CHAPTER 4 <REPRODUCTION>

- The process of producing new individuals form living organisms.

- The basic characteristic of each living organism.

ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL

Asexual: does not involve reproductive cells
Occurs in: - plants ( onion, ginger potato)
- simple organisms ( Amoeba, Hydra, Paramecium)
Sexual: involves reproductive cells
Occurs in: - humans
- higher animals( mammal, bird, fish)
- flowering plants
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- The main type of reproduction that carried out by human, higher animals and
plants.
- Sexual reproduction involves two parents, which are male and female parent
that carries reproductive cell respectively.
MALE FEMALE

Testis that produce sperm  Ovary that produce ovum 

INTERNAL FERTILISATION
Happens when…..
- Nucleus of the male gamete fuses with the nucleus of the female gamete inside the body of the
female parent.
Place of fusion…..
- The male parent releases sperm into the body of the female parent.
Process…..
- The male gamete will be released into the female reproductive organ which has female gamete and
fuses to form a zygote.
EXTERNAL FERTILISATION
Happens when….
- Nucleus of the male gamete fuses with the nucleus of the female gamete outside the body of the
female parent.
Place of fusion….
- the male parent releases sperm and the female parent releases ovum. This fertilisation occurs in water.
Process…..
- the male gamete usually swims towards the ovum and fuses with it.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1) Binary fission
- The division of a single parent cell into two daughter cell
- Example: amoeba, paramecium and bacteria
2) Budding
- The process of forming a bud on the organism’s body.
- A bud starts off as a swelling. Then, it develops and breaks off as a new young
- Example: hydra, yeast
3) Regeneration
- Occurs from the ability of the fragments of some organisms to grow and develop into completely new
individuals.
- Example: flatworm, starfish and planaria
4) Spore formation
- The process of producing spores in the sporangium.
- After the sporangium breaks, the tiny light spores get scattered by the wind.
- When they land on a moist place, they grow into new plants.
- Example: algae, fungus, fern and bacteria
5) Vegetative reproduction
- A method of producing new plants from a vegetative part of a plant except the flower.
- Example(vegetative parts): roots, underground stems, runners, bulbs and leaves.
- Examples: carrot, strawberry, ginger, yam and potatoes.
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
VEGETATIVE PART EXAMPLE OF PLANT

ROOT 1) CARROT 2)SWEET POTATO

- Roots of parent plant will grow into new plants.

STEM 1) UNDERGROUND STEM 2) RUNNER

- Stems of parent plant will grow into new plants.

3) BULB

LEAF 1) BRYOPHYLLUM 2) BEGONIA

- Leaves of parent plant will grow into new plants.
HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Male reproductive system: Female reproductive system:

Part Function
Part Function
Seminal vesicle Secretes nutritional fluid for the sperms
Urethra A channel to discharge sperms and urine from the Fallopian tube Place where fertilisation between
body sperm and ovum occurs
Sperm duct Transports sperms form the testis to the urethra Ovary Produces female gamete and female
inside the body sex hormones
Penis Transfers sperms into the vagina of the female Uterus (womb) Place where embryo develops and grow
during copulation
Cervix Produces mucus to enable sperms to
Scrotum Holds and protects the testes swim into the uterus
Testis Produce male gametes and male sex hormones
Vagina Receives sperms and as a channel
Prostate glands Secrete fluid which contains nutrients and protects through which baby is born
sperm cell
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES
Sperm :- the smallest cell in male’s body Ovum:- the largest cell in female’s body
- shape like a tadpole

* Sperm can live up to three or four days * Ovum can live up to two days

- Able to move - Not able to move

- Produce by testis - Produced by ovary
- Male gamete - Female gamete
- Smallest cell in the male’s - Largest cell in female’s
body body

