GEOSYNTHETICS ASIA 2012

5th Asian Regional Conference on Geosynthetics

13 to 15 December 2012 | Bangkok, Thailand

GEOSYNTHETICS FOR EROSION CONTROL IN HYDRAULIC

ENVIRONMENT

T.W. Yee1
1
Technical Manager, TenCate Geosynthetics Asia, Shah Alam, Malaysia; Tel: +60-3 5191 2609; Fax: +60-3
5191 4761; Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The hydrologic cycle is described. The mechanisms of erosion due to hydraulic action are discussed. A
summary of conventional erosion control techniques and systems is provided. This includes the use of vegetation
and timber products; rocks and stones; and concrete unit products. The functions of geosynthetic erosion control
products may be summarized as ground cover, turf reinforcement, material confinement and material
containment. In ground cover, the product minimizes the impact of rain droplets and prevent the detachment of
soil particles. In turf reinforcement, the product improves the erosion resistance of vegetation. In material
confinement, the product enhances erosion resistance of the soil that they help confine. In material containment,
the product when filled with the selected material becomes a structural unit to replace of rock or concrete units to
resist the forces of erosion, thereby protecting the base soil below. The application and design of geosynthetics
for erosion control in hydraulic environment are presented. Several case studies are described.

Keywords: Hydraulic action, erosion, geosynthetics, application, design

INTRODUCTION of the Earth’s water. Naturally most of the

evaporation comes from the oceans. Moisture
The Collins Dictionary of Geology (Lipidus, condenses into precipitation producing clouds in the
1990) provides a detailed definition of erosion. atmosphere. Although most of the precipitation falls
Erosion, a noun, is the wearing away of any part of over the oceans, part of it results in continental
the Earth’s surface by natural agencies. These precipitation as a result of wind shifting of the
include mass wasting and the action of waves, wind, clouds. When the continental precipitation reaches
streams and glaciers. Fundamental to the process of ground it either flows overland or soaks into the soil.
erosion is that material must be picked up and
carried away by such agents. Evidence for erosion is
widespread; the retreat of marine cliffs, deposition
of fluvial material, and the cutting of great canyons,
e.g. the Grand Canyon. This paper discusses the
erosion of soil through hydraulic action and the
application of geosynthetics for the control of
erosion under such hydraulic influence.

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Vast currents of water, water vapor, ice, and

energy are flowing about us continuously in an Fig. 1 A simplified model of the hydrologic cycle
elaborate, open global plumbing system (Christopherson, 2000)
(Christopherson, 2000). Together they form the
hydrologic cycle, which has operated for billions of In any drainage basin, water initially moves
years, from the lower atmosphere to several downslope in a thin film called sheet-flow, or
kilometers beneath Earth’s surface. The cycle overland flow. Surface runoff tends to then
involves the circulation and transformation of water concentrate in rills or small-scale downhill grooves,
throughout Earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere, which may then develop into deeper gullies and then
lithosphere, and biosphere. a stream course in a valley. Streams drain into rivers
Figure 1 shows a simplified model of the that eventually flow to the ocean. As water finds its
complex hydrologic cycle. The oceans cover over way from high ground back to the ocean under the
70% of Earth’s surface and contain more than 97% influence of gravity, there is a constant inter-

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5th Asian Regional Conference on Geosynthetics
13 to 15 December 2012 | Bangkok, Thailand

exchange of groundwater and fluvial water Overland Erosion Process

depending on the landform and subsurface geology.
Figure 2 shows the schematic diagram of the runoff The overland flow of water erodes the ground
process according to Knighton (1984). surface. Thin, uniform layers of soil are peeled off
the land surface in a process called sheet erosion
(Cunningham and Saigo, 1997). When little rivulets
of running water gather together and cut small
channels in the soil, the process is called rill erosion.
When rills enlarge to form bigger ravines that are
too large to be removed by normal tillage operations,
they progress onto the process of gully erosion.

Fluvial Erosion Process

Running water causes hydraulic squeeze-and-

release action that loosens and lifts rock particles. As
this debris moves along, it mechanically erodes the
streambed further, through the process of abrasion,
with rock particles grinding and carving the bed like
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of the runoff process sandpaper (Christopherson, 2000).
(Knighton, 1984) The upstream tributaries in a drainage basin
usually have small and irregular discharges, and
most of the channel’s energy is expended in
EROSION MECHANISMS AND PROCESSES turbulent eddies. As a result, hydraulic action in
these upstream sections is at maximum but the
Erosion Mechanisms suspended load is small.
The downstream portions of a river move much
Hydraulic action is the work of flowing water larger volumes of water past a given point and carry
alone. Depending on the impacting hydraulic larger suspended loads of sediment. Stream velocity
energy, the landform present and the characteristics determines the rates of erosion and deposition (see
of the in-situ soil, erosion or deposition may occur. Figure 3). Figure 4 shows the fluvial transportation
In order for erosion to occur three erosion of eroded materials through saltation, traction,
mechanisms must act in sequence: detachment, suspension, and solution.
entrainment and transport. Detachment is caused by
raindrop impact on a soil surface, running water
scouring action, flowing debris abrasion and wave
breaking action. Entrainment is mainly due to fluid
drag. Fluid drag causes particle to move because of
horizontal force (from the flow of water) and
vertical lift (from the turbulence and eddies). Once
a particle is entrained, it tends to move as long as the
velocity of the medium is high enough to transport
the particle horizontally. Figure 3 shows the erosion
and settling velocities for different soil particle sizes.
Fig. 4 Fluvial transportation of eroded materials
through saltation, traction, suspension, and
solution (Christopherson, 2000)

