Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES AND AGENTS

INTRODUCTION
Geomorphic processes are all those physical and chemical changews which affect
a modification of the earth’s surficial form. A geomorphic agent or agency is any natural
medium which is capable of securing and transporting earth material. Thus running water,
ground water, glaciers, wind, waves, currents, tides, tsunami, etc. are great geomorphic
agencies.
Geomorphic process are divided into two broad categories, namely
(i) endogenetic or internal processes (hypogene) and
(ii) exogenetic or external processes (epigene).
The endogenetic processes originate within the earth. Volcanism and diastrophism
are two main examples of endogenetic processes. These process are engage in land
renewal and land uplift. On the other hand, exogenetic kprocesses originate in the
atmosphere of the earth and draw their energy from the sun. They are guided by the
force of gravity although gravity itself is not a geomorphic agent because it cannot
secure and carry away materials. Therefore, it is generally terms as directional force.
The exogenetic processes are essentially the processes of land construction because
they remove rock material from higher areas and deposit them in lower areas. The
topographic effects of the impact of materials do not within either of the above classes.
Outline of the Geomorphic Processes.
Thornbury has suggested the following outline of the processes which shape the earth’s
surface.
Exogenous Processes
Exogenous are those processes which act on the surface of the earth and give
birth to various landforms. These include the processes of weathering and denudation
and are performed river, glacier, wind, underground water and sea waves. These forces
are constantly working to level the surface of the earth. The exogenous forces derive their
energy from the sun.
GRADATION
Gradation is the process of removing unevenness of the land surface and making
it a level land.
 Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

Rivers, glaciers, wind, underground water and sea waves are always busy in eroding the
highlands and depositing the eroded material in the lowlands. In this way, the tectonic or
internal forcers level up and external forces level down the earth’s surface. A surface is
called graded only when the erosion and deposition by different agents of change are
almost equal. The graded surfaces are always temporary because the moment any part
emerges out of sea, the erosional process becomes active on that portion.

1. Degradation
Degradation is the general wearing away of the land surface by external forces. This is
also known as denudation.
The term denudation has been derived from the Latin word ‘denudare’ which
means ‘to lay bare’. It includes the result of weathering, erosion and transportation,
‘Weathering’ is the process of weakening, breaking up rotting and the disintegration of
rocks at the earth’s surface. The disintegrated material does not involve any notion
except the falling down of the material by the force of gravity. Weathering is followed by
erosion, which is a process of scraping, scratching and grinding of the surface rock. It
includes removal or transportation of the weathered rock material from one place to
another. The act of erosion is performed by running water, ground water, moving ice,
wind, waves and currents of the sea. These agents use the eroded material as cutting
tools to carve up and shape the landscape. Erosion is a mobile process unlike the static
process of weathering. It keeps the weathered rock material in motion by picking it up and
transporting it.
2. Aggradation
This is also known as deposition. The material eroded by the process of degradation is
deposited in the depressions or lowlands and these areas rise up. The agents of
aggradation are the same as those of erosion. In other words, each agent has its erosive
as depositional role in changing the landscape slowly. But surely.
 Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat
Inter-relation of degradation, aggravation and Gradation.
There is a close interrelation between degradation and Aaggradation and gradation. All
these three forces act collectively for example the carrying capacity of a river is more than
its actual load in the mountainous region and erosion in the main function of the river
there used to degradation of the surface area. in contrast to this The Load of the river is
much more than its carrying capacity near the sea and the result is deposition this leads
to aggregation in the middle course of the river erosion and deposition are almost equal
and it is a stage of gradation. in this way all the three processes are interlinked.
WEATHERING
Weather in is the breaking of Rocks by static agents of weather. in this process, the rocks
are disintegrated by physical forces and decomposed by chemical action it is important
to know that that it does not involve any motion except The Falling Down of the material
by the force of gravity. all the weathering is primarily concerned with decay and
decomposition of Rock without any change in the location, the process of weathering may
be defined in the number of ways as is evident from the following definitions :

"Weathering may be defined as mechanical fracturing and chemical decomposition

of rocks, in situ,by natural agents at the surface of the earth."
- Sharks
"weathering is the combined action of all the processes where by rock is
decomposed and disintegrated because of exposure at or near the earth
surface. - Strahler
weathering is the total effect of all the various sub aerial processes that cooperates
in bringing about the decay and disintegration or rocks provided that no large scale
transport of loosened products is involved. - Holmes
weathering in Wall Street decomposition and disintegration of rocks with little or
no movement of the particles produced when the rock structure breaks down.". -
John Gabriel Navarra

