REPRODUCTION IN VERTEBRATES

Terms used in reproduction

1) Oviparity: animals deposit fertilized eggs in the external environment for development e.g. in all birds some reptiles and some
fish.
2) Ovoviviparity: animals retain eggs in the mother’s body to complete development, but embryos still obtain all of their nourishment
from the egg yolk. The young are hatched from the mother’s body when fully developed. E.g. in many reptiles and some fish
3) Viviparity: eggs develop to advanced stage in the mother’s body and the embryo obtains nourishment directly from the mother’s
blood, rather than just from the egg yolk. E.g. in mammals
4) Internal fertilization: is where fusion of male and female gametes occurs inside the body of the female animal.
5) External fertilization: is where fusion of male and female gametes occurs outside the body of the female animal.
6) Isolecithal eggs (Gr. Isos, equal, + lekithos, yolk): eggs with very little yolk that is evenly distributed in the egg e.g. human
eggs.
7) Mesolecithal eggs (Gr. mesos, middle, + lekithos, yolk): eggs with moderate amount of yolk concentrated in the vegetal pole
e.g. in amphibians.
8) Telolecithal eggs (Gr. telos, end, + lekithos, yolk): eggs contain an abundance of yolk that is densely concentrated at the
vegetal pole of the egg. E.g. in birds, reptiles, most fishes.
9) Cleidoic eggs: shelled eggs e.g. eggs of birds, reptiles
10) Gametogenesis: the series of transformations that result into the formation of mature gametes.
11) Spermatogenesis: the series of transformations that result into the formation of male gametes.
12) Oogenesis: the series of transformations that result into the formation of female gametes.
13) Menopause: a period when ovulation and menstruation cease in human females.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

Mechanisms leading to fertilization and subsequent development in mammals are of evolutionary advantage to their
success. Describe some of the mechanisms you consider are of evolutionary advantage.
• Fertilisation and development are internal to limit wastage of gametes and provide protection to the young respectively.
• The breeding seasons coincide with the breeding cycle so that birth occurs at a time when environmental conditions are most
favourable for growth of young.
• Feeding young ones on nutritious milk enables them to prepare for adult food as the digestive system develops.
• Secondary sexual characteristics enable easy identification of mating partners
• Parental care provides protection from predation and harsh environmental conditions to the young.
• Development of placenta enables gaseous exchange and the young to excrete wastes.
• Females are often more receptive to males during ovulation or the act of copulation stimulating ovulation.

Main features of sexual reproduction in mammals

• Fertilisation is internal
• Females go through a sexual cycle known as menstrual cycle
• Sexual cycle is restricted to the breeding season, except in humans and other primates, which are sexually receptive
throughout the year
• Young ones are born at an advanced stage.
• There is display of courtship behaviour that leads to mating.
• Development of embryo is internal and completely dependent on the mother for food and protection.
• The young are fed on milk
• Parental care to the young is prolonged

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SEX ORGANS

Primary sex organs: organs, which produce gametes and secrete sex hormones i.e. the gonads (testes in males and ovaries in
females)
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Secondary sex organs (accessory organs): organs associated with testes or ovaries which play some roles in reproduction but
other than gamete production and hormone secretion. E.g. penis, prostate, seminal vesicles, sperm duct in males, and fallopian
tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands in females.
Primary sex organs Secondary sex organs
-Produce gametes -Do not produce gametes
-Secrete sex hormones - Do not secrete sex hormones
-Development is under the control of FSH and LH -Development is under the control of Oestrogen and
progesterone in females and testosterone in males

Accessory or external sex characters: are external characters, which do not play any direct role in reproduction but are distinct
and enable sexes to be distinguished as male and female. E.g. low pitch voice and facial hair
(males) and high pitch voice (females)
Structure of the human reproductive systems.

Functions of parts of the human reproductive systems

Male reproductive system Female reproductive system
Part Function Part Function
Penis -Delivers sperm to the neck of the cervix, as close Ovaries -Are sites for egg production
to the site of ovulation as possible. -Secrete the hormones oestrogen and
progesterone.
Scrotum -Regulates teste’s temperature at 3 C lower than
0

body temperature for proper sperm formation. Funnel of oviduct -The finger-like projections sweep the egg
When cold, the cremaster muscle elevates the into oviduct.
testes to absorb heat from the body, this’s
reversed at high temperature. Oviducts -Walls are muscular and lined with ciliated
(Fallopian tubes) epithelium for moving egg from ovary
Testes -Contain seminiferous tubules that produce towards uterus.
sperm.
-Produce the male sex hormone testosterone. Uterus -Site of implantation of fertilized egg,
development of foetus during pregnancy and
origin of muscular contractions that precede
parturition.

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Prostate gland -Secretes an alkaline fluid that neutralizes the Vagina -Passage for menstrual flow, receptacle
acidic vaginal secretions to avoid reduction in for penis during coitus and lower part of
sperm motility at low PH. birth canal.

Seminal vesicles -Secrete an alkaline mucous fluid rich in Clitoris -Tactile stimulation excites the female
fructose-the respiratory substrate for sperm sexually during intercourse.
motility.
Labia minora -Produce a lubricant mucus secretion
Cowper’s -Produces a mucous secretion for lubricating the and Labia during intercourse and protect the
(bulbourethral) penis during intercourse and neutralizing the majora clitoris from abrasion.
gland acidity of any remaining urine.

Epididymis -Sperm maturation site (1-10 days).

-Stores spermatozoa (up to
4wks)

Vas deferens -Stores sperm (up to many months) before

ejaculation.

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 Main events during Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the process by which spermatogonia in seminiferous tubules of testes develop into sperm that can leave the
male’s body.
Phases Processes
Multiplication At puberty, diploid germinal epithelial cells (primordial germ cells) of seminiferous tubules undergo
phase repeated mitotic divisions to form a number of diploid spermatogonia.

Growth phase Each spermatogonium increases in size and becomes a primary spermatocyte.
Maturation phase Each primary spermatocyte undergoes the first meiotic division to form two haploid secondary
spermatocytes, which undergo second meiotic division to form four haploid spermatids, connected to
each other by cytoplasm.
The spermatids get embedded into sertoli cells (loosely called “nurse cells”) to be transformed into sperm
by:
i) Losing part of cytoplasm
ii) Condensation of nucleus into head.
iii) Formation of flagellated tail.
The mature spermatozoa (sperms) finally detach from sertoli cells and are released into the lumen of
seminiferous tubules.

Functions of sertoli (sustentacular) cells:

i) Provide nourishment to developing spermatids.
ii) Phagocytise (eat off) the cytoplasm of spermatids.
iii) Secrete a fluid that carries spermatids through the tubules.
iv) Phagocytise foreign particles that invade the tubules
Development of ova in humans
Oogenesis is the production of eggs in the ovary of females
Phases Processes
Multiplication phase During embryonic development, diploid oogonia (germinal epithelial cells of ovary) undergo repeated
mitotic divisions to increase in number
Growth phase Some oogonia undergo mitosis to form primary oocytes, which remain at prophase I of meiosis, while
the rest (now called follicle cells/granulosa cells) enclose the primary oocytes.
Maturation phase At puberty, granulosa cells multiply to form primary follicle & other cell layers around the primary oocyte.
-The primary oocyte undergoes meiosis up to metaphase II only to form a secondary oocyte and 1st
polar body
The primary follicle develops to form fluid filled secondary follicle and later Graafian follicle, which
enclose secondary oocyte & 1st polar body.
-At fertilization, the secondary oocyte completes meiosis II to form a large ootid (ovum) and second
polar body.
-The first polar body also undergoes meiosis at the same time to form two small polar bodies.
-All the three polar bodies degenerate and only one
functional egg remains

Note: The egg released from the Graafian follicle during ovulation is a secondary oocyte, which has undergone meiosis up to
metaphase II only. Meiosis II is completed at the time of fertilization and turns the secondary oocyte into an egg

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Significance of formation polar bodies during oogenesis.
• Polar bodies take the extra chromosomes resulting from meiosis in order for the ovum to carry haploid number of chromosomes.
• The unequal cytoplasmic division results into the formation of a large egg with the cytoplasm containing sufficient yolk for the
development of the embryo.
Comparison of spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans
Similarities:
• Both begin with diploid germinal epithelial cells
• Mitosis and meiosis are involved in both
• Both yield haploid gametes
• Both occur in gonads
Differences:
Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
• Occurs in seminiferous tubules in testes of males. • Occurs in ovaries of females
• Begins only at puberty. • Begins during embryonic development. A baby girl is born
with the set number of primary oocytes already in prophase
stage of 1st meiotic division.
• It is a continuous process and occurs all the time • It is a discontinuous process, only one egg matures in about
28 days.
• During growth phase, primary spermatocyte shows only • Primary oocyte may show the increase of about four to eight
double the increase times.
• Four spermatids are formed from one primary • Only one ovum is formed from one primary oocyte.
spermatophyte
• Equal cytoplasmic divisions during meiosis I and • There is unequal cytoplasmic division during meiosis I and
meiosis II and no formation of polar bodies. meiosis II and resulting into formation of polar bodies.
• All stages are completed and sperms are formed in the testes • The secondary oocyte leaves the ovary and final second
only meiotic division at fertilization in the fallopian tube.
• Male gamete or sperm is comparatively very small. • Female gamete is very large comparatively.
• Spermatid undergoes spermiogenesis to become sperm. • No such stage after the formation of ootid or ovum
• Takes a longer time to complete • Takes a shorter time to complete

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 Structure of human male and female gametes
Male gamete Female gamete

Functions of the parts of gametes

Human spermatozoon:
Acrosome: Contains hydrolytic enzymes which facilitate the penetration of the egg membranes prior to fertilization.
Nucleus: Contain a haploid set of chromosomes, which on fusion with the egg restores the diploid state of organisms.
Mitochondria: They complete aerobic to release ATP required for contraction of filaments during the sperm’s movement.
Tail piece (Flagellum): Enables motility of the sperm.

Human ovum:
Yolky cytoplasm: Contains fat and protein which nourish the developing embryo.
Cortical granules (lysosomes): Contain enzymes that alter the structure of vitelline membrane to prevent polyspermy at fertilization,
to avoid upsetting the diploid state of the zygote.
Vitelline membrane: Undergoes structural changes that prevent polyspermy at fertilisation
Nucleus: Contains 23 chromosomes that complete meiosis II at fertilization to provide female haploid nucleus
Polar body: Contains 23 chromosomes, but is non-functional and degenerate

Hormonal control of spermatogenesis in humans.

• Interaction of hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland working together controls spermatogenesis.
• From the hypothalamus, gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete two
gonadotrophins (gonad stimulating hormones), i.e. follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH)/interstitial
cell stimulating hormone (ICSH).
• FSH stimulates spermatogenesis by causing sertoli cells to complete the development of spermatozoa from spermatids.
FSH also causes sertoli cells to release a peptide hormone inhibin that specifically inhibits FSH secretion.
LH (ICSH) stimulates the leydig cells (interstitial cells) of the testes to secrete testosterone.
• Testosterone stimulates the growth and development of germinal epithelial cells (spermatogonia) to form sperm, and also works
with FSH to stimulate the sertoli cells.
• However, increased testosterone level inhibits the secretion of GnRH and LH.
The general name for male sex hormones is androgens (e.g. testosterone), while oestrogens are the female sex hormones. Both
androgens and oestrogens are present in male and female mammals, but in different proportions so that the degree of ‘maleness’ or
‘femaleness’ is variable depending upon the balance between the levels of androgens and oestrogens in the body.

a) (i) Distinguish between oestrous and menstrual cycles.

ii) Outline the four main phases of the menstrual cycle
b) Describe the hormonal, physiological and structural changes that occur during the human menstrual cycle.(hormonal
control of menstrual cycle)
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 a) (i) Oestrous cycle: series of hormone controlled changes in the non-primate reproductive cycle characterized by females
experiencing a period of heightened sexual excitement just before ovulation.
Menstrual cycle: series of hormone controlled changes in the primate female reproductive system that result in monthly discharge
of blood and uterine materials when fertilization fails.

ii) The four main phases of the menstrual cycle:

–Follicular phase
-Ovulation
-Luteal phase
-Menstruation
HORMONAL CONTROL OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE
At puberty (about 12 years) the hypothalamus:
1) Secretes Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) which stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH).
2) FSH stimulates:
• The development of primary follicles in the ovary
• The secretion of oestrogen.
3) Oestrogen:
• Causes the repair and healing of the uterine wall following menstruation.
• Inhibits the secretion of FSH.
• Causes the secretion of LH from the anterior pituitary.
4) LH stimulates:
• Ovulation i.e. Meiosis I resumes in the primary oocyte to form polar body and secondary oocyte, which is
released by rupturing of Graafian follicle.
• The remains of Graafian follicle to develop into corpus luteum (yellow body),
• The corpus luteum to secrete progesterone and oestrogen.
5) Progesterone:
• Causes increased thickness (muscularisation) and vascularization of the uterus.
• Inhibits the release of LH and FSH by negative feedback.
Decreased level of FSH prevents development of Graafian follicles, hence secretion of oestrogen stops.
Decreased level of LH prevents ovulation, hence the corpus luteum degenerates and progesterone decreases.
The sudden decrease of progesterone level in blood completes menstrual cycle, as the hypothalamus resumes the secretion of
GnRH.
GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH as menstruation occurs, characterized by breakdown and shedding of
endometrial materials.

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Briefly explain the following processes and state the significance of each.
(a) Sperm capacitation (b) Acrosome reaction (c) Fast block (d) Cortical reaction

Process Explanation Significance of the process

Sperm capacitation The process of activation of mammalian sperm to fertilise the Entry of Ca2+ increases the beating
egg, during which the acidity and enzymes in the female activity of the sperm tail and also
genital tract cause perforation of the sperm head by removal promotes acrosome reaction to enable
of cholesterol and glycoprotein to allow entry of Ca2+ and the sperm penetrate the egg.
release of acrosome enzymes.

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Acrosome reaction A process that occurs in the sperm head on making contact Enables sperm head to penetrate the egg
with a secondary oocyte, during which the cell and acrosome membranes.
membranes rupture to release hydrolytic enzymes e.g.
hyaluronidase and proteases.

Fast block A process during which contact of the first sperm with the Prevents entrance of more than one
egg membrane is instantly followed by an electrical potential sperm into the egg (polyspermy) that
change in the egg membrane to prevent entrance of more would upset the diploid state of the
than one sperm. embryo.

Cortical reaction A process that occurs following sperm penetration of the Formation of fertilization membrane
secondary oocyte during which lysosomes (cortical granules) prevents multiple sperm entry into the
fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents, egg (polyspermy) that would upset the
causing the vitelline membrane to harden and form the diploid state to cause death of
fertilization membrane to prevent polyspermy mammalian embryo.

Outline the events which lead to fertilization of an egg by a sperm.

Fertilization is the fusion of sperm and egg nuclei to form a diploid zygote.
• On entering the vagina, sperm spend about 7 hours being capacitated, after which they move towards the oviducts, aided by
muscular contractions of the uterus and oviducts, and lashing of tail.
• A spermatozoon comes into contact with the oocyte by random movement.
• Acrosome enzymes hydrolyse a path in the granulosa layer of egg until the sperm head makes contact with zona pellucida.
• Sperm acrosome membrane ruptures to release hydrolytic enzymes (acrosome reaction) and the acrosomal filament pierces
through the oocyte membranes up to the plasma membrane of the oocyte.
• An electrical potential change in the oocyte membrane occurs (fast block), followed by fusion of cortical granules with plasma
membrane to discharge their contents (cortical reaction), which creates an osmotic gradient that draws water into the space
between the plasma membrane and vitelline membrane.
• The two membranes are lifted away and the vitelline membrane hardens (fertilization membrane) to block polyspermy.
• While the sperm tail is lost and disintegrates, the nucleus expands and is now known as pronucleus.
• Entry of a sperm stimulates completion of second meiotic division of the secondary oocyte to form the second polar body, which
disintegrates, and an egg. The haploid male and female pronuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote, which divides immediately by
mitosis to form two diploid cells.

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Outline the events that occur in the egg immediately following the entry of the spermatozoon.
• Sperm acrosome membrane ruptures to release hydrolytic enzymes and the acrosomal filament pierces through the oocyte
membranes up to the plasma membrane of the oocyte.
• An electrical potential change in the oocyte membrane occurs followed by fusion of cortical granules with plasma membrane to
discharge their contents which creates an osmotic gradient that draws water into the space between the plasma membrane and
vitelline membrane.
• The two membranes are lifted away and the vitelline membrane hardens to block polyspermy.
• While the sperm tail is lost and disintegrates, the nucleus expands and is now known as pronucleus.
• Entry of a sperm stimulates completion of second meiotic division of the secondary oocyte to form the second polar body, which
disintegrates, and an egg.
• The haploid male and female pronuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote, which divides immediately by mitosis to form two diploid
cells.

a) What is meant by negative feed back

b) Briefly explain how negative feedback operates in the control of:
i) Testicular hormone secretion
ii) The menstrual cycle
c) What hormonal controlled changes occur in the endometrium during the menstrual cycle? (Effect of ovarian
hormones on the endometrium during the menstrual cycle)

a) A mechanism in which the effect of deviation from the normal condition triggers a response that eliminates its deviation in
order to reduce further corrective action of the control system once the set point value has been reached.

b) (i)-The hypothalamic hormone, gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to
secrete both follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH).
-FSH stimulates spermatogenesis by causing sertoli cells to complete the development of spermatozoa from spermatids.
FSH also causes sertoli cells to release a peptide hormone inhibin that specifically inhibits FSH secretion.
-LH stimulates leydig cells of the testes to secrete testosterone.
- Testosterone stimulates the growth and development of spermatogonia to form sperm, also inhibits the secretion of LH by feeding
back, both directly at the anterior pituitary gland and indirectly by reducing GnRH release. ii) -The hypothalamic Gonadotrophin-
releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates the anterior pituitary to both FSH and LH.
-FSH stimulates the secretion of oestrogen in the ovary.
-Oestrogen in increased levels inhibits FSH secretion and causes secretion of LH from the anterior pituitary. -LH stimulates
ovulation and development of corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone and also continues to secrete oestrogen.
-Progesterone inhibits the release of LH and FSH thus arresting development of any further follicles.

c) Hormonal control of changes in the endometrium during the menstrual cycle

-During the follicular phase, oestrogen (estradiol) from the ovary causes the uterine endometrium to repair and heal.
-During the luteal phase, progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum in the ovary causes the endometrium to become highly
muscular and vascular.
-As the corpus luteum degenerates, the rapid fall in oestrogen and progesterone levels at the end of the cycle causes the
endometrium to be sloughed off in menstruation.

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 PREGNANCY (GESTATION)
This is the period between conception (fertilisation) and birth.

Highlights of human pregnancy

30 hours after fertilization: first cleavege
3-4 Days after Conception:
(i) The zygote, now called morula arrives at the uterus after a 4 inch journey through the fallopian tube.
(ii) In the uterus the morula burrows itself into the endometrium (inner lining of uterus).
(iii) The outside cells of the morula eventually grow to form the placenta.
6-7 Days after Conception
The morula, now called blastocyst attaches to the uterus, causing some women to feel implantation cramps.
7-9 Days After Conception
(i) Pregnancy tests can detect the levels of HCG (human Chorionic Gonadotropin) hormone in the body.
(ii) HCG, a protein hormone, is first produced in the second week of gestation to prevent menstruation and is most
concentrated at 8 weeks gestation. Levels gradually decline after the 8th week.
Duration Major events
2 weeks Most women can test positive for HCG urine pregnancy tests, at 95% accuracy.
3 weeks Baby-in-the-making is a ball of cells called a blastocyst. Gastrulation occurs.
4 weeks Organogenesis
5 weeks Heart begins to beat – at twice the rate of adults.
6 weeks Facial features (e.g. eyes and nostrils) begin to form, and little buds appear where arms and legs will develop
8 weeks Arms and legs are growing, as well as a nose and upper lip are formed. Notochord degenerates.
9 weeks Eyes have developed, though eyelids are still fused and shut.
The embryo has become a foetus. Vital organs – such as kidneys, intestines, brain, and liver – are starting to
10 weeks
function. Tiny fingernails and toenails are forming.
11 week Foetus is almost fully formed. Bone templates are formed, external genitalia are developing.
12 week Baby’s heartbeat can be felt.
14 week Kidneys can release urine into the amniotic fluid.
15 weeks Baby can see light that filters in from outside the womb, even though the eyelids are still shut

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16 weeks Baby's sex can be detected.
19 weeks Baby can hear mother’s heartbeat and sounds that come from outside the body, such as father's voice.
23 weeks Baby's sense of movement has developed, so s/he can feel the motion if mother dances.
27 weeks Baby can “practice breathing” by inhaling and exhaling amniotic fluid, and also open and close eyes.
34 weeks Baby is now considered full-term, lungs can work fine if born now.
40 weeks Baby is due and fully ready for life outside the womb.

Hormonal control of pregnancy

Changes in hormonal concentration during pregnancy

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 EXPLANATION FOR OBSERVATIONS
Hormone Observations (Description) Explanation
HCG (a) Concentration very (a) Before conception, HCG is secreted by the anterior
(pregnancy hormone) low at conception, pituitary and functions in a Luteinizing Hormone-like manner to
(b) HCG Concentration promote ovulation and progesterone production during the
increases rapidly at about 1 - 2 menstrual cycle.
weeks after fertilization to a (b) At implantation, trophoblast cells secrete HCG to:
maximum at about 10 - 11 (i) Maintain the corpus luteum.
weeks of gestation. (ii) Stimulate the corpus luteum to continue secreting
(c) HCG concentration oestrogen and progesterone.
decreases rapidly to a (iii) Cause the blockage of any immune or macrophage action
minimum at about 19 – 20 by mother on foreign invading placental cells.
weeks, and remains relatively (iv) Cause uterine growth parallel to fetal growth.
constant after the 20 week (v)
th Suppress any contractions by uterine wall during the
until about 40th week when it course of pregnancy.
drops to zero. (vi) Cause growth and differentiation of the umbilical cord
(c) As the embryo grows, the placenta increases in size causing
increased secretion of progesterone, which takes over some of the
roles of HCG causing its secretion to decreases. A decrease in
HCG causes degeneration of corpus luteum. At the 40th week the
foetus is expelled therefore HCG secretion stops.

Progesterone “pro-
gestational” hormone

(a) Luteal There is a slight rise to a Corpus luteum secretes luteal progesterone after ovulation, to
progesterone maximum at about 4-6 weeks ensure that the lining of the uterus stays intact and provides a
after conception followed by a nourishing environment for the egg to implant and develop. Without
rapid decrease thereafter to luteal progesterone, the lining of the uterus would slough off,
zero at 11 – 12 week. ending the pregnancy.

(i) Absent at conception. As the corpus luteum and ovaries become inactive in the later
(b) Placental (ii) Concentration increases stages of pregnancy, progesterone secretion is by the placenta. As
progesterone first slowly upto about 8- the pregnancy progresses, there is increased growth of the
10 weeks, then rapidly placenta, causing increased secretion of placental progesterone
to a maximum just which:
before birth (40th week). (i) Inhibits contraction of the myometrium (promotes relaxation)
(ii) Increases mucus secretion in the cervix of the womb, forming
a protective plug (promotes glandular activity in uterus)
(iii) Stimulates growth of maternal part of placenta.
(iv) Stimulates enlargement of the uterus.
(v) Inhibits FSH release, thus prevents ovulation and
menstruation.
(vi) Causes enlargement of the breasts and growth of mammary
glands.

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 NB: After a meal, progesterone levels drop greatly (about
50%), explaining why blood test should be done early morning
and before eating.
Oestrogen (i) Concentration very After ovulation, Oestrogen is initially secreted by the corpus luteum
low at conception up to 12 weeks, hence the low and constant concentration.
(ii) Concentration Afterwards, placenta takes over oestrogen secretion, therefore
remains relatively constant increased growth of the placenta causes increased secretion of
from conception to about 12 oestrogen which:
weeks. (i) Inhibits secretion of FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone)
(iii) Concentration and LH (Lutenising hormone), both of which are involved in
increases rapidly after 12 ovulation.
weeks to a maximum just (ii) Causes growth of the uterus and increases the sensitivity
before birth. of the uterus to the hormone oxytocin which is involved in the
processes of birth and lactation.
(iii) Inhibits the secretion of prolactin, and thus inhibits
lactation during pregnancy.
(iv) Stimulates the development of mammary glands in
preparation for lactation after the baby has been born.
(v) Causes softening and relaxing of the ligament of the pelvic
girdle.
Prolactin and (i) Not secreted until High levels of oestrogen and progesterone inhibit the secretion of
Oxytocin after the 30th week. Prolactin from the anterior lobe of pituitary gland and Oxytocin
(ii) Prolactin secretion from the posterior pituitary until birth.
starts at about 31-32 weeks When levels of Oestrogen and Progesterone decrease after birth,
and increases, first slowly up to prolactin causes lactation.
about 42 week then rapidly Towards parturition (birth), high levels of oestrogen promote uterine
thereafter. contractions and increased sensitivity of uterine wall to oxytocin,
which causes the uterine muscle (myometrium) to contract.
Relaxin Relaxin peaks during the 14 Causes increased:
weeks of the first trimester and (i) Relaxation of ligaments, softening of cervix and inhibition
at delivery of muscle contractions.
(ii) Cardiac output, renal blood flow, and arterial compliance.

a) Give an account of the role of the placenta as an endocrine organ in mammals.

b) How is a placenta suited for providing the developing foetus with nutrients?

a) The role of the placenta

As an endocrine organ:
It secretes various hormones which control development of the foetus:
• HCG (human chorionic gonadotrophin) causes the corpus luteum to continue secreting progesterone and oestrogen necessary
for endometrial development for the first 3-4 months of pregnancy.
• Oestrogen prevents ovulation and menstruation, stimulates growth of mammary glands and increase in uterine muscle cells, and
increases myometrium sensitivity to oxytocin
• Progesterone also stimulates growth of mammary glands, inhibits the contraction of uterine muscles and inhibits the release of
prolactin (a hormone that stimulates milk production).
Relaxin hormone relaxes the connective tissue in pelvic girdle to enlarge the cervix in preparation for birth.

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As a non-endocrine organ
• Digested food and other nutrients are transported through umbilical vein to link up with the foetal blood
• Waste foetal products diffuse from umbilical artery to maternal blood.
• Oxygen diffuses from umbilical vein to the foetal blood while carbondioxide moves in opposite direction.
• Antibodies cross the placenta from mother to foetus hence providing means by which passive immunity is acquired.
• It serves as a barrier to the transfer of solutes and blood components from maternal to foetal circulation.
• It prevents direct contact of maternal and foetal blood systems enabling them to operate at different pressures
b) How placenta is suited for providing the developing foetus with nutrients:
-The finger-like projections which grow into the endometrium increase the surface area for exchange of substances.
-Closeness of maternal and foetal blood vessels facilitates faster diffusion of substances.
-Continuous flow of blood at the placenta ensures replacement of substances to maintain diffusion gradients for easy diffusion of
these materials.
-Chorionic villi cells contain numerous mitochondria to provide energy required for active transport.

THE BIRTHING PROCESS (PARTURITION)

The time leading up to the normal birthing process is generally 266 days (38 weeks) - from conception to birth. However, only about
5% of births occur on the actual due date.

Outline the stages in the process of parturition (birth)

-The onset of birth is triggered by decreased progesterone and increased oestrogen levels during the last stages of pregnancy.
-The posterior pituitary produces Oxytocin, which causes contraction of the uterus that increase in force and frequency.
-Cervix dilates to allow passage of baby’s head into the vagina while embryonic membranes rupture.
-Foetus is expelled in down face position, followed by afterbirth (umbilical cord and placenta) expulsion.

a) Distinguish between contraception and birth control.

Contraception: use of methods which act to prevent fertilization of an egg by sperm.
Birth control: a wide range of methods that prevent development of egg into foetus, whether it is already fertilized or not.
b) Give an outline of birth control methods in man
Birth control methods
Method How it works:
Barriers preventing sperm from reaching egg cell -Inserted on erect penis or into vagina before sexual
a) Condom (for males and females) intercourse
b) Diaphragm (cap) -Inserted into vagina before sexual intercourse
c) Spermicide -Cream, foam or gel placed into vagina to kill sperm
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 Hormones that interfere with ovulation or implantation
a) Pill -Combination of oestrogen and progesterone prevents
b) Morning after pill (emergency pill) ovulation and implantation
-Used within 48 hours after sex.
Behavioural
a) Rhythm method Sex is avoided during ovulation period
b) Penis withdrawal (coitus interruptus) Penis is withdrawn from vagina before ejaculation occurs
. Surgical
a) Vasectomy (males) Sperm duct is cut and tied permanently
b) Ligation of oviducts -Both oviducts are cut and tied permanently
Other e.g. intra-uterine device (IUD), plastic or copper Prevents implantation
device

INFERTILITY
Infertility is the failure of a couple to conceive a pregnancy after trying to do so for at least one full year.
Primary infertility is when pregnancy has never occurred.
Secondary infertility is when one or both members of the couple have previously conceived, but are unable to conceive again after
a full year of trying.
Main causes of infertility
a) Male problems: 35%
b) Ovulation problems: 20%
c) Tubal problems: 20%
d) Endometriosis: 10% (abnormal location of uterine tissue outside of the uterus)
e) Cervical factors: 5%.
1) Complex changes in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and ovaries can cause hormone imbalance to cause ovulation
disorders. It's the most common cause of female infertility.
2) Excess physical or emotional stress can disrupt the pattern of secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
hormone (LH) and affect ovulation – evidenced by irregular or absent periods.
3) Excessive overweight or underweight can disrupt the pattern of secretion of FSH and LH and affect ovulation.
4) Auto-immune response - the body mistakenly attacks ovarian tissues.
5) Premature loss of eggs from the ovary due to genetic problems or environmental insults such as chemotherapy causing
ovulation failure, as well as a decreased estrogen secretion below 40 years.
6) Too much prolactin secretion which reduces oestrogen production and may cause infertility due to pituitary malfunction or
medications taken for another disease.
7) Damage or blockage of fallopian tubes hence preventing sperm from getting to the egg or block the passage of the fertilized
egg into the uterus.
8) Implantation failure due to fibroids/tumors, inflammation, abnormally shaped uterus, cervical narrowing.
9) Sometimes the cervix can't produce the best type of mucus to allow the sperm to travel through the cervix into the uterus.
10) Low sperm count: less than 5 million sperm per ml of semen
11) Impotence: failure of the penis to erect or ejaculate

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 CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN BLOOD AND FOETAL CIRCULATION AT BIRTH
Before birth:
 Foetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult
haemoglobin to facilitate diffusion of oxygen from the mother.
 In the foetus, blood bypasses the lungs via the ductus arteriosus, which
connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta.
 Blood also bypasses the lungs, which are functionless by going through
the foramen ovale connecting the two atria of the foetal heart.
 Blood from the left atrium passes into the left ventricle and into the aorta,
which supplies blood to the body and the umbilical artery.
 Pressure in the foetal circulatory system is greatest in the pulmonary
artery and this determines the direction of blood flow through the foetus
and placenta
After birth:
 In a few weeks of life, foetal haemoglobin is replaced by adult
haemoglobin since it is less suitable as a means of gaseous exchange
with air
 At birth when the baby takes the first breath, there is increased partial
pressure of oxygen in its blood together with the nervous reflexes
occurring in its body results in the closure of ductus arteriosus.
 As a result of this, most of the blood vessels and the opening of
pulmonary circulation results in the blood pressure in the left atrium
exceeding that of the right atrium, causing the foramen ovale to close with
the aid of a valve in its passage.
 Blood then passes from the right ventricle and pulmonary artery to the
lungs.

Note: sometimes the mechanism which results in the closure of foramen ovale fails. This is the reason why some children called
blue babies bear a hole in the heart, where a portion of blood continues to bypass the lungs resulting in inadequate oxygenation
of the tissues.
If blood pressure were highest in the aorta, blood would flow in the reverse direction along the ductus arteriosus.

Extra embryonic membranes associated with the human foetus

1. Chorion: It completely surrounds the foetus and is the foetal contribution to the placenta.
2. Amnion: Forms a fluid filled amniotic cavity that cushions the foetus from shock and mechanical damage.
3. Yolk sac: Contains little or no yolk, it is a temporary site for red blood cell formation.
4. Allantois: Derived from embryonic hind gut, it contributes blood vessels that form the umbilical cord.

a) What are the main features of reproduction in birds?

b) How are birds suited for reproduction on land?
c) Compare embryo development in birds and mammals.
d) State the forms of parental care provided by mammals.

a) Some of the main features of reproduction in birds

i) Fertilization is internal
ii) Mating is preceded by elaborate courtship displays
iii) Hard shelled eggs (cleidoic/amniotic eggs) are laid in the external environment
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 iv) Eggs are incubated usually by the mother as the embryo develops
v) Newly hatched young ones are fed and cared for by the parents

b) How birds are suited for reproduction on land

i) Production of hard-shelled eggs for protection from mechanical damage
ii) Fertilization is internal to avoid drying up of eggs and wastage of gametes
iii) Newly hatched young ones are fed and cared for by the parents e.g. nest building, brooding etc.
iv) Zygote develops within the amniote (cleidoic egg), which provides the embryo with a fluid-filled cavity in which it can develop
on land.

c) Comparison of embryo development in birds and mammals.

Similarities:
 Both contain yolk sac
 In both the embryo is surrounded by extra-embryonic membranes, which develop from tissues outside the embryo
 In both the embryo is cushioned in the fluid-filled amniotic cavity
 Embryo development is preceded by internal fertilization in both
 Allantois is involved in gaseous exchange.
Differences:
Embryo development in birds Embryo development in mammals.
• Yolk sac is well developed nourish the foetus • Yolk sac is poorly developed since the foetus derives
nourishment from the mother.
• Allantois is a depository organ for nitrogenous wastes e.g. • Nitrogenous wastes e.g. urea diffuse into maternal blood.
uric acid.
• Embryo is protected from damage by an outer shell. • Outer shell is lacking around the developing embryo.
• Yolk sac transfers digested food to the embryo. • Digested food is transferred by placenta.
• Allanto-chorion is lacking. • There is a developed allanto-chorion

c) Forms of parental care provided by mammals:

 Protection from predators
 Feeding
 Provision of shelter
 Training of offspring.

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