Shoreline Erosion Process

The shorelines of oceans and large lakes are

exposed to wave attack. Water waves are
predominantly wind created. Friction between
moving air and the water surface generates
undulations of water surface or waves. Waves
appear as water body in migration in the direction of
the wave travel. In reality only a slight amount of
water is advancing. It is the wave energy that is
Fig. 3 Erosion and settling velocities for different moving through the flexible medium of water.
soil particle sizes (Pidwirny, 1999)

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5th Asian Regional Conference on Geosynthetics
13 to 15 December 2012 | Bangkok, Thailand

Individual water particles move forward only which determines different ground vegetation cover
slightly, forming a vertically circular pattern. or the lack of it, impacts the rate of erosion.
When waves approach the shoreline, the orbiting The removal of surface vegetation which results
water particles are vertically restricted and this in the exposure of barren soil as in the case of
restriction causes elliptical and flattened orbits to construction site accelerates the rate of erosion (see
form near the bottom. This pattern change slows the Table 1). Grass can be an effective erosion control
affected wave, but more waves continue arriving measure when combined with a system of surface
from behind. The resultant effects are closer-spaced drains (GCO, 1984; Hengchaovanich, 1999; Truong,
waves, growing in height and steepness, with 1999). The techniques used for planting grass
sharper wave crests. As the crest of each wave rises, include hydroseeding, sprigging, turfing and
a point is reached when its height exceeds its vertical broadcast seeding (GCO, 1984).
stability and the wave falls into a characteristic
breaker, crashing onto the shore. When waves break Table 1 Erosion rates by land use in Malaysia
on the shore, they expend a large part of their energy (Sani, 1998)
to erode the land. Figure 5 shows the nature of
waves in the ocean and the changes in wave Land use Rate of
characteristics as it approaches the shoreline. erosion
(tonnes/
hectare/year)
Undisturbed lowland rainforest 0.19-3.12
Selective logging, lowland forest 0.2-16.5
Selective logging, steepland forest 11.2-28.5
Shifting cultivation 0.18-0.34
Logging roads 10-550
Temperate vegetables, highlands 2-10.5
Traditional pepper cultivation 80-85
Conversion of forest to oil palm 2.2-2.5
Construction site 400-500
Streams affected by construction 12-100
Fig. 5 Changes in wave characteristics as it activity
approaches the shoreline
A variety of woody materials, both live and dead,
The action of tides, currents, wind, waves and are used in bank protection all over the world
changing sea level produces a variety of erosional (Donat, 1992; Przedwojski et al, 1995; Polster,
and depositional landforms. Sea cliffs are erosional 2002). Live woody materials include water-tolerant
landforms formed by the undercutting action of the trees and shrubs. They act to impede hydraulic
waves. Beaches and mudflats are depositional action and their roots act as reinforcement of the
landforms. At any period of time, a shoreline may be base soil. However, they need regular trimming and
eroding or accreting, depending on changes in tides, maintenance to avoid a significant reduction in
currents, wind, waves and disruption to littoral channel capacity. Timber and other dead woody
process. materials are used in bank protection in the form of
poles, stakes, piles, beams, battens, logs, brush, etc.
Slope Instability Successful establishment of vegetation on a
newly-formed slope is governed by several factors
Slope instability is not an erosion mechanism. related to the time of planting, steepness, soil type
However, slope instability can hasten the rate of and the selection of the replanting species (GCO,
erosion. Firstly, slides detach large soil masses from 1984; Barker, 1999). Durability under successive
otherwise stable conditions and move them closer to wetting and drying of the timber product is a key
sources of erosion. Secondly, detached soil masses consideration for the design life of the erosion
usually end up looser than the in-situ soil state. protection system.

Rock and Stone Based Revetments

EROSION CONTROL SYSTEMS
Rock may be used in the construction of
Vegetation and Timber Products revetments for erosion control applications, as
riprap, rock armour or stone pitching (McConnell,
Vegetation provides a protective cover to the 1998). A geotextile filter layer is often used in
ground against surface erosion. Table 1 shows the between the rock layers and the base soil.
erosion rates by land use in Malaysia (Sani, 1998). It Riprap is widely graded rock (D85/D15 ~ 2 – 2.5),
is evident from Table 1 that different land use, which is placed in bulk to give an armour layer