" The the processes that alter the physical or chemical state of rocks at or near the
surface of the earth, without necessarily eroding or transporting the product of
alternation, are collectively called rock weathering."- Bloom

The above-mentioned definitions of weathering clearly indicate that weathering includes

decay or disintegration and decomposition of rocks under the action of physical, chemical
and Biological agent and there is practically no change in the location.
1. Decay. This action is performed by physical agents like temperature, Frost, moisture,
pressure, etc. under the influence of these agents rocks are broken into big Boulder and
turn into small pieces with are ultimately turned into sand and soil particles it may be
 Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat
mentioned that there is no change in the chemical composition of rocks as a result of
disintegration.
2. Decomposition. This action is performed by the combined effect of minerals,
Chemicals, year, gases, and water present in the rocks. Under the effect of this agent
The Rock lose their strength and there is chemical change in the rocks with respect to
their mineral composition, color and texture.
Following facts about weathering are worth nothing
* Weathering involves Decay and decomposition of Rocks by the Agents of weathering.
* Due to their Decay and decomposition There
Substantial changes in the character of rocks.
*Change in character does not involve any change in the location of rocks.
*Most of weathering takes places at or near the rock atmosphere interface although some
weathering happens within the rock also
*A group of processes, physical, chemical and biological are collectively known as
weathering.

Types of weathering
Three types of weathering,viz., Physical, chemical and biological are recognized
depending upon the prominent agent involved in the process of weathering at a particular
place and time however, these processes are so intimately interrelated to each other that
is practically impossible to isolate one process from the other.
According to R.J Chorley. Et al. (1985), " No chemical weathering takes place without its
production of physical stress ; disintegration of rock by thermal expansion probably does
not occur in the absence of chemical weathering is replaced in part by bio chemical
(process)"
In-spite of close inter-relation that exists between different groups of agents of
weathering, they are divided into following three broad groups for the sake of convenience
and proper study of weathering:
1. Physical or mechanical weathering.
2 .Chemical weathering.
3. Biological weathering.

1. Physical or mechanical weathering

The world mechanical physical are used interchangeably in men discussions of

weathering mechanical weathering is the in-situ breakdown of the rock into many small
fragments without any significant alteration of its mineral constituent in this type of
weathering predominates in dry climates experiencing extreme conditions of temperature
 Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat
does polar regions and hot and cold deserts are the areas exhibiting most intense
mechanical breakdown of rocks falling are the main agents of physical weathering
1 insolation
2 Frost
3 pressure release.
1 Insolation. The effect of isolation on rocks can be seen in the form of block
disintegration or block separation granular disintegration, exploitation and shattering.
(a) Block Disintegration. Weathering by insulation is more prevalent in hot dry desert
areas this is due to Rapid changes in Delhi temperature today temperature
suddenly Rises and the rock expand at the night temperature suddenly fall
sometimes close to freezing point anti Rock contract this alternate expansion and
contraction of rocks leads to tension and creates a series of cracks joints in the
rocks splitting them into blocks. This is known as block disintegration
(Fig.15.2).This is particularly true about the Rock having numerous joints.

Laboratory experiments of getting Rock specimens to high temperature and cooling

cycles over long periods of time fail to support the insolation theory this studies concluded
within the temperature limits possible on the earth surface, thermal expansion and
contraction possibly do not exceed the surface strength of rocks no one has ever verified
experimentally that solar heating is in tension up to Bridge stone specimens of granite
have been heated to 105 degree Celsius and cooled to -10 degree Celsius for 200 cycles
with no evidence of deterioration Blackwalder found in 1925 that temperature change on
granite and basalt does not have any effect on the Rock.as an experiment, he put rock
pieces in hot oil to increase their temperature too 200 degree Celsius and found no
change in the rock pieces. However ,it may to be mentioned that some crystalline rocks
are more affected by temperature variation tag classic sedimentary rocks like shale's and
sandstone
 Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

.
(b) Granular Disintegration. Rocks composed of coarse minerals and having
different colors’ absorb and Radiate insolation differently as different parts of the
same Rock receive different amount of insolation and constantly undergo different
amounts of expansion and contraction discourses differential stress within the
rocks due to which the rocks are disintegrated and the fall apart grain by grain.
This is known as gradual disintegration .