- Carries genetic
information
- Sexual reproductive cell
THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
MENSTRUATION: the breakdown of the lining uterine wall and discharge of blood through the
vagina.
THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Menstruation phase (1-5)
- Uterine lining breaks down as menstruation begins
- Discharged together with blood, unfertilised ovum and mucus.
Repair phase(6-11)
- Uterine lining starts to rebuild and thicken
- Blood vessels in uterine lining are formed and ready to receive the implantation of fertilised ovum
Fertile phase(12-17)
- An ovum is released from the ovary on the 14th day of the menstrual cycle.(OVULATION)
- The uterine lining continues to thicken
- Fertilisation is likely to occur if sperms are present.
Premenstrual phase(18-28)
- The uterine lining continues to thicken
- Becomes richly supplied with blood vessels
- Implantation of an embryo is ready if fertilisation occurs.
- The menstrual cycle will repeat if fertilisation does not occur.
FERTILISATION AND PREGNANCY
After fertilisation…..
- Woman will get pregnant and zygote will form and grow in the uterus until birth.
THE PROCESS OF FERTILISATION AND EMBRYO IMPLANTATION:
Fallopian tube

Ovary
1) Sperms will swim into the vagina during copulation.
2) an ovum is present in the Fallopian tube, fertilisation may occur. Sperm will fuse with ovum in
the Fallopian tube and form a zygote.
3) After fertilisation, the zygote will divide itself and become a ball of cells known as embryo. The
embryo will be implanted on the uterine wall at the uterus.
THE GROWTH OF ZYGOTE TO EMBRYO AND FOETUS UNTIL BIRTH
Week 1-4
- Hands and feet will start to form.
- The embryo has a tiny tail.

Week 7-9
- nose, ears and fingers will be visible.

Week 10-19
- Embryo will look like a baby.
- The embryo is now known as a foetus.

Week 20-37
- Foetus will resemble a baby.

Week 38-40
- Foetus is formed completely.
- The foetus turns until the head is engaged at the cervix.
- The muscle of the uterine lining will contract strongly, the amnion will burst and amniotic fluid will be released.
- Foetus is pushed out of the uterus through the vagina and then out of the body.
THE IMPORTANCE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PLACENTA AND THE UMBILICAL CORD
PLANCENTA
- Made up of tissue from both mother and embryo
- Place where exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide, supply of nutrients and
removal of waste materials through the mother’s blood and the foetus occur.
AMINION UMBILICAL CORD
- Tube which connects the foetus to the placenta
- blood vessels inside the tube to transport blood to and from the foetus.
UTERINE WALL
- Consists of muscular wall
- The place where the embryo is implanted and develops.
AMINION
- membrane that forms a sac and contains fluid.
AMINIOTIC FLUID
- Acts as a cushion to absorb concussion
UTERINE WALL - Protects the foetus from injuries.
FOETUS
- Embryo develops to form a foetus.
INFERTILITY AND CONTRACEPTION
INFERLITY:- the inability to produce offsprings
- the husband of wife both may be sterile.
FACTORS OF STERLITY IN MALES: FACTORS OF STERLITY IN FEMALES:
- Testes cannot produce sperms. - Ovaries cannot produce ovum
- Low sperm count - Blockage in fallopian tube
- Produces low quality sperms - Abnormal uterus
- Impotent - Tumour in the uterus

- Hormone imbalance
- Health problem like diabetes
- Defective reproductive organs
or organs infected with
disease.
METHODS TO OVERCOME STERILITY
1) HORMONE TREATMENT
- Suitable for individual who have imbalanced hormone.
2) SURGERY
- on women who have blockage in their fallopian tube
- Or men who have blockage in their sperm duct
3) IN VITRO FERTILISATION(IVF)
- Is done on women who have blockage in their fallopian tube.
- This method take out the ovum to be fertilised with the sperm outside the body in a glass dish
- The embryo formed is then put inside the uterus.
METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION
1. Contraceptive pills 4. Intrauterine Contraceptive Device, IUCD
- To prevent ovulation - this is inserted inside woman’s uterus to prevent
2. Implants implantation.
- Secrete a hormone that prevent the ovary 5. Vasectomy
from producing ovum. - surgery is carried out to cut the sperm duct
3. Use of condom - the two ends are then tied to prevent the sperm
- Worn over penis b4 copulation from being transported to the urethra.
- To prevent the sperm from entering the 6. Ligation
vagina during ejaculation. - …is carried out to cut the fallopian tube and the two

ends are then tied to prevent the ovum from