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5th Asian Regional Conference on Geosynthetics
13 to 15 December 2012 | Bangkok, Thailand

about 2 to 3 stones thick. Rock armour is more ECGMs function as ground cover to exposed
carefully selected rock of a narrow size range soil. They minimize the impact of rain droplets and
(D85/D15 ~ 1.25 – 1.7.5), which is carefully placed in resist detachment of soil particles. They also act as a
layers, usually two rock thick. Rubble, which is backing for turf roots to grow into resulting in a
usually rock or stone fragments, but may sometimes composite carpet of turf (instead of behaving as
include broken concrete, brick or asphalt, can be individual clumps), thereby enhancing the erosion
dumped to provide protection. resistance of grass.
Pitched stone revetments are common in some Three-dimensional mats are able to trap some
places where the increased stability afforded to topsoil that can help speed up the process of
relatively small rock by close packing has allowed revegetation. Biodegradable mats may provide
the use of local stone. Other techniques that allow nourishment to facilitate growth of vegetation but
smaller stones to be used with improved stability gradually loses its function as turf reinforcement as
include the use of steel wire gabion and mattress biodegradation progresses.
products, and the use of cement grout, bitumen and Hybrids (combination of biodegradable and non-
other materials to bind the stones. biodegradable components) can provide
nourishment while retaining the long-term turf
Concrete Product Revetments reinforcement function. Figures 7(a,b) show the use
of two-dimensional biodegradable mat and three-
A wide variety of precast concrete products are dimensional non-biodegradable mat respectively for
available for use to replace of rock as erosion control erosion protection of excavated slopes.
cover units (Przedwojski et al, 1995; McConnell,
1998; Pilarczyk, 2000). They either come in the
form of block or slab units. Concrete blocks or slabs
may be placed to form an armour layer for revetment
construction, often with a geotextile filter layer
placed between the concrete product or the granular
drainage layers and the base soil.
Simple blocks can be placed freely on the slope
relying on unit mass, friction with the under-layer
and inter-block friction to provide stability. For
some blocks, gravel may be placed in the joints to
increase friction and help transfer loads over a wider
area. Interlocking blocks can provide greater
stability than simple blocks. Blocks can also be (a)
connected by cables to form mats. Concrete slabs
(generally of plan area 2 m x 2 m or larger) which
may be either precast or cast in-situ are also used.

Geosynthetic Products

The functions of geosynthetic products for

erosion control applications may be summarized as
ground cover, turf reinforcement, material
confinement and material containment. A variety of
products have been used for erosion control
applications (Theisen, 1992; Sprague and
Koutsourais, 1995; Kam, 2006; Leong et al, 2006;
Lawson, 2008; Heibum et al, 2010; Hornsey et al, (b)
2012; Nemeth et al, 2012).
Fig. 7 Use of ECGM for erosion control
Erosion control geomats applications, (a) 2-D biodegradable mat (b)
3-D non-biodegradable mat
Erosion control geomat (ECGM) is a rolled
ground-covering product that helps to prevent or Seeding techniques are usually used to establish
retard the erosion process. There is a wide variety of vegetation. This may be done before or after the
products in the market. ECGMs may be classified laying of ECGM. ECGM integrated with pre-grown
according to their structural form and degree of turf are sometimes used (Kam, 2006).
biodegradability.
Geosynthetic confinement products

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5th Asian Regional Conference on Geosynthetics
13 to 15 December 2012 | Bangkok, Thailand

Geosynthetic products with material confinement Geotextile containment products in the form of
function usually have honeycomb-like cells for in- bags, mattresses, tubes and other container shapes
filling with material. The product is made from have been used in erosion control applications
polymeric strips assembled and connected by a (Jakobson and Nielsen, 1970; Liu, 1974; Kortsmit
series of offset, full depth seams aligned and Tutuarima, 1993; Pilarczyk, 2000; Koerner,
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the strips. 2005; Yee et al, 2007; Lawson, 2008) for more than
The product comes in a compact accordion-like form 50 years. The materials used to fill these geotextile
and when expanded or stretched out, will form a containment products include sand, aggregate,
network of flexible, three-dimensional, cellular cement grout and concrete.
confinement system. For long term durability, the geotextile
The strips are usually solid or perforated polymer containment product may require product surface
straps but may also be made using geogrids or effect enhancement, establishment of long term
geotextiles. The strip width is varied according to vegetation cover or installation of a long term
design requirement. They may be in-filled with soil protective cover. Figures 9 a, b, c, d show the use
or stones and the confinement function effectively geotextile bag, sand filled geotextile mattress,
increases resistance of the soil or stone particles to micro-concrete filled geotextile mattress and
detachment and entrainment. geotextile tube respectively for erosion control
Figure 8(a) shows the application of soil filled applications.
cellular confinement product for excavated slope
erosion control. Here, the cells are carefully planted
with different types of grass and small flowering
plants that will result in an artistic motif. Figure 8(b)
shows the application of stone filled cellular
confinement product for riverbank erosion control.

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

Fig. 8 Application of cellular confinement product

(a) soil filled cells for excavated slope
erosion control (b) stone filled cells for
riverbank erosion control
(c)
Geosynthetic containment products

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GEOSYNTHETICS ASIA 2012
5th Asian Regional Conference on Geosynthetics
13 to 15 December 2012 | Bangkok, Thailand

vegetating phases, ground cover is the most

important function. During the vegetating phase, the
provision of optimum conditions for vegetation
growth is an important function of the product. The
length of time of the vegetating phase is very much
dependent on the grass species, the ground
condition, the topsoil fertility, the planting method
and the climate and weather condition during
planting and vegetating process. During the
vegetated phase the only important function still
remaining is turf reinforcement. While a theoretical
(d) predictive method for soil erosion and its prevention
is still an elusive target, there is no lack of laboratory
Fig. 9 Use of geotextile containment products for rainfall simulators and wave tanks to study the
erosion control applications, (a) geobag (b) situation (Koerner, 2005).
sand filled geotextile mattress (c) micro-
concrete filled geotextile mattress (d) Performance Evaluation using Rainfall
geotextile tube Simulators