(c) Exfoliation. Some rocks are not good conductors

of heat. Consequently, the expansion and contraction
is more in the outer rock' layers than in the inner ones.
The outer layers are thus peeled off from the main
mass of the rock in the form of concentric shells. This
is just like peeling off layers of an onion. This process
of rocks as also called onion weathering or spalling . Exfoliation is more common over
crystalline rocks.
It has been pointed out by some geomorphologists that moisture present in the rocks
enhances the process after of thermally induced process of disintegration although water
is not actively involved in the process of disintegration, it promotes this process without
significant chemical change in the rock it has been found that in deserts, Rock tends to
disintegrate more readily inside area then those rocks which are exposed to direct
sunlight. According to Twidale, "probably, water weakens the ionic body " Minerals also
hydrate in the presence of water and dehydrate intense heat of the day. The cyclic
hydration and dehydration generate space in The Rock body and cost to spell at the outer
surface this process is known as mass exfoliation.
Griggs made an experiment in 1963 to show the temperature variation alone is not
competent enough to bring out exfoliation on certain rocks and water has its own role to
 Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat
play in the respect he alternately heated the surface of 3 inch cube of try granite for 5
minutes to about 140 degree then cooled it for 10 minutes with an electric fan to about 30
degree c for 89, 400 cycles, equal to 22 44 years of diurnal heating in other words, the
effect of temperature change of 244 year was created on the rock his experiment class 2
for 3 years he noted no change in the rock specimen and there was no sign of exfoliation
in the rock by using cold current then he repeated the same experiment on the rock for a
period equivalent to 2.5 years and employed shower of cold water instead of cold air.
What he found was that the cracks had developed on the surface of Rock and exfoliation
has started from this he concluded that chemical action is more important than physical
exam of temperature change for exfoliation to set in water has oxygen and also carbon
dioxide dissolved in it and the gases help in the disintegration of rocks.
(D) Shattering. shattering involve the disintegration of Rock along new surfaces of
breakage in other wise massive, strong rock, to produce highly angular pieces with sharp
corners and edges the surface of fracture made pass between individual mineral crystal
or grains or may cut it through them.
(ii) Frost. Frost is a very active agent of weathering in cold climates of high altitude and
high latitude area action of Frost is particularly noticed in Tundra climate and above
timberline in high mountains. The cracks and joints of rocks are filled with water during
daytime and if this water is frozen at night when the temperature falls below freezing
point. The volume of water increases by about 9% on freezing.

On an average 9 cubic centimeters of water turns into 10 to cubic centimeters of ice. this
increase in volume exerts a bursting pressure of about 150kg on one square
centimeters .in a closed system of scaled voids it can reach a maximum stress of 2115
kg per sq.cm at a temperature of -22 degree C. This maximum pressure required for
Rapid freezing and above 80% moisture saturation to exceed the strength of rocks. The
rocks are ruptured and fragments are wedged apart. Next day more water can enter the
already widened cracks and more pressure can be exerted on the rocks when the water
which is the next night this alternate freezing and melting is known as freeze-thaw .
It must be noted that impact and highly consolidated rocks with greater tensile strength
such as marble and granite or less effect by freeze action while less compact and usually
consolidated rocks, i.e., sedimentary rocks like limestone and sandstone are highly
susceptible to weathering by Frost.
The ice wedging is more effective than in exceptionally cold areas long and continued
forst action on exposed mountain summit may result in the production of sharply pointed
shatter peaks known as seagulls (needles).
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When weathering of rocks take places at high altitude, the weathered rock material slides
down under the influence how gravitational force this process is known as solifluction.
Accumulation of angular rock debris created by freeze-thaw actions at the base of a cliff
or a steep slope is known as talus. This type of accumulation also takes place as a result
of exfoliation of rocks in arid regions. Talus cones are steep and unstable are prone to
movement called creep and landslides.

(iii) Pressure Release . Many igneous and metamorphic rocks are crystalline deep in
interior under the combined influence of high pressure and temperature. The Rocks
formed deep within the earth crust are under great confining pressure from the weight of
thousands of meter of overlying rocks. Several evidence can be used to prove that sum
rocks now at the Earth surface formally buried at the depth of 20 km or more when the
rocks above are eroded away the rocks below are exposed and are released from
pressure due to pressure release, cracks are produced in the rock leading to their
disintegration.
The pressure release can be vertical as well as lateral different rocks expand with varied
degree of expansion as the political pressure is released, the upper layer of frog expense
which leads to development of vertical jointing and beginning of surface shell in this way
joints are enlarged, and splices and slabs off when lateral pressure is released there is
lateral expansion of Rock surface with greater weakness along joints and bedding planes
which results in spelling of blocks, slabs and splices. Effect of pressure release on the
interior rock. Mass like batholiths,

(iv) Salt Crystal Growth (haloclasty). Salt crystallization occurs in arid climates and is
caused by following three processes.
(a) In arid climate, heat withdraws moisture from the rock and evaporation take place the
leads to crystallization of rocks and creates pressure and pore spaces and crack this is
known as force of crystallization and cost breakdown of rocks whenever it is in excess of
tensile strength of rocks .

