WATER QUALITY MAPPING OF KATTAKKA KAYAL

USING GIS

PROJECT REPORT

submitted by

ALIYA A. (YCE20CE012)
FATHIMA N. (YCE20CE026)
FEBA RAGHU (YCE20CE028)
JAMES S. BOSCO (YCE20CE032)

to

the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of B.Tech. Degree
in Civil Engineering.

Department of Civil Engineering

Younus College of Engineering and Technology
May 2024
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
YOUNUS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
KOLLAM

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled “Water Quality Mapping of Kattakka

Kayal Using GIS” submitted by Aliya A. (YCE20CE012), Fathima N.

(YCE20CE026), Feba Raghu (YCE20CE028), James S. Bosco (YCE20CE032) to the
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering is a bonafide
record of the project work carried out under our guidance and supervision. This report in
any form has not been submitted to any other University or Institute for any purpose.

Ms. SRUTHY S. KUMAR

(Guide)
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
YCET, Kollam.

Ms. PREEJA PRAMEELAN Ms. RAJI R.

(Project Coordinator) (Head of the Department)
Assistant Professor Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
YCET, Kollam. YCET, Kollam.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We take this opportunity to express our deep sense of gratitude and sincere thanks to all
who helped us to complete our project successfully.

We would like to express our profound respect, admiration and gratitude to our guide Ms.
Sruthy S. Kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, for her
systematic guidance and dedicated cooperation.

We are greatly thankful to our project coordinator Ms. Preeja Prameelan, Assistant
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, for her valuable support and advice.

We express our sincere thanks to Ms. Raji R., Associate Professor, Head of the
Department, Department of Civil Engineering for her full cooperation and providing firm
support.

We are thankful to Prof. S. K. Rajeev, Principal, Younus College of Engineering and

Technology for providing us with all the facilities and cooperative atmosphere for the
completion of our project.

We express our deep gratitude to the Almighty, our supreme guide for showering his
blessings on us.

Finally, we thank our Parents, dear and near ones who directly and indirectly
contributed to the successful completion of our project.

ALIYA A.

FATHIMA N.

FEBA RAGHU

JAMES S. BOSCO

i
 ABSTRACT
The water quality mapping of Kattakka kayal using GIS involves assessing and visualizing
key parameters to aid environmental management. By utilizing spatial analysis techniques,
this endeavor aims to guide targeted interventions for conservation and restoration
efforts in the region. This project focuses on the comprehensive analysis of water quality in
Kattakka Kayal using Geographic Information System (GIS) methodologies. Kattakka
Kayal, a significant water body, is subject to various anthropogenic and natural influences
that can impact its water quality. The study integrates GIS techniques to spatially analyze
water quality parameters and evaluates the Water Quality Index (WQI) for a holistic
assessment. The GIS-based approach involves the collection and analysis of spatial data,
incorporating factors such as temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, and nutrient
concentrations. Through the creation of thematic maps, the spatial distribution of these
parameters will be visualized, allowing for the identification of potential pollution sources
and understanding the overall water quality dynamics in Kattakka Kayal. The primary
objective is to calculate the WQI, a composite index reflecting the overall water quality
status, and to map its spatial distribution across the water body. This spatial analysis will
facilitate the identification of areas with varying levels of water quality, guiding targeted
intervention strategies for environmental conservation and sustainable water management in
Kattakka Kayal. The project's findings are anticipated to contribute valuable insights into the
current state of water quality in this specific location, providing a scientific basis for
informed decision-making and resource allocation in the preservation and management of
Kattakka Kayal's aquatic ecosystem.

Keywords: Water quality, water quality index, GIS, spatial distribution, mapping.

ii
 CONTENTS
Contents Page No.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i