To a significantly lesser extent, geogrids and Rainfall simulators are useful tools for the study
geonets have also been used to fabricate containment of erosion of soils due to rainfall and runoff
products for erosion control applications. However, (Dimoyiannis et al, 2001; Wanielista and Chopra,
geotextile predominates as the material of choice for 2010). Rustom and Weggel (1993) performed
the fabrication of geosynthetic containment products laboratory soil erosion tests on a number of ECGMs
for erosion control applications because panels of using a rainfall simulator. Results are presented for
geotextile can be easily joined with high seam bare soil slopes and for soil slopes protected by 12
strength and efficiency, as well as contain material different ECGMs with different products showing
over a much wider range of particle sizes. varying degrees of reduction in erosion. Such tests
are very useful in quantifying reductions in erosion
between a specific product against non-use and
PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION OF against other products.
EROSION CONTROL GEOMAT Leong et al (2006) reported the use of rainfall
simulator for physical model testing in the
Vegetation Establishment Phases laboratory to determine the performance of selected
ECGMs. The large scale physical model testing
When ECGMs are used for erosion control there facility was developed in the Hydraulics Laboratory
is a time perspective involved when we talk about of the National University of Singapore. Figure 11
the functions needed and performance of the ECGM shows the testing setup.
(see Figure 10).

Fig. 11 Large scale physical model testing facility

Fig. 10 Phases of vegetation establishment and at the Hydraulics Laboratory of the
functions of ECGM as a progression of National University of Singapore (Leong et
time (Yee, 2006) al, 2006)

Broadly, we can differentiate three different The 2 m wide flume test setup essentially
phases; the unvegetated phase, the vegetating phase consists of three components; the rainfall simulator,
and the vegetated phase. During the unvegetated and the model soil slope and the eroded soil retention

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5th Asian Regional Conference on Geosynthetics
13 to 15 December 2012 | Bangkok, Thailand

basin. The rainfall simulator consists of a 2 m long It should be noted that allowable flow velocities
pipe with 15 nozzles at every 100 mm intervals, is decrease with flow duration. Koerner (2005)
placed across the width of the flume and can move remarked that manufacturers of ECGMs often
along the length of the flume above where the model present the erosion resistance of their products in
soil slope is located. The eroded soil retention basin terms of maximum allowable flow velocity and that
is located beyond the toe of the model soil slope and though unstated, these flow limits are typically for
consists of a geotextile filter baffle across the flume very short duration and may not reflect the potential
located 4 m from the toe of the model slope. The for severe erosion damage that results from
geotextile baffle allows water to seep through but moderate flow velocities over a period of several
retains soil particles which can then be quantified. hours.
A series of tests was carried out to quantify the
erosion of the model slope in terms of soil collected Product Selection
in the retention basin under different simulated
rainfall intensity and duration. These were repeated If cost is not an issue, the ideal system would be
under the same conditions using 3 different grades one that provides maximum ground cover erosion
of ECGM. Table 2 shows the results. resistance, time-wise has the shortest vegetating
phase and provides the best performance in terms of
Table 2 Eroded soil concentration in terms of ppm turf reinforcement. The definition of system here
of runoff (Leong et al, 2006) would include the ECGM, the grass species and the
topsoil selection. A wide variety of product designs
Bare ECGM ECGM ECGM is available in the market to cater for these
Slope preparation Slope 1 2 3 engineering objectives. However, cost is always a
ECGM unit mass N.A. 270 400 320 consideration. Therefore the first question to answer
Time Intensity Eroded soil concentration in the product selection process is whether turf
(min) (mm/hr) (ppm) reinforcement is required in design. Generally,
15 300 3048 610 - - ECGMs with long term turf reinforcement capability
15 500 2743 571 80 183
30 300 2667 486 - -
tend to be more costly.
30 500 2286 446 51 114 It is desirable to ensure a quick establishment of
vegetation, as a good vegetation cover is the key to
The percentage area cover of the ECGM seems long-term protection of barren soil. However,
to affect the loss of soil prior to establishment of ECGMs that have excellent ground cover erosion
vegetation. A high percentage area cover is more resistance tend to have low light penetration
effective in controlling erosion of the barren soil. capability which may slow down the vegetating
However, if the percentage area cover is too high it process. Ultimately, the product selection is best
may slow down the process of revegetation. based on a balance between the relevant design
objectives and cost.
Turf Reinforcement Performance
ECGM Product Specification
Erosion control revegetation mats (ECRMs) and
turf reinforcing mats (TRMs) are ECGMs that have The specification process for ECGMs usually
the function of turf reinforcement. Figure 12 shows covers a variety of product properties and test
the long term design velocities versus storm flow methods. They generally fall under the category of
durations (Theisen, 1992). index or performance. Some of them are properties
that rely on established test methods e.g. tensile
strength, mass per unit area, water permeability, etc.
Others are properties that rely on developing test
methods e.g. light transmission, smoulder resistance,
porosity, water absorption, protection against
evaporation, etc. (Smith and Bhatiar, 2006; Nemeth
et al, 2012). Smith et al (2005) indicated that
percentage area cover and water holding capacity
play important roles in the long term vegetation
establishment of ECGMs.
As there are no numerical analytical methods
available for design, the usual way to specify is
based on past practice and experience. A target type
Fig. 12 Recommended maximum design velocities or range of product is first identified, based on past
for various classes of erosion control successes and the manufacturer’s published data
materials (Theisen, 1992) then forms a basis to specify on properties.

