SWE 242 Soil and Water Conservation Engg.

Comprehensive notes on the folowing topics

Unit I
SOIL EROSION :Introduction; causes and types – geological and accelerated
erosion, agents of soil erosion; factors affecting and effects of soil erosion.
Water erosion- mechanics and forms – splash , sheet, rill, gully, ravine and
stream bank erosion. Gullies- Classification, stages of development.

Unit II
Water erosion control measures – agronomical measures- contour farming,
strip cropping, conservation tillage and mulching.

SOIL EROSION
Soil is a dynamic complex of minerals and organic matter supporting
plants or having capacity to support plant growth. Soil is the most significant
resource and provides base for life on earth.
Soil formation is slow process and it is result of interaction of parent
material, climate, biotic, slope and time factors.
Soil erosion, on the other hand, is a very fast process. Soil erosion results
into depletion and degradation of fertile productive base.
Soil conservation and management is required to achieve the goal of
sustainable development.
Soil Erosion: Definition and types
Soil erosion is a natural process associated with geomorphic processes
(relating to the form of the landscape and other natural features of the earth's
surface) or agents such as running water, winds, coastal waves and glaciers.
Therefore it is occurring since time immemorial. But it has become a serious
problem due to increased anthropogenic (caused by humans) interferences over
the period of time. Soil erosion can be understood as the process of loosening
and detachment (dislodging of soil particles from the soil mass) of soil
particles from its place and transportation (transportation is movement of
detached soil particles (sediment) from their original site of these soil particles
by the action of geomorphic agents –water and wind- from one place to another.
Types of Soil Erosion :
1. Geologic Erosion: Geologic erosion or 'natural erosion' is a natural
process of weathering , that generally occurs at low rates on the parent rocks
as the natural soil-forming processes. The geologic erosion is a long time
eroding process and is not influenced by human activity. An idea of the
‘geologic time’ can be formed from the fact that a measurable depth of a
few centimetres of soil takes thousands year to form due to weathering of
parent rocks. This type of erosion may be considered as a part of the natural
soil forming process and their distribution on the earth surface and therefore
this is said to be in equilibrium with the soil forming process. This type of
erosion is not considered as harmful.
2. Accelerated Erosion: Accelerated erosion results from the removal of
natural vegetation by human activities such as farming and intensive
ploughing, deforestation, ranching ( the activity of running a
large farm, especially one used for raising cattle, horses, or sheep), intensive
and uncontrolled grazing, biomass burning and construction activities etc.
These activities intensify the factors responsible for erosion and the erosion
process is accelerated. It is the erosion in excess of geologic erosion. In
usual course, the accelerated erosion takes place on the affected land by the
action of water, wind, gravity and glaciers. The various forces involved in
accelerated erosion are as follows:

Soil erosion in India is widespread and a serious threat to survival and well-
being. It occurs in forest lands, arid and semi arid lands, agricultural lands,
construction sites, roadways, disturbed lands, surface mines, glaciated and
coastal areas and in areas where natural or geologic disturbances take place. In
extreme case, it may lead to total loss of soil and exposure of the bed rock.
Since soil formation is an extremely slow process, once removed completely,
soil will take thousands or millions of years to form again and in the meantime
land will be unproductive.
Agents of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is the detachment of soil from its original location and
transportation to a new location. Mainly water is responsible for this erosion
although in many locations wind, glaciers are also the agents causing soil
erosion. Water in the form of rain, flood and runoff badly affects the soil. Soil is
in fact a composite of sand, silt and clay. When the rain falls along the
mountains and bare soil, the water detaches the soil particles, and takes away
the silt and clay particles along with the flowing water. Similarly, when wind
blows in the form of storms, its speed becomes too high to lift off the entire soil
upper layer and causes soil erosion.

Other factors responsible for soil erosion are human and animal activities.
Vegetation is the natural cover of soil. When the animals continuously graze in
the pastures, the vegetation is removed due to their walking and grazing. Bare
lands left behind are easily affected by soil erosion. Activities of human like
forest cutting, increased agriculture, and clearing of land for different purposes
are the other agents that cause erosion of the soil. The soil erosion agent can be
classified and summarized as shown in following figure

Fig. 1 Soil erosion agents, processes and effects. (Sources: Das, 2000)

Among two main agents of erosion namely water and winds in India
about 90 per cent role is played by water. In the case of erosion by water, soil
particles are either detached by impacting raindrops or run-off water moving
over soil surface. The high striking velocities (up to 9 m/sec) and large number
of drops generate intense hydro-dynamic force to detach huge amount of soil
particles. Overland flow detaches soil particles by erosive hydro-dynamic
forces. The detachment by raindrops is widespread and by run-off generally
confined to small definable channels.
The rate of detachment varies due to variations in rainfall, run-off, soil
characteristics, topography, and land cover conditions. Therefore climate,
hydrology, land management, structure, topography, soil surface conditions
and interactions of all these major factors together determine the rates of
erosion.
Mechanics of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is initiated by detachment of soil particles due to action of

any of the agents namely rainwater and wind. The detached particles are
transported by erosion agents from one place to another and finally get settled at
some place leading to soil erosion process.

Following 3 steps are involved in accelerated erosion due to water and wind:
i) Detachment or loosening of soil particles caused by high velocity winds or
flowing water, freezing and thawing of the top soil, and/or the impact of falling
raindrops,
ii) Transportation of soil particles through air or on land surface through
floating, rolling, dragging, and/or splashing
iii) Deposition of transported particles at some places in the direction of
overland water flow or wind.
(A) Water Erosion

The removal of top soil by the rain water running rapidly over the land
surface is known as the soil erosion by water. The Rate of soil erosion by
running water depends on intensity of rainfall or in coastal areas waves, velocity
and volume of water, gradient, sediment load, nature of rocks and extent of
vegetative cover. The water erosion occurs through the processes of – solution
or corrosion, abrasion, attrition and hydraulic pressure. In the coastal areas sea
waves, tidal waves and tsunamis dash along the coast and cause heavy damage
to soil. This is called littoral erosion and it is most intense along the Kerala
coast. In the high altitude areas of the Himalayan region, glacial action causes
soil erosion on a large scale.
Mechanics of Water erosion:
Following are the different geological actions generated by the flowing
water over the land surface by which soil erosion takes place :
1. Detachment Process which involves -
a. Hydraulic action – The flowing water on the surface compresses the
soil due to which the air present in the soil voids exerts pressure
(hydraulic pressure) on the soil particles leading to their detachment .
This action is more pronounced when soil is in loose condition.
 b. Abrasion – In this action the soil particles mixed in the flowing water
create an abrasive power in the water due to which the scouring
capacity of the flowing water increase. River bank erosion and erosion
from the bottom of the valley are the result of abrasive action of
running water.
c. Attrition – In this action the soil particles or the soil loads running
with the water collide with each others and broken further. These
broken particles while flowing generate abrasion effect on the bottom
and the banks of channels and accelerate the erosion.
d. Solution –This action is associated with the chemical action between
the flowing water and the soil/rocks ( in such areas where the
soils/rocks are dissolved in the water and are carried along with the
flowing water)
2. Transportation Process is accomplished under following forms-
a. Solution – The water soluble contents like calcium carbonate etc.
which are derived from country rocks are transported in solution
form.
b. Suspension – This process involves the transportation of fine soil
particles present in the suspension form in flowing water.
c. Saltation and surface creep – This process involves the transportation
of medium size soil particles which are not able to stay in the
suspension form but are mixed in water and flow over the stream bed
in the form of mud. These particles move through jumping , collision
and creeping. The surface creep action is responsible for transporting
the coarser soil particles.

The transportation process in any of the above forms depend upon:

i) Velocity of flow- ( Greater the velocity »» large the volume)
ii) Soil load in the flowing water-(Less load »» easy transportation)
iii) Obstacles/ impediments in the flow path-(reduces the transportation)
iv) Carrying capacity of flowing water( more flow volume » more
transportation)

3. Deposition of sediment load occurs under following conditions-

a. When the force by which the sediment load is being transported
becomes less than the resisting force, deposition occurs.
 b. Presence of the surface obstacles like stems of trees, stones, rocks and
other construction works force the soil load in the flowing water to
settle
c. The curves of meanders of the flow path reduces the velocity of
flowing water and thereby forces the soil load in the flowing water to
settle.
d. Whenever there is meandering of the river or the stream, the velocity
of flow on the concave side of the river reduces drastically and
deposition of the load occurs on that side.

Forms of Water erosion :

(i) Raindrop Erosion (Splash Erosion)

Water during heavy rains removes a lot of top soil. When rain drops
strike the surface, sands and silts are detached from the soil body and it is called
Splash Erosion Splash erosion is the first stage of the erosion process. It occurs
when raindrops hit bare soil. The explosive impact breaks up soil aggregates so
that individual soil particles are ‘splashed’ onto the soil surface. The soil may
be splashed into the air up to a height of 50 to 75 cm depending upon the size
of rain drops. At the same time, the soil particles also move horizontally as
much as 1.50 m on level land surface.
Rain enhances the translocation of soil through the process of splashing
as shown in the figure below. Individual raindrops detach soil aggregates and
redeposit them as particles. The dispersed particles may then plug soil pores,
reducing water intake (infiltration). Once the soil dries, these particles develop
into a crust at the soil surface and runoff is further increased.

Figure 2 The raindrop splash effect

 Fig 3 Process of water erosion by the impact of raindrops
(ii) Sheet Erosion
As rainfall continues, a large amount of water flows in the form of
surface run-off which removes the top soil from a large area. This process is
called Sheet Erosion. This is more or less uniform removal of soil in the form
of a thin layer or in "sheet" form by the flowing water from a given width of
sloping land. In sheet erosion, two basic erosion processes are involved. First
process involves the detachment of soil particles from the soil surface by falling
raindrops and the second process involves the transportation of soil particles by
runoff from their original place. The detachment process is the raindrop
erosion and transportation of detached particles by flowing water is termed as
wash erosion.

Fig. 4 Sheet erosion due to concentrated flow

(iii) Rill Erosion
Due to higher velocity of the run off along areas of higher gradient and
soft parent material, numerous fingershaped grooves may develop all over the
area. Such grooves or channels are formed on the surface where water flows
rapidly, for example the water flowing down the edges of roads and
embankments. This form of erosion is called rill erosion. Rills are small enough
to be removed by normal tillage operations. Rill erosion is the predominate
form of erosion under most conditions. It is most serious where intense storm
occurs on soils with high-runoff-producing characteristics and highly erodible
top soil.

Fig. 5 Rill erosion

(iv) Gully Erosion

If the erosion continues further, the rills may deepen and enlarge into
gullies. Gully erosion is the result of lateral and vertical erosion of rills. So we
can say that gully erosion is the mature stage of rill erosion. It produces
channels larger than rills. These channels carry water during and immediately
after rains Extensive areas may be affected by gully formation and the whole
area is turned into badlands.

Sandy soils are more prone to formation of gullies. Ravines of Yamuna

and Chambal have been formed in this manner.. The amount of sediment from
gully erosion is usually less than that from upland areas, but the inconvenience
due to fields being divided by large gullies has been the major problem.
 Fig.6 Gully erosion

(v) Stream Bank Erosion

Stream bank erosion is defined as the removal of stream bank soil by

water either flowing over the sides of the stream or scouring from there. The
stream bank erosion caused by wave action is a continuous process in perennial
stream. This erosion is mainly aggravated due to removal of vegetation, over
grazing or cultivation on the area near to the stream banks. Stream banks may
also collapse when there is a sudden drawdown of the water surface (usually
when a flood recedes). During high flow, the stream bank is saturated with
water and during drawdown the bank cannot sustain the high water pressure of
the saturated soil and they collapse.
 Fig.7 Stream Bank erosion

(vi)Sea-shore Erosion:

It is also called coastal erosion. Sea shore erosion is the wearing away of
land and the removal of beach or dune sediments by wave action, tidal currents,
wave currents, or drainage (Fig. 3.6). Waves, generated by storms, wind or fast
moving motor craft, cause coastal erosion which may take the form of long-
term losses of sediment and rocks, or merely the temporary redistribution of
coastal sediments. It may be caused by hydraulic action, abrasion, impact
and corrosion.

Fig. 8 Sea-shore/ coastal erosion

(vii)Landslide Erosion:

When gravity combines with heavy rain or earthquakes, whole slopes can
slump, slip or slide. Slips occur when the soil (topsoil and subsoil) on slopes
becomes saturated. Unless held by plant roots to the underlying surface, it slides
downhill, exposing the underlying material.
 Fig. 9 Cross-section of landslide characteristics.

(B) Wind Erosion

Wind erosion refers to the detachment and transportation of soil particles
by the forces of moving wind. Wind erosion is active in arid and semi-arid
areas which are having very little or no vegetative cover. The wind erosion
occurs through the processes of deflation (the depressions are formed when
wind blows away the wastes of rocks to distant areas. The movement of
particles causes the surface to get lowered and forms depressions) and attrition
(When rock particles rub against each other and wear down and break down
into much smaller particles, it is called attrition).
Mechanics of Wind Erosion

Wind erosion occurs where soil is exposed to the dislodging force of wind. The
intensity of wind erosion varies with surface roughness, slope and types of
cover on the soil surface and wind velocity, duration and angle of
incidence. Fine soil particles can be carried to great heights and for (may be)
hundreds of kilometres. The overall occurrence of wind erosion could be
described in three different phases. These are initiation of movement,
transportation and deposition.

(i) Initiation of Movement: The initiation of the movement of soil particles is

caused by several factors acting separately in combination. In the course of
collision of grains rolling and bumping on the surface, some particles may be
bounced up. It occurs when the wind force or the impact of moving particles is
strong enough to dislodge stationary soil particles.
(ii) Transportation: The transportation of the particles once they are dislodged
take place in three ways:

a) Saltation – In saltation soil particles of medium size (0.10-0.15 mm

diameter) are carried by wind in a series of short bounces. These bounces are
caused by the direct pressure of the wind on soil particles.

b) Soil Creep – Saltation also encourages soil creep (rolling or sliding) along
the surface . The bouncing particles generally of the dia 0.5-1.0 mm are carried
by saltation strike the larger aggregates and speed up their movement on the
surface.

c) Suspension – When the particles of soil are very small (less than 0.1 mm)
they are carried over long distances. Finer suspended particles are moved
parallel to the ground surface and upward.