(b) In desert areas, anhydrous salts presents in the rocks may absorb some water and
become hydrated. The lattice structure of the rock is modified for accommodating water
and expansion take place.
(a) There is differential thermal expansion of different salts in the rocks which causes
breakdown of the rocks this is known as thermal disintegration
(V) Moisture swelling. Rocks expand when wet and contract when dry. This process of
alternate expansion and contraction is wet and dry condition respectively in particularly
seen in rocks with high clear contents. Repeated expansion and contraction in wet and
dry weather causes fracturing in the rock and material and leads to disintegration this type
of weathering is particularly seen in climates with distinct wet and dry season.
2.Chemical weathering
 Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat
Decomposition of Rocks by chemical action is called chemical weathering the minerals in
rocks undergo a chemical change by the action of air and water the chemical reaction are
Rapid in hot and humid climate of the Tropical zone following are the main processes of
chemical weathering:

(I) Oxidation. The effect of oxygen in air and water on the rocks is called oxidation. The
atmospheric oxygen in rain water units with minerals in the rock especially with the Iron
compounds this results and decomposition of the rock and it starts crumbling the color of
the rock changes into red yellow brown as we see in rusting of iron.
(ii) Carbonation: When the carbon dioxide mixed in water affects the rocks it is known
as carbonation. This effect and dissolve The calcareous Rock such as limestone, marble
and Gypsum.

(iii)Hydration. When the hydrogen of the water dissolve The Rocks, it is known as
hydration. There are certain minerals in the rocks which increase the volume and become
heavy when they absorb water containing hydrogen.
The Rocks break due to increased pressure.
(iv) Solution. The rain the rain water is able to dissolve certain minerals and delete this
file this is called solution some minerals, such as rock salt and Gypsum, are removed by
the process of solution by water.
Difference between physical and chemical weathering
physical and chemical weathering can be explained as under :
Physical weathering
1. Physical force disintegrated the rocks.
2. There is no chemical change in the rocks.
3. Physical weathering is more effective in try and cold areas.
4. The Agents of physical weathering air insolation, Frost and pressure release.
5. Rocks are affected to the great depth.
6. Even the strong Minerals in the rocks are affected by physical weathering.

Chemical weathering
1. Rocks are decomposed by chemical action.
 Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat
2. There is not much importance of physical force but rocks undergo chemical
change.
3. Chemical weathering is more effective in hot and humid areas.
4. Agents of chemical weathering are oxidation carbonation hydration and solution.
5. Rocks are affected near the surface only.
6. Chemically resistant mineral such as quartz are not much affected by chemical
weathering.

3. Biological weathering
Weathering by animals, plants and man himself is called biological weathering biological
weathering can be physical weathering chemical weathering or both biological
communities plays an important role for breaking all types of rocks in all types of climatic
condition biological weathering is of the following three types
(I) Faunal weathering . Burrowing animals, worms and other organisms such as dogs,
rabbits jackals , rodents, earthworm, termites etc. dig out burrows and Tunnel to make
their homes by doing so they can break rocks to a great extent. New rock material from
below is brought over the surface and exposed to mechanical and chemical weathering.
(ii) Floral weathering. Weathering of Rocks by vegetation is called floral weathering it
can take place into two ways a physical weathering and be chemical weathering.

(a) Floral physical weathering. In this type of weathering, plants exert physical force on
a rock and break them as roots of shrubs and trees exert and almost incredible force as
they work down in to crevices. Cracks are widen by expansion during growth and the
wedges of Rock forcefully soldered aside for the growth of roots leads to large scale
weathering of the subsurface rocks.
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(b) Floral chemical weathering . Besides their mechanical weathering, plants also act
as important agents of chemical weathering. Plants of all kinds, including fungi, algae
moses, lichens act as agents of chemical weathering because they abstract certain
elements from rocks and liberate others. Water containing bacteria attacks the minerals
of rocks and soils much more vigorously. As a result of the activities of bacteria and fungi
carbondioxide and organic acids together with traces of ammonia and nitric acid
increases the solvent power of soil water.
As against the above mentioned weathering effect of vegetation on the rocks and soil
vegetation plays a vital role as protective agent of the rocks. Roots bind these soil into a
woven mat so that it remains force and it able to absorb water without being washed away
the destructive effect of rain and wind. Grass-roots are particularly effective in this regard.
Forest prevent rapid melting of snow. Forest regularize the actual rainfall and save us
from floods.
(iii) Man . The quarrying, mining, deforestation and indiscriminate cultivation of land are
some of the important action of man with contribute to the weathering of rocks.