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REVETMENT DESIGN USING GEOTEXTILE Effective revetment thickness

CONTAINMENT PRODUCTS
When filled with the intended material, these
Structure Performance and Design Life products will shrink in width and length as they gain
in thickness. The product filled thickness depends on
The design life of the revetment structure should the product design and the degree of filling. The
be defined. This is most likely determined on an surface of the filled unit is also not even. However,
economic basis and this definition impacts on the for design a nominal thickness is estimated.
product specification for durability requirements. Manufacturers usually would provide information
The required level of service of the revetment should with regards to such filled unit dimensions and
also be determined. This may be in terms of an nominal thickness achieved after filling.
acceptable overtopping limit or risk of damage. Last The effective thickness of the geotextile mattress
but not least the design event of a certain return revetment is equal to the nominal thickness of the
period should be selected. This will generally be filled mattress. The effective thickness of the geobag
longer than the design life of the revetment structure. revetment is dependent on the nominal thickness of
the filled geobag, the method of placement on the
Geometry slope and the slope angle.
The effective thickness of the geobag revetment,
The definition of geometry is necessary for De, for placement method 1 and placement method 2
assessment of both hydraulic and geotechnical (see Figure 13) are given in Equations (2) and (3)
stabilities. The definition of geometry would include respectively (CUR 217, 2006).
slope angle, crest elevation, toe levels, etc.
De = Ln sin D (2)
Hydraulic Conditions
De = Dn (3)
Typically, the information required as design
input includes water level, wave conditions, wave where:
direction and current flow conditions. Design water Ln = nominal length of geobag unit [m];
levels should include the influence of tides and D = slope angle of revetment [deg] ;
surges if applicable. The design water level is also Dn = nominal thickness of geobag unit [m].
referred to as still water level (SWL). SWL is the
level that the water surface would assume in the
absence of wind waves.
Two loading parameters will feature in the
stability equations for wave attack. One of them is
the significant wave height (Hs) which is defined
traditionally as the mean wave height of the highest
third of the waves. The other is the breaker
parameter ([), given in the following equation: (a)

‫ ܖ܉ܜ‬D
[ൌ (1)
ට૛Sࡴ࢙ Ȁ܏ࢀ࢖ ૛

One loading parameter will feature in the

stability equations for flow attack. The critical
velocity (ucr) is the current velocity when erosion or
hydraulic instability starts to occur on channels and (b)
is usually expressed as a depth averaged velocity.
Fig. 13 Geobags placement (a) method 1 (b)
Structural Units method 2
The geotextile containment products are usually Fill material
supplied as flat units although they may come in a
roll or folded form. These products come in a The fill used is usually sand or concrete.
prefabricated form but with filling positions that are However, other fill materials may also be used
closed by seaming or other means. When they are depending on the product and application.
filled with the specified fill material and closed
properly on site, they form structural units that are Buoyant relative density
used for the construction of revetments.

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13 to 15 December 2012 | Bangkok, Thailand

ࡴ࢙ ૛Ǥૠ૞
൑ (6)
The buoyant relative density of the structural ࢤࡰࢋ ඥ[

unit, ', is given by:

For zone from Hs below SWL to Hs above SWL,
Uࢌ
ࢤൌ െ૚ (4) ࡴ࢙ ࡾࢉ
U࢝ ൑ ૙Ǥ ૠૢ ൅ ૙Ǥ ૙ૢ (7)
ࢤࡰࢋ ࡴ࢙

where,
Geotextile mattresses
Uf = density of fill material [kg/m3];
Uw = density of water [kg/m3]. The stability criterion of mattress revetment under
wave attack is given as follows (Pilarczyk et al,
An initial estimation of the buoyant relative 1998; McConnell, 1998; CUR 217, 2006):
density of the structural unit, ', for design is shown
in Table 3 where the density of water, Uw, is assumed ࡴ࢙ ࡿ࢓
൑ (8)
as 1000 kg/m3. ࢤࡰࢋ [૛Ȁ૜

Table 3 Initial estimation of buoyant relative where,

density of structural unit for design Hs = significant wave height [m];
' = buoyant relative density of structural unit [-];
In-fill material Filling Density of Buoyant De = effective thickness of revetment [m];
method fill relative [ = breaker parameter [-];
material, density, D = slope angle of revetment [deg];
Uf ' Lo = wave length in deep water [m];
(kg/m3) g = gravitational acceleration [m/s2];
Sand fill Hydraulic 1900 0.9 Tp = peak wave period [s];
Mechanical 1800 0.8
Sm = stability factor of mattress [-].
Micro concrete Hydraulic 2400 1.4
mix
Table 4 shows the recommended values of Sm for
different geotextile mattress products. The
Stability under Wave Attack
recommended values for concrete filled geotextile
mattress are based on Pilarczyk (1998). The
Geobags
permeability of concrete filled geotextile mattress
depends on the design of the filter points. The
Figure 14 shows the applicability zones of
recommended values for sand filled geotextile
stability criteria for geobag revetment.
mattress are based on CUR 217 (2006). The
permeability of sand filled geotextile mattress
depends on the permeability of the sand fill and the
geotextile used to manufacture the mattress product.

Table 4 Recommended values of Sm for different

geotextile mattress products

Product Stability factor, Sm

Concrete filled geotextile mattress
with low permeability 2-3
Concrete filled geotextile mattress
with high permeability 3-4
Fig. 14 Applicability zones of stability criteria for
Sand filled geotextile mattress 4-5
geobag revetment
Stability under Flow Attack
The stability criteria of geobag revetment under
wave attack are given as follows (CUR 217, 2006):
The stability criterion of structural units under
longitudinal flow attack is as follows (Pilarczyk,
For irregular waves, slope 1:3 or less,
1990; CUR 217, 2006):
ࡴ࢙
൑ ૚Ǥ ૝ (5) ࢶ ࡷࢀ ࡷࢎ ሺ࢛ࢉ࢘ ሻ૛
ࢤࡰࢋ ࢤࡰࢋ ൒ ૙Ǥ ૙૜૞
ࢸ ࡷ࢙ ૛܏

For slope 1:3 or steeper, (9)

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where: where,
' = buoyant relative density of structural unit [-]; h = water depth [m];
De = effective thickness of revetment [m]; kr = equivalent roughness according to Nikuradse
) = stability parameter [-]; [m].
< = Shields parameter [-];
KT = turbulence factor [-]; The value of kr depends on the type of revetment.
Kh = depth parameter [-]; For geobag revetment, the value of kr can be taken
Ks = slope parameter [-]; as equal to Dn. For mattress revetment, the value of
ucr = critical flow velocity [m/s]; kr can be taken as equal to De.
g = gravitational acceleration [m/s2]. The slope factor, Ks, is a function of the
influence of the angle of shearing resistance between
Table 5 shows the values of ) to adopt in design. the structural unit and the subsoil, and is given as
Table 6 shows the values of < to adopt in design. follows (Pilarczyk, 1990; CUR 217, 2006):
Table 7 shows the values of KT to adopt in design. For units not anchored at the top of the slope,

Table 5 Stability parameter ‫ ܖܑܛ‬D ૛

ࡷ࢙ ൌ ට૚ െ ቀ ቁ (13)
‫ ܖܑܛ‬G
Revetment location Stability parameter, )
For continuous top layer 1.0 For mattresses anchored at the top of the slope and
For edges 1.5 geobags designed with tail reinforcements,

Table 6 Shields parameter ࡷ࢙ ൌ ૚Ǥ ૙ (14)

where,
Revetment type Shields parameter, <
Geobag revetment 0.05 D = slope angle of revetment [deg];
Mattress revetment 0.07 G = friction angle between structural unit and the
subsoil [deg].
Table 7 Turbulence factor
Sand Tightness Criteria
Hydraulic situation Turbulence
factor, KT There is a need to check for sand tightness of
Normal turbulence in rivers 1.0 sand filled geobag and goetextile mattress units.
Higher turbulence: river bends 1.5 Table 8 shows the recommended design criteria for
Strong turbulence: hydraulic jumps, 2.0 sand tightness requirement (CUR 217, 2006). There
sharp bends, local disruptions are two approaches to fulfilling the sand tightness
Turbulence as the result of propeller 3.0 to 4.0 requirement.
jets and other water jets If the sand fill source and particle distribution is
known, the pore size of the geobag or geotextile
By introducing the depth factor, Kh, the depth- mattress can then be specified for the contract
averaged flow velocity is translated into a flow documents. Alternatively, if the pore size of the
velocity just above the revetment. The depth factor, geobag or geotextile mattress is known, the particle
Kh, is given as follows (Pilarczyk, 2000; CUR 217, distribution of the sand fill can then be specified for
2006): the contract documents.

For developed current profile, Table 8 Recommended design criteria for sand
tightness requirement
૛
ࡷࢎ ൌ  ૛ (10)
૚૛ࢎ Hydraulic load Requirement 1 Requirement 2
ቆ‫܏ܗܔ‬ቀ ቁቇ
࢑࢘
Stationary load ࡻૢ૙ ൏ ૞ࡰ૚૙ ඥ࡯࢛ ࡻૢ૙ ൏ ૛ࡰૢ૙
(current)
For undeveloped current profile, Dynamic load ࡻૢ૙ ൏ ૚Ǥ ૞ࡰ૚૙ ඥ࡯࢛ ࡻૢ૙ ൏ ࡰૢ૙
(wave)
ࢎ ି૙Ǥ૛ O90 = pore size of geobag or geotextile mattress;
ࡷࢎ ൌ ቀ ቁ (11)
࢑࢘ D10 = sieve size through which 10% fraction of the sand
material passes;
For a very rough current, D60 = sieve size through which 60% fraction of the sand
material passes;
ࡷࢎ ൌ ૚Ǥ ૙ (12) D90 = sieve size through which 90% fraction of the sand
material passes;
Cu = uniformity coefficient (=D60 / D10)

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Mechanical Strength Requirement erosion protection of the back face may need to be
provided for.
The mechanical strength requirement is usually
dictated by stresses experienced during handling, Termination details
installation and in-service. They should be strong
and robust enough to prevent rupture during filling Appropriate termination details should be
and placement. adopted at the ends of the structure to prevent
undermining at the end of the structure. Such details
Durability Requirement are usually very much site-specific. The termination
details may involve butting against a solid structure;
The durability of the structural units should e.g. concrete walls, wing walls of culvert openings,
outlast the design life of the revetment. This includes concrete discharge drains along the bank slopes, etc.
resistance to abrasion, UV attack, debris impact, or involve the revetment curving back in plan into
vandalism, etc. the bank slopes.

Other Considerations Geotextile Containment Product Specification

Geotechnical stability Physical properties

Information on the geotechnical properties of the This relates to dimensions of the unfilled product
slope and foundation materials should be known or to enable the ultimate filled product to conform to
determined to enable an assessment of the specific engineering requirements.
geotechnical stability. The materials may include
naturally occurring subsoil or imported fill material. Mechanical properties
The relevant properties include particle size, shear
strength, permeability and others. Relevant mechanical properties include tensile
strength, seam strength, puncture resistance, etc.
Toe protection
Hydraulic properties
Toe protection will provide some sliding
resistance to the revetment and help to prevent The key property here is pore size of the
failure of the revetment from scour. Typical forms of geotextile used in the manufacture of the
toe protection are: containment product. A minimum permeability is
(a) buried toe – the revetment cover layer is also often specified although this is seldom a critical
extended beneath the bed level to beyond issue given that geotextiles are often permeable
the predicted scour depth; enough.
(b) sheet piling – this may be used alone or
with a concrete toe beam; Durability properties
(c) toe retaining structure – this may be in the
form of a gabion toe, precast concrete mini- Relevant durability tests include abrasion test
wall or geotextile tube dyke unit; that simulate site conditions, UV resistance test, etc.
(d) extension of cover layer along bed – the
cover layer may be extended along the bed Fill Material Specification
in front of the structure; if scour occurs,
then this extra length of revetment will drop Specification for sand fill
into the scour hole providing protection
(this should not be used where severe scour Specification of sand to be used as fill material is
may occur as some undermining or loss of usually based on a gradation that conforms to the
sub-layer material may occur). sand tightness requirement. The sand generally
should not contain any unwanted material such as:
Trenching and anchoring details (a) material susceptible to volume change,
including marine mud, swelling clays and
The top of sand filled and concrete filled collapsible soils,
geotextile mattresses are generally anchored in a (b) peat, vegetation, timber, organic, soluble or
trench. The trenching and anchoring details may perishable material,
differ from case to case, depending on the product, (c) dangerous or toxic material or material
the revetment geometry and the anchoring resistance susceptible to combustion, and
force required. When there is a possibility of (d) metal, rubber or other unsuitable material.
significant overtopping or overflow of the structure,

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Specification for micro concrete fill

Specification of micro concrete to be used as fill

material is usually based on a mix formula that
provides workability and ultimate target
compressive strength. McConnell (1998) provides
one such mix formula.

CASE STUDIES

ECGM for Riverbank Erosion Control in

(a)
Batangas, Philippines

The San Isidro Homes development project in

Batangas, Philippines borders a river and is
susceptible to erosion. The height of the riverbank is
about 6 m. The conventional solution is to construct
a revetment.
At this site, a hybrid solution was adopted. The
lower riverbank slope was protected with a gabion
and stone mattress structure while the upper
riverbank slope was covered with an ECGM to
reinforce the final turf cover to the slope. Steel ‘J’
pins were used to pin down the ECGM onto the
riverbank slope. This solution was about 70% of the (b)
cost of providing a full revetment for the riverbank
slope. Fig. 16 ECGM for riverbank protection in Batangas
The ECGM used was a three-dimensional fully (a) installation of ECGM (b) fully vegetated
synthetic product of tensile strength greater than 7 river bank after installation of ECGM
kN/m and a UV resistance of more than 90%
strength retention after 500 hours of exposure in a Geobag Revetment for Protection of Endicott
xenon-arc test apparatus according to ASTM D4355 Island, Alaska, USA
test method.
According to manufacturer provided information Endicott Island is a 0.2 km2 artificial island
the product when fully vegetated has a limiting shear located 4 km offshore of the Sagavanirktok River
stress of 0.23 kPa and the design velocity is 4 m/s Delta in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. It is 1,900 km
for a sustained exposure of 50 hours. Figure 15 show from the North Pole and 400 km north of the Arctic
the cross-section of the riverbank slope protection Circle. The island was constructed in 1987 for the
design adopted. Figure 16(a) shows the installation purpose of extracting and processing oil reserves of
of the ECGM while Figure 16(b) shows the fully the Endicott Oilfield and is still in use today.
vegetated surface. It consists of an offshore oil production facility, a
desalination plant and a wastewater treatment plant.
This was the first continuously producing offshore
oilfield in the Arctic, producing around 20,000
barrels of oil per day. Processed oil is sent from
Endicott Island through a 38 km pipeline to the
Trans-Alaska Pipeline, and then to Valdez, Alaska.
The island was created using locally dredged
gravel. The gravel was also used to fill geobags to
form the revetment protecting the shoreline of the
Fig. 15 Cross-section of riverbank slope showing island. These geobag units had to survive freezing
use of ECGM as turf reinforcement conditions for the most part of the year as well as
resist wave attacks during the summer storms.
Figure 17 shows an aerial view of the geobag
revetment protecting Endicott Island.

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geotextile mattress with sand introduced

hydraulically. Figure 18(b) shows the partially
completed sand filled geotextile mattress revetment.
Figure 18(c) shows the sand filled geotextile
mattress revetment overgrown with vegetation.

Fig. 17 Aerial view of geobag revetment protecting

Endicott Island

Sand Filled Geotextile Mattress Revetment for

Klang River Integrated Flood Mitigation Project, (a)
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

This case study involved the use of sand filled

geotextile mattress for the erosion protection of a
stretch of Klang River that passes through the capital
city of Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia. Klang River
originates from the Ulu Gombak Forest Reserve,
about 25 km northeast of the city and flows a
distance of 120 km before it drains into the Straits of
Malacca at Port Klang. With a catchment area of
nearly 1,300 km2, it is the fourth largest river basin
in the state of Selangor.
Located at 3°17’N, 101°E to 2°40’N, 101°17’E, (b)
it covers areas in Sepang, Kuala Langat, Petaling
Jaya, Klang, Gombak and Kuala Lumpur (Suzana et
al). However, due to intense city development, the
section of the river passing through the city remains
as a narrow walled channel that resembles a large
storm drain. Further downstream, the river would
resume a natural course again near Kampung Pantai.
The surrounding and downstream areas were prone
to flooding and flood control dykes were constructed
to protect the surrounding areas from flooding.
Sand filled geotextile mattress was used to
protect the banks of the re-profiled river channel
created with the construction of the flood control (c)
dykes along Klang River. Sand filled geotextile
mattress was a cost effective and convenient solution Fig. 18 Sand filled geotextile mattress revetment
because the river sediment was sand and could be for Klang River bank protection, (a) filling
used to fill the geotextile mattress. The system also of geotextile mattress with sand (b)
allowed the establishment of vegetation through partially completed geotextile mattress
natural process. Riprap and other rock based revetment (c) geotextile mattress with
revetment systems would cost more and would have vegetation established
been less aesthetically appealing. The area is
practically fully developed and populated and Geotextile Tube and Concrete Filled Geotextile
transportation of rock for construction of revetment Mattress for Construction of River Wharf at
would have been problematic. Pulau Muda, Indonesia
The sand filled geotextile mattress with
developed vegetation acts as a revetment to protect This case study involved the use of geotextile
the flood control dykes. More than 30,000 m2 of tube and concrete filled geotextile mattress for the
sand filled geotextile mattress was installed and erosion protection in a river wharf project in Pulau
completed in 1999. Figure 18(a) shows the filling of Muda, Indonesia. The wharf is located along the

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bank of Kampar River that is subject to tidal bore of safety of 1.28 was achieved. Analysis was carried
effect which can create waves of up to 4 m traveling out with Bishop’s method using Slope/W program.
upriver. The subsoil profile from two boreholes, The exterior face of the geotextile tube structure
BH1 and BH2, is shown in Figure 19 and generally was profiled to a slope angle of 50O to the horizontal
consist of a top stratum of a mixture of sand and before a concrete filled geotextile mattress
round wood underlain by soft clay that is interrupted revetment structure was constructed. The concrete
with thin sand layers or lenses. The soft clay mattress was extended downwards by 1 m and
generally increases in shear strength with depth. outwards by another 1 m to protect against toe scour
effects. The concrete mattress was anchored by
sandwiching between the geotextile tube structure
and two layers of geotextile bags placed above.
Figure 21(a) shows the installation of the
geotextile tube at site. Figure 21(b) shows the
completed concrete filled geotextile mattress
revetment constructed at high tide conditions. This
innovative construction allowed the wharf to be
constructed under tidal conditions. During the tidal
bore event, the geotextile tube was stable enough to
resist the waves as well.
Fig. 19 Subsoil profile (Suhendra et al, 2011)

Figure 20(a) shows the plan view of the river

wharf. Figure 20(b) shows the typical section
through the river wharf.

(a)

(a)

(b)
(b)
Fig. 20 River wharf at Pulau Muda (a) layout plan
Fig. 21 River wharf construction at Pulau Muda (a)
(b) typical cross section through river wharf
installation of geotextile tube (b) concrete
(Suhendra et al, 2011)
filled geotextile mattress over installed
geotextile tube (Suhendra et al, 2011)
Geotextile tubes were used to form the dyke
structure to improve the global stability. This
improvement in global stability is achieved by the
CONCLUSIONS
forcing of the critical slip plane behind the geotextile
tube structure to cut deeper down to the layers of
This paper described the mechanisms and
higher shear strength. By this way a minimum factor
processes of erosion in hydraulic environment. The

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5th Asian Regional Conference on Geosynthetics
13 to 15 December 2012 | Bangkok, Thailand

application of geosynthetics for erosion control was Kam, S. (2006). The Malaysian experience of
discussed. The process for the selection of erosion erosion control using geosynthetics and bio-
control geomats and the process for the design of engineering in streambank, swale, and hillslope
geotextile containment products were presented. applications. Proc. 8th Intl. Conference on
Finally, several case studies involving the Geosynthetics, Yokohama, Japan. Milpress,
application of geosynthetics for erosion control were Rotterdam, :709-712.
presented. Knighton, D. (1984). Fluvial Form and Processes.
Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., London.
Koerner, R.M. (2005). Designing with
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