceleration.
Torque is given by 𝜏 = −𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙, here 𝑙 is the distance of the pivot from the center of the pendulum.
For very small angle of rotation 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 can be approximated by ∅, then from equation (1)
𝑑2 ∅
𝐼 𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝑚𝑔𝑙 (2)

𝑑2 ∅ 𝑚𝑔𝑙
By rearranging the equation, + ∅ =0 (3)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼

This 2nd order differential equation describes the simple harmonic motion with the angular frequency,
2𝜋 𝐼
𝜔= 𝑇
and the time period from (3): 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑚𝑔𝑙 (4)

Using “Parallel Axis Theorem: moment of inertia 𝐼, of an object about an axis parallel to the axis that
passes through the center of mass,

𝐼 = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝑚𝑙 2 (5)
where 𝐼𝐺 the moment of inertia of the object about the axis through the center of mass, 𝑚 is the total mass
of the object, and 𝑙 is the distance between the axes. We would also show that,

𝐼𝐺 = 𝑚𝐾 2 (6)
where 𝐾 is the radius of gyration about the axis passing through the 𝐺.
Substituting Eq. 5 and Eq.6 in Eq.4 we get,

𝐾2
+𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑙
(7)
𝑔

𝐿
Comparing the time period relation for simple pendulum of length L, 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ , we can deduce,
𝑔

𝑘2
𝐿=𝑙+ 𝑙
(8)

From the above equation we can obtain a quadratic equation of 𝑙, which has 2 roots 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 such that,
𝐿 = 𝑙1 + 𝑙2 (9)

𝐾 2 = 𝑙1 𝑙2 (10)
The value of K and g can be determined from,
𝐿
𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 (11)
𝑇2

𝐾 = √𝑙1 𝑙2 (12)

Since the “effective length L is composed of two roots 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 , so there are infinite ways to combine 𝑙1 and
𝑙2 to make the same 𝐿.
In this experiment, we will determine the length L and corresponding time period T graphically [see Figure
1]. If we plot a graph using table (1), two curves symmetric about the position of COM should appear.
Horizontal lines in the lower portion will intersect the curves in four points. 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 can be determined by
measuring the distances from the COM position. Using eqns. (11), acceleration due to gravity g and radius
of gyration K would be calculated.

Procedure:

1. With the help of the knife edge suspend the metal bar by passing through the hook to the hole closer to
the Edge A.
2. Measure the distance d from the center of gravity (middle hole) to the edge of the hole.
3. Oscillate the metal bar with an angle for a small angle.
4. Record the time for 10 oscillations using a stopwatch. Repeat it for two times and obtain the average
time period 𝑇 for that distance.
5. Repeat the procedure 1-4 for more holes of the bar, except the center of mass.
6. After procedure 5 again repeat the procedure 1-4 by inverting the metal bar (Edge B) for all the holes.
7. Draw a graph 𝑇 𝑣𝑠 𝑑 for Edge A and Edge B observations as shown in the Figure 1.
8. Draw a suitable horizontal line that intersects both curves. Mark A, B, C and D to the four points of
𝐴𝐶+𝐵𝐷
intersection with the graph. Measure the length AC and BD, then find the length L = and
2
corresponding 𝑇 for the line and then find the value of𝑔.
9. Repeat the procedure 8 by drawing another horizontal line and find the value of𝑔. Calculate the mean
of 𝑔.
10. Calculate the value𝐾, by using the formula 𝐾 = √𝐴𝐶 × 𝐵𝐷. Repeat the procedure for another line and
then find the average value of K.
 Data Table 1

Hole Number Height Time for 10 oscillations Mean time t Time Period
h (cm) (s) (s) 𝒕
T=𝟏𝟎 (s)
1

4
Edge
A
5

8
1

4
Edge
B
5

8
 TABLE 2 (From the graph)

𝒈
Observations Mean Mean
𝑳 𝑻 𝟐
𝑳 𝑲
from the = 𝟒𝝅 𝟐 𝒈 𝑲
(m) (sec) 𝑻 (m)
horizontal lines (m/𝒔𝟐 ) (m)
(m/𝒔𝟐 )
AC + BD
L=
2
1. ABCD

AC  + B D 
L =
2
2. 𝑨′ 𝑩′𝑪′𝑫′

Calculations for L, 𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑲:

Result:

Discussions: