Reproduction in Humans

DEFINITIONS AND IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Biological term Description

Acrosome The vesicle which contains enzymes found in the head of a sperm cell
A fluid that protects the human embryo against injuries and large-scale
Amniotic fluid
temperature changes
Blastocyst/blastula A hollow ball of cells formed from the zygote

Chorion The outermost membrane found around the embryo/foetus

The introduction of the male sex organ into the female sex canal, followed
Copulation
by a discharge of semen.
Endometrium The inner lining of the uterus where implantation of the embryo occurs

Fallopian tube Part of the female reproductive system where fertilisation occurs

Fertilization When the nucleus of the sperm cell fuses with the nucleus of the ovum
Follicle stimulating The hormone responsible for the development of follicles in the ovary
hormone/FSH
The period between fertilization and birth when the foetus develops in the
Gestation
womb
The attachment of the fertilized egg or blastocyst to the wall of the uterus
Implantation
at the start of pregnancy.
The hormone responsible for ovulation and the formation of the corpus
Luteinising hormone/LH
luteum
The hormone that causes the thickening of the endometrium and is
Oestrogen
produced by the Graafian follicle
Oogenesis The production of female gametes through meiosis
A hormone produced by the pituitary gland/hypophysis that stimulates
Prolactin
milk production in human females
Puberty The stage in humans when sexual maturity is reached in males and females

Spermatogenesis The production of male gametes through meiosis

A hormone that stimulates the maturation of sperm and stimulates
Testosterone
puberty in males
Vas deferens The male reproductive tube that connects the testis with the urethra

Zygote The diploid cell formed by the process of fertilisation

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 HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

• Schematic diagram of the human life cycle to show the role of meiosis, mitosis and
fertilization

STRUCTURE OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Consists of:

• A pair of testes situated in the scrotum.

• The epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct and urethra.
• The seminal vesicles, prostate gland and Cowper’s glands.
• The penis.

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 • The testes are the male sex organs occurring in the scrotum which lies outside the abdominal
cavity.
• The seminiferous tubules are found inside of each testis.
• These tubules are lined with germinal epithelial cells which produce the spermatozoa by
spermatogenesis.
• Inside the seminiferous tubules there are specialized cells called Sertoli cells.
• These cells are rich in glycogen which is thought to serve as nutrients for the spermatids as they
develop into sperm or spermatozoa.
• The epididymis is a coiled tube lying outside each testis within the scrotum. Leads off of the
seminiferous tubule and stores sperm temporarily before sending it to the vas deferens.
• The vas deferens Is also called the sperm duct it carries the spermatozoa from the epididymis
through the abdomen into the ejaculatory duct.
• Ejaculatory ducts join the urethra just after it leaves the bladder. Contractions of the muscular
walls of the ejaculatory duct force the semen through the urethra.
• The urethra Is a tube which runs through the penis and opens at the tip of it. It is a common
tube for urine and semen.
• There are three accessory glands:
• Seminal vesicles – produce seminal fluid to transport the sperm cells.
• Prostate gland – secretes a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that makes up 1/3 of the volume of
semen.
• Cowper’s glands secrete fluid containing nutrients for the sperm.
• Secretions of the prostate and Cowper's glands nourish the sperm enabling them to swim and
provide protection.
• The penis is the copulatory organ, made up of spongy tissue which fills with blood causing the
penis to become erect before it is inserted into the female organ.
• Responsible for transferring spermatozoa from the male to the female.

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 THE STRUCTURE OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Consists of:
• A pair of ovaries
• Fallopian tube leading from each ovary
• Uterus or womb
• Vagina or birth canal
• Vulva or external opening

• The ovaries are the female sex organs.

• Found in lower part of abdominal cavity.
• Held in place by ligaments.
• Made up of a covering of germinal epithelium with a large number of follicles in it.
• Germinal epithelium produces follicles.
• Oogenesis takes place within follicles to produce ova.
• Follicles secrete oestrogen and progesterone

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 • Fallopian tubes transport the ova from the ovaries to the uterus.
• The upper parts of the fallopian tubes are expanded into ciliated funnels which partially enclose
the two ovaries.

• The Uterus is a pear shaped, hollow organ with muscular walls.

• The endometrium lines the uterus and is richly supplied with blood vessels.
• The neck of uterus is called the cervix and extends into the vagina.
• It serves for attachment of the embryo if fertilization takes place.
• The vagina is a cylindrical sheath like structure that leads from the cervix to the outside forming
the opening called the vulva.
• During copulation the penis is inserted into the vagina where spermatozoa are released.

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 PUBERTY
• This is a time of life when a person becomes sexually mature.
• Physical changes occur between 10 and 14 in girls and 12 and 16 for boys.
• It begins when the hypothalamus in the brain starts releasing gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH).

IN MALES…

• starts when GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete:

– Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) – which stimulates the testes to produce sperm,
– Luteinising hormone (LH) – which stimulates the testes to produce testosterone
– Secondary sexual characteristics (caused by testosterone)
• Rapid increase in height, size and strength of muscles
• Development and functioning of the prostate gland, seminal vesicles and
Cowper’s glands
• Voice deepens
• Hair grows in the pubic area, armpits and on the face
• Testes and penis increase in size

IN FEMALES…

• starts when GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete:

 Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) – stimulates a follicle in the ovary to develop and
secrete oestrogen
 Luteinising hormone (LH) – stimulates the development of the corpus luteum in the
ovary to secrete progesterone (not responsible for secondary sexual characteristics)
 Secondary sexual characteristics (caused by oestrogen)

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 • Rapid increase in height and breast development
• Hair growth in the pubic area and armpits
• Increase in size of the vagina
• Uterine and endometrial growth
• Onset of menstruation
• Increase in body fat

GAMETOGENESIS

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 SPERMATOGENESIS

• The germinal epithelium undergoes meiosis.

• Producing 4 haploid spermatids.
• Mature to form a spermatozoon.
• Each spermatozoon is made of a head, middle portion and a tail.

• The head is mainly made up of the nucleus containing 22 autosomes and either an X or Y gonosome.
• The middle piece is made up of numerous mitochondria to provide energy for locomotion. The
mitochondria contain mitochondrial DNA.
• The long tail enables the sperm to swim.

OOGENESIS

• Refers to the process by which ova are produced from the germinal epithelium of the ovaries.
• At puberty the germinal epithelial of the ovary starts to produce ova by meiosis.
• One cell inside a follicle undergoes meiosis.
• 4 haploid cells formed.
• 3 cells break up; one cell matures into the ovum.

• Consists of a haploid nucleus, surrounded by cytoplasm.

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• The nucleus bears the genetic material from the mother while the cytoplasm serves as nutritive material
to nourish the future zygote.
• The ovum is enclosed in a vitelline membrane.
• One ovum is produced and released every 28 days. It is produced by meiosis and therefore has 22
autosomes (single chromosomes) and an X gonosome.

OVARIAN AND MENSTRUAL CYCLES

• Series of events occurring in the ovary and uterus.

• An ovum is matured and released by the ovary.
• The endometrium builds up in preparation for implantation.
• Over a 28-day period.

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 OVARIAN CYCLE AND HORMONE CONTROL

Day 1 Day 14
Day 28

FOLLICULAR PHASE OVULATION LUTEAL PHASE

• Day 1: hypophysis secretes FSH

• This stimulates the growth of the Graafian Follicle in the ovary
• Day 7 – 14
• As levels of FSH increase in blood so the Follicle grows and matures
• It fills with fluid causing the follicle to swell
• Day 7 – 14
• The follicle secretes oestrogen
• this prepares the endometrium for implantation
• The endometrium becomes thick and vascular
• Day 12: the hypophysis stops secreting FSH and starts secreting Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
• Day 14 : OVULATION
• The Graafian follicle ruptures
• Secondary oocyte is released
• The Corpus Luteum (yellow body) develops from the Graafian follicle
• Day 17 – 28: The Corpus Luteum secretes progesterone
• This along with oestrogen this increases the thickness of the endometrium
• if fertilization occurs then levels of oestrogen and progesterone stay high
• if fertilization does not occur then:
• Levels of LH and drop causing the Corpus Luteum to degenerate
• Thus, levels of oestrogen and progesterone in the blood drop.
• Day 28: This causes the endometrial lining of the uterus tears away
• The cycle begins again

FERTILIZATION

• Spermatozoa deposited in the vagina move by spiral movements towards the ovum in the
fallopian tubes.
• The head of one sperm cell penetrates the membranous barrier around the ovum.
• Enzymes from the acrosome hydrolyse these barriers.
• The spermatozoon loses its tail.
• The yolk membrane becomes impenetrable to other sperm.
• The pronuclei of the male and female fuse.
• Two sets of chromosomes lie on the equator.
• Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tubes forming a zygote.
• The zygote undergoes mitosis to form a ball of cells called a blastula.
• The blastula moves along the fallopian tube until it reaches the uterus.

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 IMPLANTATION
• The blastula forms two sac-like structures
• amnion
• yolk sac
• The outer most covering is called the chorion
• The yolk sac shrinks
• The amnion fills with fluid and fuses with the chorion after 2 months
• Villi develop from the chorion
• These become larger and more vascular
• Called attachment villi
• The region of the endometrium undergoes further changes and forms a placenta

THE PLACENTA

Development of the Placenta

• Large spaces or sinuses develop in the decidua or endometrium where attachment occurs
• Attachment villi fit into theses spaces
• where maternal blood bathes the villi
• NB!! Maternal and foetal blood never mix
• One vein and two arteries form the umbilical cord
• Nutrients diffuse from maternal blood across the membranes into foetal blood

Functions of the placenta

1. Nutrition
• Nutrients including vitamins and minerals diffuse from the maternal blood to the foetus
2. Gaseous exchange
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between maternal and foetal blood

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3. Excretion
• Nitrogenous wastes are carried away from the foetus by maternal blood
4. Protection
• The placenta acts as a barrier or filter for certain harmful pathogens and chemicals
• Maternal antibodies cross the placenta to the foetus
• However, HIV and alcohol are able to cross this barrier
5. Endocrine function
• After two months the placenta takes over the secretion of progesterone and oestrogen to
maintain the endometrial lining
• Secretes relaxin to relax joints and ligaments to assist delivery of the foetus

AMNION AND AMNIOTIC FLUID

• The amnion is a membranous structure in which the foetus develops

• It is impenetrable and secretes fluid in which the foetus lives and moves

Functions of amniotic fluid

• 1. Shock absorber – protects the foetus from mechanical injury
• 2. Thermoregulatory – prevents extremes temperature changes
• 3. Mmoisturising – prevents desiccation (drying out) of the foetus

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 • 4. Environment – provides the medium in which the foetus moves, breathes and swallows

Amniocentesis
• Test carried out at 12 weeks to diagnose any genetic disorders the foetus may have e.g. Down
syndrome.
• Amniotic fluid consists of 99% water as well as a mix of foetal cells, micro-organisms and waste
products.

PREGNANCY OR GESTATION
• The period between fertilization and birth when the foetus develops in the womb.

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