(iii) Deposition: Deposition of the particles occurs when the gravitational force
is greater than the forces holding the particles in air. Deposition could occur
when the wind velocity is decreased due to surface obstructions or other natural
causes.

Wind erosion may also be the consequence of mismanagement of land

resources, such as intensive farming, over grazing, deforestation, etc. These
practices destroy the cohesive properties of soil particles and make them
susceptible to detachment and movement by wind erosion. In humid regions,
wind erosion occurs only in dry periods of the year, especially when wind blows
across cultivated bare fields, having loose, dry and finally divided top soils.
Under such condition of land, the high velocity wind produces a large effect on
soil erosion. A schematic representation of wind erosion is shown in Fig..
below.

Fig .10 Wind Erosion

 The rate of wind erosion is a function of wind velocity, dryness of soil,
extent of vegetative cover and the particles size of surface soil. Higher the
wind velocity, higher will be the rate of removal of soil. Dry soils and soils
having no plant cover are also more prone to soil erosion. Also the finer
textured soils are more prone to erosion than coarser materials. Soil erosion by
wind erosion is common in Rajasthan and the adjoining areas of Haryana,
Punjab and Gujarat. Sandy soils with limited organic matter and moisture are
vulnerable to strong winds in arid and semi-arid regions of India. Wind
erosion dominates in arid and semi arid regions of hot desert of India and its
peripheral parts, cold deserts regions of Leh and in coastal areas. Nearly 13.5
million hectare area is affected by wind erosion.
(C) Glacial Erosion: Glacial erosion, also referred to as ice erosion, is common
in cold regions at high altitudes. When soil comes in contact with large moving
glaciers, it sticks to the base of these glaciers. This is eventually transported
with the glaciers, and as they start melting it is deposited in the course of the
moving chunks of ice.

(D) Gravitational Erosion: Although gravitational erosion is not as common a

phenomenon as water erosion, it can cause huge damage to natural, as well as
man-made structures. It is basically the mass movement of soil due to
gravitational force. The best examples of this are landslides and slumps. While
landslides and slumps happen within seconds, phenomena such as soil creep
take a longer period for occurrence.

Factors affecting soil erosion by water:

Soil erosion is a very complicated problem as many complex factors affect the
rate of erosion and therefore it is difficult to solve. The major factors which
affect the erosion of soil by water are – Climate, Vegetation, Soil and
Topography.

1. Climatic Factors: The climatic factors that influence erosion are rainfall ,
temperature , wind, humidity and solar radiation.

Temperature and wind affect through their effects on evaporation; wind

direction affects angle of impact of raindrops and velocity; solar radiation and
humidity through there association with temperature and rate of soil water
depletion. Temperature also influences the amount of organic matter that get
collected on the ground surface and get incorporated with the topsoil layer.
Areas with warmer climates have thinner organic cover on the soil. Organic
matter cover on the surface protects the soil by shielding it from the impact of
falling rain and helping in the infiltration of rainfall that would otherwise cause
more runoff. Organic matter inside the soil increases permeability of the soil to
cause more percolation and reduce runoff. Although falling snow does not
cause erosion, heavy snow melts in spring can cause considerable runoff
damage.

Rainfall characteristics like amount, intensity, frequency and duration

are the main factors which affect the soil erosion to a great extent. If the rainfall
intensity is not high it would not erode much even if the amount of rainfall is
more. When amount and intensity both are much the runoff and thereby soil
erosion would be more. High intensity rainfall will have bigger sized raindrops ,
hence more impact and more detachment of soil particles would occur. Frequent
rains maintain the soil moisture which would result in reduced infiltration
and more runoff and soil erosion. Uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the
season maintain optimum soil moisture and which would result in reduction in
runoff and soil erosion.

2. Soil : Soil properties influencing erosion are texture, structure, water content,
organic matter, compactness, as well as biological and chemical characteristics.
Physical characteristics of soil have a bearing on infiltration capacity and the
extent to which soil particles can be detached ( Erodibility). Texture refers to
the size or combination of sizes of the individual soil particles. Soil
detachability increases and soil transportability decreases with the increase in
size of soil particles. Three broad size classifications, ranging from small to
large are clay, silt, and sand. Clay particles are more difficult to detach than
sand , but clay is more easily transported.

Structure refers to the degree to which soil particles are clumped

together, forming larger clumps and pore spaces. Structure influences both the
ability of the soil to absorb water and its physical resistance to
erosion. Cohesion refers to the binding force between the soil particles and it
influences the structure. When moist, the individual soil particles in a cohesive
soil cling together to form a doughy (?) consistency. Clay soils are very
cohesive, while sand soils are the least cohesive.

3. Topographical Factors: Among the topographical factors, slope length,

steepness, shape of the slope and roughness affect erodibility. Flat lands do not
cause any soil erosion but as the slope increases from mild to steep , the erosion
increases in large proportion. The steeper the slope, the faster the water will
flow. The faster it flows, the more likely it will cause erosion and increase
sedimentation. Slope accelerates erosion as it increases the velocity of flowing
water. Small differences in slope make big difference in damage.

According to the laws of hydraulics, four times increase in slope doubles the
velocity of flowing water. This doubled velocity can increase the erosive
power four times and the carrying (sediment) capacity by 32 times.

Generally, longer slope increases the potential for erosion. The length of slope
affects soil erosion by increasing the velocity of flow for longer duration ..
Critical slope length may be defined as that slope length at which the erosion
begins . The lower the critical inclination (slope) , the larger will be the critical
slope length. On very steep slope the critical slope length would be zero.

The slope shapes also affects the erosion potential of a given topography. The
slope may be in convex or concave shape. The biggest erosion potential is at the
base of the slope, where runoff velocity is the greatest and runoff concentrates.
On convex slope the above phenomena is magnified as the steepness gets
increased toward the bottom. In contrast , at concave slopes the sediment
carried by runoff settles down at the bottom. But with intense rains and high
velocity flows, the water concentrate in the concave parts and start gullying.
Regarding soil lass, the slope shape is more effective than slope length.

Most Important

4. Vegetation and soil surface cover : Vegetation protects soil from erosion in
a number of ways . First of all the plant cover interferes with rain drops falling
from the sky and reduces their velocity thus reducing their physical impact on
the soil. A good canopy or mulch cover significantly reduces soil erosion.
Vegetation also retards surface runoff and enhances the rate of percolation,
thus leaving lesser amount of water to flow as surface runoff. It also binds the
soil together, making it more resistant to runoff. A close plant cover on the
ground reduces the velocity of runoff thereby reducing its erosive capacity
.The roots of the plants keep soil particles bound together making them less
susceptible to erosion. In addition the root system also makes the soil more
porous and thus increases the absorption of water.
 From biological point of view a good root system enhances the
survival of earthworms and other lives of insects which make the soil more
permeable. Vegetative cover provides organic matter and filters sediment .
Also, more vegetation would lead to more transpiration and thereby more
accommodation of water in the soil.

Erosion from a field is greatly influenced by type of crop cover, density

and root system, water-use of plants and amount of prior crop residues in
the tillage zone. These conditions vary within the life cycle of a crop in a
particular field and are reflected in varying soil erosion rates . A dense, robust
cover of vegetation is one of the best protections against soil erosion.

Finally as the velocity of runoff is checked by plants, the soil particles

being carried with water are deposited against the plants.. Soils in many parts of
India have suffered erosion due to deforestation. Large tracts of Himalayas and
Central India have become prone to erosion due to loss of forest cover.

Causes of Soil Erosion

A. Destruction of Natural Vegetative Cover by

1. Deforestation
2. Overgrazing of vegetal covers
3. Forest fires

B. Improper Use of Land by

1. Keeping the land unprotected and exposing it directly to the action of

rain and wind

2. Cultivation along the slope

3. Faulty methods of Cultivation and injudicious cropping pattern.

Deforestation, overgrazing and faulty methods of agriculture contribute

significantly to soil erosion. Trees and plants protect soil from erosion by
binding the structure directly and by constantly adding moisture to it.
Vegetation and litter from trees (when plants drop leaves, twigs, and other
material to the ground, it piles up and is called tree litter) also acts as a
cushion against splash erosion during rains. Therefore, deforestation invariably
leads to soil erosion and floods. The large scale rill and gully erosion in the
Siwalik foothills in Punjab leading for formation of chos and the ravines in
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh formed through gully erosion are
largely the result of reckless deforestation

Fig .11 Effect of residue cover and soil aggregation on erosion

Deforestation is considered as the most potent factor leading to soil

erosion over extensive areas.
Vegetation protects soil from erosion in a number of ways. First of all the
plant cover interferes with rain drops falling from the sky and reduces their
velocity thus reducing their physical impact on the soil.
In addition the vegetative cover has cushion effect against the rain drops.
Vegetation also retards surface runoff and enhances the rate of percolation, thus
leaving lesser amount of water to flow as surface runoff.
A close plant cover on the ground reduces the velocity of runoff thereby
reducing its erosive capacity.
The roots of the plants keep soil particles bound together making them
less susceptible to erosion.
 Finally as the velocity of runoff is checked by plants, the soil particles
being carried with water are deposited against the plants. Removal of natural
plant cover implies loss of all these benefits and the rate of erosion is thus
enhanced. Soils in many parts of India have suffered erosion due to
deforestation. Large tracts of Himalayas and Central India have become prone
to erosion due to loss of forest cover.
According to the Ministry of Environment and Forest report (1999) in the
decade of 1980s the rate of deforestation was about 0.34 million hectare per
year. The depletion and degradation of the natural woody cover of trees and
shrubs is main cause for wind and water erosion.
Population explosion, expansion of agriculture and settlements,
expansion of transport network especially in mountain areas, mining and
quarrying, timber, firewood and fodder extraction have resulted into
impoverishment of forests.
The actual extraction of timber far exceeds the permissible sustainable
limits. Frequent forest fires, natural as well as anthropogenic, also result into
forest and land degradation and are followed by increased soil erosion rates.
Intense forest fires change the physical, chemical and biological characteristics
of surface soils and result into depletion of soil by increasing soil erosion along
with quality constraints in the form of reduced soil fertility.
Overgrazing is also an important factor leading to soil erosion.
Continuous grazing by animals on the same patch of land without sufficient
recovery periods, leads to the removal of plant cover on a large scale.
This makes it easy for the wind and running water to erode the soil.
Overgrazing especially in arid and semi-arid regions over a period of time leads
to soil erosion. Excessive grazing depletes the area not only of grasses but also
of bushes and trees as the new plants are also grazed or uprooted by animals.
The grazing animals also pulverize the soil by the hoofs and teeth, especially
sheep and goats, and the soil thus loosened is easily washed away when heavy
showers take place.
Erosion due to overgrazing is very common over the hilly areas of
Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir and in
arid and semi-arid areas of Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh. Due to livestock population pressure and inadequate grazing lands,
overgrazing and over extraction of green fodder the physical deterioration of
forest cover increases soil erodiblity.
Faulty Practices of farming Much of soil erosion in India is caused by
faulty practices of farming.
The most outstanding among these are faulty ploughing, lack of mulching
and above all the practice of shifting cultivation.
One example of such practices is seen in the form of fields ploughed
along the slope and not along the contours.
This method of tilling the land provides readymade rills at the time of
rain and the flow of water concentrates in the furrows made through ploughing.
It increases the velocity of runoff thereby facilitating quick removal of soil.
Contour ploughing, in contrast, provides a sequence of ridges and furrows
to the water flowing over the surface and the velocity of runoff is thus retarded
and lesser amount of soils is likely to be removed in such a situation. Bringing
land under steep slopes under cultivation is another major problem that leads to
excessive soil erosion. It is primarily a result of increasing pressure of
population on land and consequent increased demand for cultivable land.
All types of areas are not suitable for cultivation. Generally the slopes
with a gradient of more than 15 degrees should not be brought under cultivation
and if at all cultivation is to be extended to such areas it should be done with
suitable precautions like making of terraces.
Very steep slopes cannot be cultivated even with terraces without
harming soil. Increasing demand for agro-products has induced people to extend
cultivation to such areas and it has led to severe soil erosion in such areas.
Cultivation on steep slopes often leads to complete removal of soil and exposure
of bedrock in hilly and mountainous regions.
Soils in many parts of Himalayas and the hilly areas of Peninsular Plateau
have been severely eroded due to faulty land use practices. Under ideal
conditions the agricultural residue should be left in the cultivated areas.
Maintaining such a layer of plant residue is called mulching. Mulch, provides a
cushion against splash erosion, retards the velocity of runoff and helps keep the
soil bound and moist for longer duration by reducing rate of evapotranspiration.
It also provides a cover over soil against wind erosion. Mulching is not
practiced in most parts of India due to various reasons including using the
agricultural residue as fuel, fodder and packaging material. As decomposition of
mulch material is time taking process it is not popular among farmers because
they have to use the field for next season crop. Crop residue burning is also
commonly practiced though it is illegal. Hence the soils are more exposed to
erosion by running water as well as wind.

Fig. 12 Mulching in a field

Shifting Cultivation Shifting cultivation is responsible for soil erosion in
many tropical forest areas occupied mainly by tribal communities. It is also
known as slash and burn cultivation.
Under this practice, a piece of forest land is cleared by slashing and
burning of trees and plants to cultivate crops without use of manure or
fertilizers. The soil becomes sterile after a few years and weeds also start
overtaking this land. The farmers then move to another area and clear a new
patch off forest to repeat the practice.
After a gap of 10-15 years they may return to these fields in a cyclic
manner. Since land is cleared in a reckless manner by burning the vegetation
and no steps are taken to protect the soil, intensive erosion often sets in as these
regions receive copious rainfall.
Due to increase in population pressure the areas and frequency of shifting
cycle has increased and it is reflected in increased soil erosion rates and
reduction in biodiversity. This practice has been common in the north eastern
states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Assam
and Tripura where it is called jhoom. This mode of cultivation is a serious
menace in the hilly and tribal areas of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha,
Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. Efforts are now being made to wean people away
from this type of cultivation.
Effects / Losses / Consequences due to Soil Erosion :
Soil Erosion Soil erosion is a serious menace. It has direct adverse effect
on primary sector and indirectly affects the whole economy. The consequences
of soil erosion are severe on the site as well as off the site.
The loss of top layer is not only quantitative loss but also qualitative loss
of productive base. It results into depletion and degradation of soil resource.
Loss of soil quantity and fertility results into fall in agricultural production and
productivity. According to Prof. S.P. Chatterjee, “Soil erosion is the greatest
single evil to Indian agriculture and animal husbandry.” Excessive erosion
transforms fertile soils into wastelands. In addition the nutritional loss is also a
huge economic burden. This way directly or indirectly the whole economy
suffers.
Different crops vary in their response to soil erosion due to variations in
their rooting patterns and soil layer thickness. For instance, the loss of
productivity is maximum in case of groundnut and minimum in cotton
crop and shallow soils suffer more than deep soils.
According to Sehgal and Abrol (1994) water induced soil erosion
reduces soil productivity in the range of 12 per cent in deep soil to 73 per
cent in shallow soils and loss is more in red and black soils as compared to
alluvial soils.
The annual loss in output of main crops in India because of soil erosion
has been estimated to be 7.2 million tonnes by UNDP, FAO and UNEP (1993)
and 13.5 million tonnes or 3.1 per cent of total production of major crops by
Bansil (1990) and 4 to 6.3 per cent of annual agricultural production in a World
Bank study by Brandon, Hommann, and Kishor (1995).
Soil erosion also results into loss of nutrients and/or organic matter.
About 3.7 million hectare land suffer from nutrient loss and/ or depletion
of humus or organic matter. At country level, according to CSWCRTI, ICAR
the loss due to soil erosion is estimated to be of nearly 74 million tonnes of
major nutrients per year.
As about 61 per cent of the eroded soil is merely shifted from one place
to another, the effective soil loss is only 39 per cent. Therefore, there is loss of
0.8 million tonnes of nitrogen, 1.8 million tonnes of phosphorus and 26.3
million tonnes of potassium every year.
Siltation is a major off site consequence of soil erosion. Siltation in
rivers, canals, tanks and reservoirs reduces their water holding capacity. All
studies have reported much higher rates of siltation in reservoirs than estimated
at the time of designing of river valley projects. This has drastically reduced the
life span of these long term projects to medium term and associated reductions
in cost-benefit analysis. For instance, the rate of siltation in the Mayurakshi
reservoir is 20.09 tonnes/ha/year against the pre-project estimates of 3.61
tonnes/ha/year (Bali, 1994). Siltation reduces the water holding capacities of
rivers, canals, tanks and reservoirs. It reduces the power and irrigation
potential of reservoirs. The deposition of silt in river beds and formation of sand
barriers or river islands within river bed not only reduces the water holding
capacity of rivers but also obstructs free flow of water and result is over flow
or breaking down of banks or embankments and resultant flooding
Soil erosion results into decrease in soil moisture and decline in ground
water table. Further, soil erosion increases the frequency and intensity of
landslides, floods and droughts. Summarizing above....the consequences of soil
erosion can be listed below:
1. Loss of Productive Soil : The surface soil consisting of the
productive part and organic matter and nutrient is lost
2. Deposition of sand on productive fields : Coarser material brought
down from the upstream area may deposit on the fertile lands
downstream .
3. Silting of lakes , rivers and other water harvesting structures :
Sand, silt , trash and the other material brought down with the water
gets deposited in the water storage structures and reduce there
capacity thereby.
4. Silting of Irrigation and drainage canals : Deposition of eroded soil
reduces the capacity of irrigation and drainage canals and thereby
affect the crops and the fields affected by water logging.
5. Formation of sand dunes : In the arid and semi arid affected area the
sand particles being carried by the wind, deposit in the form of huge
heaps known as sand dunes in the agricultural fields and thereby
destroy the growing crops
 6. Lowering of water table : Due to increase in runoff down the slope
and sealing of soil surface by the eroded soil particles and the impact
of raindrops , the water entrance in the soil is slowed down resulting
in less recharge of ground water
7. Fragmentation of land : Development of gullies may divide the
farms into different parts resulting in fragmentation of land.
Extent of Soil Erosion in India
A lot of research work has been conducted on the extent of soil erosion in
India but the final figures vary from study to study (Table 1). On the basis of
analysis of existing data on soil loss, as a first approximation, Narayana and
Ram Babu (1983) concluded that in India soil is eroded at an average annual
rate of 16.35 tonnes per hectare which means 5334 million tonnes per year for
the country as a whole. Out of this, about 29 per cent is permanently lost to the
sea, nearly 10 per cent is deposited in reservoirs (which mean the storage
capacity is reduced by 1-2 per cent annually) and the remaining 61 per cent of
the eroded soil is merely shifted from one site to another.
Table 1: Estimates of Extent of Soil Erosion in India
Studies Area (million hectares)
National Commission on Agriculture 150.0
(1976)
Sehgal and Abrol (1994) 162.4
Sehgal and Abrol (1997) 167.0
The National Bureau of Soil Survey & 119.19
Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP, 2005)

Gurmel Singh, Ram Babu, Narain and others (1990) estimated that the
average annual soil loss is about 15.2 tonnes per hectare and at national
level it amounts to about 4978 million tonnes annually.
Sehgal and Abrol (1994 and 1997) estimated that water and wind
erosion in India extends over about 162.4 (1994) and 167.0 (1997) million
hectare area and out of this about 91 per cent is water eroded area.
Wind erosion dominates in arid and semi arid regions of hot desert of
India and its peripheral parts, cold deserts regions of Leh and in coastal areas.
Nearly 13.5 million hectare area is affected by wind erosion.
 The National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS &
LUP, 2005) reported about 119.2 million hectare area suffering from soil
erosion in India.
The annual erosion rates vary from region to region. In dense forests
covers, snow-clad cold deserts and arid regions of western Rajasthan the
annual erosion rates are less than 5 tonnes per hectare.
On the other hand, about 64 per cent of the total soil is contributed by
highly to very severely eroded areas, such as the Shiwalik hills (annual rate is
more than 80 tonnes per hectare), the Western Ghats, black and red soil regions,
ravines and other gully eroded areas and the north eastern region. On the basis
of iso-erosion lines i.e. line joining the place of same erosion rates- map of
soil erosion in India was prepared by these scholars for the first time. The soil
erosion data are tabulated according to level of soil erosion in the following
table 2.
Table: 2. Levels of Severity of Soil Erosion in India
Severity of Annual Soil Loss Share of Total Annual Loss of
Erosion Range(tons/ ha) Affected Area (%) Soil (million
tons)
Slight ≤5 24 401
Moderate 5-10 43 1406
High 10-20 24 1610
Very High 20-40 5 640
Severe 40-80 3 666
Very Severe 80 1 255
Total 4978
Source: Singh, G (1990)
The latest study by NRSA (2014) reflects that pattern of soil erosion in
India based on interpretation of satellite imageries has great similarity with
studies conducted by scholars in past without using satellite imageries. The
water eroded areas are most widely distributed. The severe wind eroded area
lies in the extreme western sectors of the country
The major land degradation problems due to sedimentation are briefly
discussed as below:

 Erosion by wind and water: Out of 144.12 M-ha areas affected by water
and wind erosion. About 69 M-ha is considered to be critical and needs
immediate attention. Wind erosion is mainly restricted to States of
Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana. The severity of wind erosion is inversely
 related to the rainfall amount, lesser is the rainfall more would be the
wind erosion.
 Gullies and Ravines: About 4 M-ha is affected by the problem of gullies
and ravines in the country covering about 12 states. Ravines are mostly
located in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Gujarat. Gullies on the other hand are seen in the plateau region of
Eastern India, foot hills of the Himalayas and areas of Deccan Plateau.
 Torrents and Riverine Lands: Problem of Riverine and torrents is
spread over an area of 2.73 M-ha in the country. Torrents are the natural
streams which cause extensive damage to life and property as a result
of frequent changes in their course and associated flash flows with
heavy debris loads. The unfertile material or debris transported by
torrents is sometimes deposited on the fertile plains, thus ruining the land
for ever.
 Water logging: Water logging is caused either by surface flooding or
due to rise of water table. An area of 8.53 M-ha has been estimated to be
affected by water logging. Water logging due to surface flooding is
predominant in the states of West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Punjab and Haryana.
 Shifting Cultivation: Shifting cultivation, also known as ‘jhuming’ is a
traditional method of growing crops on hill slopes by slash and burn
method. The method involves selection of appropriate site on hill slopes,
cleaning of forest by cutting and burning, using the site for cultivation for
few years and later on abandoning it and moving to a fresh site. The jhum
cycle has gradually declined from 20-30 years to 3-6 years due to
increasing population pressures. The problem is more serious in North
Eastern region and in the states of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.
 Saline soil including coastal areas: Saline soils are prevalent both in
inland as well as coastal areas. About 5.5 M-ha area is affected by this
problem in the country which includes arid and semi-arid areas of
Rajasthan and Gujarat, black soil region and coastal areas. This problem
is causing serious damage to agricultural lands, rendering fertile soil
unproductive and turning groundwater brackish in the States of West
Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka, Gujarat and
Andhra Pradesh as well as Union Territories of Pondicherry and Goa,
Daman and Diu.
  Floods and Droughts: In India, among the major and medium rivers of
both Himalayas and non-Himalayas categories, 18 are flood prone which
drain an area of 150 M-ha. In recent years, flash floods have caused
extensive damage even in the desert areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Importance of Soil Conservation

In India, out of the total geographical area of 329 M-ha, an area of about
150 M-ha is subjected to either water or wind erosion.

A net area of about 140 M-ha is cropped at present. An area of 40 M-ha is

considered to be flood prone.

Area lost through ravines and gullies is estimated to be about 4 M-ha. As a

whole, it is estimated that about 175 M-ha i.e., 53.3% of the total geographical
area of the country is subjected to various soil and land degradation problems
like saline-alkali soils, waterlogged areas, ravine and gullied lands, area under
shifting cultivation, and desertification.

By the year 2100 A.D, the projected population of the country is expected
to be two billion, whereas the food grain production is almost stagnant at 211-
215 million tons for the last few years. The per capita cropped area is shrinking
every day; in the year 1950, it was 0.33 ha/capita, 0.2 ha in 1980 , it was 0.15 ha
by 2000 and now it is around 0.1 ha per capita. This clearly shows that the
limited land resource has to be managed very carefully by adopting total
conservation measures for the survival of the huge population. A few
suggestions to conserve soil and water resources in Indian context are
discussed below-

 To prevent erosion of bare soil, it is important to maintain a proper

vegetation cover, especially in the most vulnerable areas e.g. those with
steep slopes and in a dry season or periods of very heavy rainfall. For
this purpose, only partial harvesting forests (e.g. alternate trees) and use
of seasonally dry or wet areas for pasture rather than arable agricultural
land should be permitted.
 Where intensive cultivation takes place, farmers should follow crop
rotation in order to prevent the soil becoming exhausted of organic
matters and other soil building agents. Where soils are ploughed in
 vulnerable areas, contour ploughing (i.e. round the hillside rather than
down the hillside) should be used.
 Careful management of irrigation, to prevent the application of too
much or too little water will be helpful to reduce the problem of soil
salinity development. Livestock grazing must be carefully managed to
prevent overgrazing.
 Construction of highways and urbanization should be restricted to areas
of lower agricultural potential. With extractive industries, a pledge must
be secured to restore the land to its former condition before permission
for quarries or mines is granted.

Soil Conservation Programs in India after Independence:

First Five Year Plan (1951-56)

During the First Five Year Plan (1951-56), considerable attention was
given to soil and moisture conservation. With a view to develop a research base
for soil conservation, a Soil Conservation Branch and a Desert Afforestation
Research Station at Jodhpur were established under the control of Forest
Research Institute, Dehradun. Consequently, the Central Soil Conservation
Board established a chain of nine Soil Conservation Research, Demonstration
and Training Centers at Dehra Dun, Chandigarh, Bellary, Ootacamund (now
Udhagamandalam), Kota, Vasad, Agra, Chatra (Nepal) and Jodhpur during the
late First Five Year Plan and early Second Five Year Plan.

Second Five Year Plan (1956-61)

In this plan, the Desert Afforestation and Soil Conservation Centre at Jodhpur
were developed into the Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) in 1959
with collaboration of UNESCO. A Centre was set up at Chatra in Nepal to take-
up research on soil conservation problems of Kosi River Valley Project. The All
India Soil & Land Use Survey Organization was established at central level.

Third Five Year Plan (1961-66)

A centre at Ibrahimpatnam (Hyderabad) in the semi-arid red soil region was

established in the third five year plan in 1962. The Government of India
reorganized the Soil Conservation Division in the Ministry of Agriculture and
after the reorganization of Agricultural Research and Education in India, all the
Soil Conservation Research, Demonstration and Training Centres of the
Government of India except Chatra (Nepal) were transferred to the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) on the 1st October, 1967.

Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74)

Under this plan, All India Soil & Land Use Survey prepared a detailed analysis
of different watersheds of the country. The concept of Integrated Watershed
Management was successfully introduced at field level in different parts of the
country.

Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79)

In this plan, the Government of India introduced many centrally sponsored

programmers, viz; Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Flood Prone Area
Programme (FPAP), Rural Development Programme (RDP), and Desert
Development Programme (DDP). In DPAP and DDP, the focus was on planting
of trees on degraded lands and to drill tube wells to extract groundwater.

Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85)

In this plan period, more emphasis was given on the treatment of small
watersheds varying in size up to 2000 hectare. An intensive programme for
integrated management of about 200 sub-watersheds of 8 flood prone
catchments of Ganga river basin was undertaken during this plan.

Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90)

In this plan, DDP in hot and cold desert areas took a major establishment and
afforestation practices were adopted on a large scale following integrated
watershed management approach. On the basis of the experience gained in
various schemes, National Watershed Development Programme for Rainfed
Areas (NWDPRA) was launched in the 7th Plan in 99 selected districts in the
country. NWDPRA was implemented in about 2550 watersheds in 357 districts
of 25 states and two Union Territories,.The watershed approach has the
advantage of serving the twin objectives of restoration of ecological balance and
socio-economic welfare of watershed community.

Eighth Five Year Plan (1990-95)

During this period, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation, New Delhi formulated the guidelines for the implementation of
NWDPRA and published it in the form of a document commonly known as
WARASA (Watershed Areas Rainfed Agriculture System Approach). The
Ministry of Rural Development also brought out common guidelines for the
implementation of DPAP, DDP and Integrated Wasteland Development
Programme (IWDP) in the country so as to maintain uniformity in objectives,
strategies and expenditure norms for various watershed development projects.

Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-02)

The centrally sponsored scheme for reclamation of alkali soils was launched
during the Seventh Five Year Plan in the states of Haryana, Punjab and Uttar
Pradesh. It continued during the Eighth Five Year Plan and was extended to the
states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. During 2000-01, it was
extended to all other states where alkali soil problem exists. The scheme aimed
at improving physical conditions and productivity status of alkali soils for
restoring optimum crop production. The major components were assured
irrigation water, on-farm development works like land levelling, bunding and
ploughing, community drainage system, application of soil amendments,
organic manures etc.).

Up to IX plan (1997-02), an area of 426 lakh ha had been covered under

Priority Delineation Survey (PDS) and about 13.1 lakh ha under Detailed Soil
Survey (DSS) by the All India Soil and Land Use Survey.

Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-07)

The Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) has put emphasis on natural resource
management through rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharging
measures and controlling groundwater exploitation, watershed
development, treatment of waterlogged areas. The Government of India fully
funded the Western Ghats Development Programme (WGDP), area affected due
to erosion and water problem. In this programme, the State Governments were
directed to adopt Integrated Watershed Approach in implementing the activities
such as soil conservation, agriculture, horticulture, afforestation, fuel and fodder
development, minor irrigation, animal husbandry etc. various soil conservation
measures (engineering and agricultural) like construction of check dams, gully
plugging, plantation of mixed species and contour trenching etc were taken up
in sensitive Western Ghats areas of Sattari, Canacona and Sanguem talukas.

Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-12)

Watershed development projects, for the purpose of conserving soil and

water, were funded through various schemes including National Watershed
Development Projects in Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA), River Valley Projects
(RVP), and Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP). Emphasis
has been given to increase the water resources availability and their efficient
use. Responsibility for ensuring adequate availability of water for agricultural
use was divided between the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR), which was
responsible for major, medium, and minor irrigation, the Department of Land
Resources, which was responsible for watershed management, the Department
of Rural Development, which was responsible for the Mahatma Gandhi Rural
Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and strongly oriented to deal with
water conservation issues, and the Department of Agriculture, which deals with
water use efficiency.

Gully Erosion

Gully erosion is an advance stage of rill erosion as rill erosion is the

advanced stage of sheet erosion. It is the most spectacular form of erosion. Any
concentration of surface runoff is a potential source of gully erosion. The Soil
Conservation Society of America defines a gully as “a channel or miniature
valley cut by concentrated runoff but through which water commonly flows
only during and immediately after heavy rains. It may be dendritic or
branching or it may be linear, rather long, narrow and of uniform width”. In
India, the rate of soil erosion from gullies is 33 t/ha/yr in ravine regions .
The distinction between ravine, gully and rills is that of size. A gully is
too large to be filled by normal tillage practices. A ravine is a deep narrow
gorge. It is larger than a gully and is usually worn down by running water. It is
estimated that about 4 million ha of land in India are affected by gully erosion
(Michael and Ojha, 2012).
Development of Gullies
 The main processes in the development of gullies are waterfall erosion
and channel erosion.

The extension of the gully head is usually by waterfall erosion; while

the scouring of bottom and sides which enlarges the depth and width of
gullies is by channel erosion.

Gullies usually start with channel erosion. When an overfall develops at

the head of the gully, the gully continues to develop by waterfall erosion. The
waterfall erosion at gully head and advancement of the gully towards the upper
edge of the watershed is shown in Fig below-

Fig. 13 Waterfall erosion at gully head.

The rate and extent of gully formation depend upon the following main factors :

1. Resistance offered by the top soil and the underlying hard layer

2. Rainfall characteristics

3. Vegetative cover on the soil

4. Topography of the land

Above factors can broadly be classified in 2 categories as below:

Man made factors : Improper land use, Overgrazing, Forest fires, Mining,
Road and other construction activities, Livestock and vehicle trails etc.

Physical factors : Rainfall, topography, soil properties, vegetal cover etc.

The gully development is recognized in four stages:

Stage 1 -Formation Stage: The first stage or the initiation stage is the
downward scouring of top soil in the direction of general slope due to runoff
water concentration. It normally proceeds slowly where the top soil is fairly
resistant to erosion.

Stage 2 -Development Stage: It consists of upstream movement of the gully

head and enlargement of the gully in width and depth. This stage is the effect of
concentration of runoff at the upstream end. The gully depth reaches up the C-
horizon of soil and the weak parent materials are removed quickly as water
flows.

Stage 3 -Healing Stage: In this stage , the vegetation starts growing in the
gully, which actually is the healing of the gully. During this stage there is no
appreciable erosion from the gully.

Stage 4 -Stabilization Stage: In this stage , the gully reaches a stable gradient,
gully walls attain a stable slope and sufficient vegetation cover develops over
the gully surface due to which the soil erosion almost stops and permit
development of new topsoil.

Classification of Gullies :

Gullies can be classified based on three factors viz. their size, shape (cross
section) and formation of branches or continuation. The detailed classification is
discussed below.

[a)] Based on Size

Depth
Classification Specification
(m)

G1-Very Small Bed width not greater than 18m, side

<3
Gullies slope varies

Bed width greater than 18 m, side slope

G2-Small Gullies <3
uniformly varies between 8 to 15 percent

G3-Medium Bed width greater than 18m, side slope

3 to 9
Gullies uniformly varies between 8 to 15 percent

G4-Deep and bed width less than18 m , side slope

 3 to 9 varies,
Narrow
gullies bed width and side slope varies mostly
steep or vertical with active and intricate
and >9
branch gullies

a)[b)] Based on Shape :The classification of gullies based on shape is shown

in Fig 14 below –

Fig. 14 Gully classes based on the shape of gully cross-section

V-Shaped: This is the most common and first form of gully. These gullies
develop from the rills where the subsoil has more resistance than topsoil
against erosion like in sandy- clay and clay soils and steeply sloping hilly
areas. The discharge passing through these gullies is small but with more
velocity

U-Shaped: These are the second form of gullying. These are formed where
both the topsoil and subsoil have the same resistance against erosion. Because
the subsoil is eroded as easily as the topsoil, nearly vertical walls are
developed on each side of the gully(Alluvial Plains).The velocity of water in
these gullies is lesser than that in the v shape gullies. These gullies donot grow
deeper, but become wider.

Trapezoidal: These gullies are formed where the gully bottom is made of
more resistant material than the topsoil. Below the bottom of gully, the subsoil
 layer has much more resistance to get eroded and thus the development of
further depth of gully is restricted.

b)[c)] Based on the Formation of Branches or Continuation-

Continuous Gullies: These gullies consist of many branches. A continuous

gully has a main gully channel and many mature or immature branch gullies.
A gully network is made up of many continuous gullies. A multiple-gully
system may be composed of several gully networks.

Discontinuous Gullies: These may develop on hillsides after landslides.

They are also called independent gullies. At the beginning of its development,
a discontinuous gully does not have a distinct junction with the main gully or
stream channel. Flowing water in a discontinuous gully spreads over a nearly
flat area. After some time, it reaches the main gully channel or stream.
Independent gullies may be scattered between the branches of a continuous
gully, or they may occupy a whole area without there being any continuous
gullies.

c)[d)] Based on the state of gully-

Active gullies : Active gullies are those gullies whose dimensions continue to
enlarge with time. The gullies found in relatively plain area are active in
nature..

Inactive gullies : Inactive gullies are those where no further enlargement is

seen with time. Such gullies are found in rocky terrain as rocks are quite tough
to erosion by the runoff flow.

Agronomical Measures of Water Erosion Control

Soil conservation is a preservation technique, in which deterioration of

soil and its losses are eliminated or minimized by using it within its capabilities
and applying conservation techniques for protection as well as improvement of
soil. In soil and water conservation, the agronomical measure is a more
economical, long lasting and effective technique.

Agronomic conservation measures function by reducing the impact of

raindrops through interception and thus reducing soil erosion. They also
increase infiltration rates and thereby reduce surface runoff. Widely used
agronomic measures for water erosion control are listed below-

1) Contour Cropping

Contour Cropping is an effective technique of in situ moisture

conservation farming method on moderate slope, that is used on slopes to
control soil losses due to water erosion. Contour cropping involves planting
crops across the slope instead of up and down the slope (fig 15). Use of contour
cropping forms mini barriers across the path of the flow of runoff , which in
turn increases the opportunity time for water and increases the infiltration. This
will result in lesser runoff and thereby soil erosion. The valuable top soil is thus
protected. On long and smooth slope, contour cropping is more effective as the
velocity of flow is high under such situation and contour cropping shortens the
slope length to reduce the flow velocity. Contour cropping is most effective on
slopes between 2 and 10 percent. Also in the area receiving up to 15 cm rainfall
(24 hr) at 10 years recurrence interval contour cropping has been found to be
effective.

It is not suitable for rolling topography with high degree of slope

irregularity. There is a limit to the slope length with respect to the slope
percentage where contour cropping performs best as far as soil erosion
reduction is concerned-

Land slope % Max. slope length (m) Land slope % Max. slope length (m)

1-2 120 3-5 90

6-8 60 9-12 35
 Fig. 15 Contour cropping.

2) Strip Cropping

Strip cropping is the practice of growing strip of crops having poor

potential for erosion control, such as root crop (inter tilled crops), cereals, etc.,
alternated with strips of crops having good potentials for erosion control, such
as fodder crops, grasses, etc., which are close growing crops (Fig. 4.2). Strip
cropping is a more intensive farming practice than contour farming.

The farming practices that are included in this type of farming are contour
strip farming, cover cropping, farming with conservation tillage and suitable
crop rotation. A crop rotation with a combination of inter-tilled and close
growing crops, farmed on contours, provides food, fodder and conserves soil
moisture. Close growing crops act as barriers to flow and reduce the runoff
velocity generated from the strips of inter-tilled crops, and eventually reduce
soil erosion. Strip cropping is laid out by using the following three methods:
 Fig.16 Strip cropping.

Fig.17 Strip cropping.

i) Contour strip cropping: In contour strip cropping, alternate strips of

crop are sown more or less following the contours, similar to contouring.
Suitable rotation of crops and tillage operations are followed during the
farming operations.

Fig.18 Contour Strip cropping.

 ii) Field strip cropping: In a field layout of strip cropping, strip of uniform
width are laid out across the prevailing slope, while protecting the soil from
erosion by water. To protect the soil from erosion by wind, strips are laid out
across the prevailing direction of wind. Such practices are generally followed
in areas where the topography is very irregular, and the contour lines are too
curvy for strict contour farming.

iii) Buffer strip cropping: Buffer strip cropping is practiced where uniform
strip of crops are required to be laid out for smooth operations of the farm
machinery, while farming on a contour strip cropping layout. Buffer strip of
legumes, grasses and similar other crops are laid out between the contour
strips as correction strips. Buffer strips provide very good protection and
effective control of soil erosion.

3) Mulching

Mulches are used to minimize rain splash, reduce evaporation, control weeds,
reduce temperature of soil in hot climates, and moderate the temperature to a
level conducive to microbial activity. Mulches help in breaking the energy of
raindrops, prevent splash and dissipation of soil structure, obstruct the flow of
runoff to reduce their velocity and prevent sheet and rill erosion (Fig. 17). They
also help in improving the infiltration capacity by maintaining a conductive soil
structure at the top surface of land.
 Fig. 17 Mulching of cropped field.

Types of mulching material: The mulches may be broadly classified

into the following five types:

1. Synthetic mulch: It includes organic and inorganic liquids that are

sprayed on the soil surface to form a thin film for controlling the various
atmospheric agents acting on the soil surface. The different synthetic
mulching materials are: resins, asphalt emulsions, latex and cut back asphalt,
canvas etc.
2. Petroleum mulch: The petroleum mulches are easier to apply and also less
expensive. These mulches are available in the form of emulsions of asphalt
in water, which can be sprayed on the soil surface at ambient temperature
to form a thin film in continuous form that clings to soil, but does not
penetrate deep inside the soil. The mulch film promotes uniform and rapid
seed germination and also plays a significant role for vigorous growth of
seedling. An ideal surface film is also stable against erosion, sufficiently
porous to allow water into the soil, yet insoluble in water and resistant
enough to the forces of weather, causing it to last as long as necessary for
vegetation to become established.
3. Conventional mulch: The mulches such as hay or straw are more effective
than the petroleum mulches. These mulches not only conserve the
moisture and reduce the fluctuation of soil temperature, but also protect
the soil from rain drop impacts and hold the excess surface water in
contact with the soil, so as to increase the infiltration rate and thereby
reduce the runoff and soil erosion.
In addition, during day hours these mulches also absorb as much
insolation as bare soil does, but little energy is conducted downward. This
 causes the surface of the mulch to become hot and the underlying soil to
remain cool. On the other hand, during night hours, the mulch cools down
permitting the soil to remain warm. The paper mulches also counted under
conventional mulch are reported to produce remarkable results. Paper
mulches are observed to increase the soil temperature, especially of the
surface soil layers. There are several evidences to show that paper mulching
gives better performance in improvement of soil condition, besides
promoting the earthworm activity. But at the same time, caution has to be
taken against the toxic elements of chemicals leached out of the paper. The
bituminized treated papers have toxic effects on the plants.
4. Stone mulch: It involves the spreading of stone pieces on the ground
surface to conserve the moisture and also to reduce the wind erosion. It is a
very old practice, followed in arid zones. Soil under the stones tends to be
in moist condition, but the temperature of that soil becomes slightly higher.
The soils lying below the stones, harbour small animals and involve high
nitrification. The stone mulching is also used for trapping the dew,
particularly in those locations where significant dew fall takes place.
Central arid zone research institute Jodhpur, has reported the use of rubble
mulch, which is simply combination of small fragments of stones and
bricks. This mulch provides better results on moisture conservation
compared to the stone mulching, synthetic mulching and mulching made by
straw materials.
5. Organic mulch: The tree branches, twigs, leaves, leaf litter, grasses,
weeds etc. are used as organic mulch to cover the soil surface. The organic
mulches are found superior to the artificial mulches in respect of
conservation of moisture, reduction in evaporation and runoff. Use of this
mulch controls the evaporation more effectively, particularly when rainfall
takes place at frequent intervals, but it is not very effective when the
numbers of rains are few and scattered.
In other words, organic mulch does not conserve the moisture available
due to infrequent rains and small showers, but these mulches may be quite
effective for large rains lasting for several days which results in a wet
surface with the availability of excess surface water for deep percolation.
Further, the light mulches are almost ineffective for controlling the
evaporation, because moisture conserving efficiency of mulch is inversely
related to their capacity to absorb water or to extract it from the soil by
capillary action. Resistant mulches do not decay shortly but last for a long
time. As a result they are more effective for conserving the soil moisture.