ABSTRACT ii

CONTENTS iii

LIST OF TABLES vi

LIST OF FIGURES vii

ABBREVIATIONS viii

NOTATIONS ix

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 GENERAL 1

1.2 NEED FOR THE STUDY 1

1.3 OBJECTIVES 3

1.4 SCOPE OF WORK 3

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6

Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY 8

3.1 GENERAL 8

3.2 STUDY AREA 8

3.3 SAMPLE COLLECTION 9

3.4 WATER SAMPLE ANALYSIS 10

3.4.1 pH 11

3.4.2 Alkalinity 12

3.4.3 Total suspended solids 13

3.4.4 Total dissolved solids 14

3.4.5 Dissolved oxygen 16

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 3.4.6 Turbidity 16

3.4.7 Biochemical oxygen demand 17

3.4.8 Chemical oxygen demand 18

3.4.9 E. coli 19

3.4.10 Iron 19

3.4.11 Microplastics 20

3.5 WATER QUALITY INDEX (WQI) 21

3.5.1 Calculation of water quality index 23

3.6 MAPPING USING ArcGIS SOFTWARE 24

3.6.1 Mapping in GIS 27

3.6.2 ArcGIS and Google earth pro 28

3.6.3 Shape file using google earth pro 30

3.6.4 Spatial distribution using ArcGIS 31

Chapter 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 34

4.1 GENERAL 34

4.2 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF PARAMETERS 34

4.2.1 pH 34

4.2.2 Alkalinity 36

4.2.3 Total suspended solids 38

4.2.4 Total dissolved solids 41

4.2.5 Dissolved oxygen 43

4.2.6 Turbidity 45

4.2.7 Biochemical oxygen demand 46

4.2.8 Chemical oxygen demand 48

4.2.9 E. Coli 50

iv
 4.2.10 Iron 51

4.2.11 Microplastics 53

4.2.12 WQI 55

Chapter 5 CONCLUSION 57

REFERENCES 58

v
 LIST OF TABLES
Sl No. Title Page No.
3.1 Orientation of station point 10
3.2 Water quality index chart 23
3.3 Observations and results 24

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES
Sl No. Title Page No.
3.1 Map of kattakka kayal 8
3.2 Kattakka kayal 9
3.3 Map showing stations 10
4.1 Spatial distribution of pH 36
4.2 Spatial distribution of alkalinity 38
4.3 Spatial distribution of TSS 40
4.4 Spatial distribution of TDS 42
4.5 Spatial distribution of DO 44
4.6 Spatial distribution of turbidity 46
4.7 Spatial distribution of BOD 48
4.8 Spatial distribution of COD 50
4.9 Spatial distribution of iron 52
4.10 Spatial distribution of microplastics 54
4.11 Spatial distribution of WQI 56

vii
 ABBREVIATIONS
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand

COD Chemical Oxygen Demand

DPD Diethyl Paraphenylene Diamine

DO Dissolved Oxygen

DWQI Drinking Water Quality Index

EC Electrical Conductivity

FTIR Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

FWQI Fuzzy Logic Water Quality Index

GIS Geographic Information System

HHR Human Health Risk

IDW Inverse Distance Weighted

NSDWQ Nigerian Standard For Drinking Water Quality

NFR Non – Filterable Residue

NSFWQI National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index

TDS Total Dissolved Solid

VWQI Vedprakash Water Quality Index

WQI Water Quality Index

WHO World Health Organization

viii
 NOTATIONS

K Proportionality constant

n Number of parameters

Subscripts

𝑞𝑛 Quality rating for nth parameter

Sn Standard permissible value of nth parameter

𝑉 Volume of water sample filtered (L)

𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 Observed value of the nth parameter

𝑉𝑖 Ideal value of nth parameter in pure water

𝑊𝑑𝑖𝑠ℎ Weight of the empty dish (mg)

𝑊𝑑𝑖𝑠ℎ+ Weight of the dish and dried solids (mg)

𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠

𝑊𝑛 Unit weight for nth parameter

𝑊1 Weight of the empty filter paper (mg)

𝑊2 Weight of the filter paper with dried solids (mg)

ix
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Water is an essential component for survival of life on earth, which contains minerals,
important for humans as well as for world and aquatic life. Lakes and surface water
reservoirs are the planet’s most important fresh water resources and provide in numerable
benefits. Water quality is an important component to understanding the health of a body
of water. Water quality monitoring has a high priority for the determination of current
conditions and long-term trends for effective managements. Striving to survive, an
ecosystem depends on the essential life-giving properties that a body of water provides.
Water’s ecosystem is inhabited by aquatic wildlife and plants. If the water becomes
unfavorable for its habitat, then the water becomes essentially a poison to its inhabitants.
Water is not only essential to an ecosystem driven to survive in the water, but to an
ecosystem which inhabits the land surrounding the water body. This ecosystem includes
wildlife, plants, and human beings that dwell on the land. However, the remarkable
increase in population resulted in a considerable consumption of the water reserves
worldwide. The quality of surface water is largely affected by natural processes
(weathering and soil erosion) as well as anthropogenic inputs (municipal and industrial
waste water discharge). The anthropogenic discharges represent a constant polluting
source, whereas surface runoff is a seasonal phenomenon.

1.2 NEED FOR THE STUDY

In order to understand the health of a body of water, the inquirer must know what
parameters can be used as indicators for assessing the health of a water body. Common
water quality parameters such as temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, suspended solids,
turbidity, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), chloride, and hardness (calcium and
magnesium) are used to gage the water quality in fresh waters. Other parameters such as
salinity, conductivity, and bacterial activity are further used in the analysis and study of
fresh and saline waters. The Water Quality Index is one of the most effective tools to
provide information on the quality of water to the concerned citizens and policy makers.
It becomes an important parameter for the assessment and management of groundwater.
The WQI concept is related to the comparison of the water quality parameter with

1
respective regulatory standards (WHO standards) and provides a single number that
express overall water quality at certain location based on several water quality parameters.
The WQI summarizes large amount of water quality data into simple terms, i.e., excellent,
good, bad, etc., which are easily understandable and usable by the public. However, by
combining multiple parameters into a single index, a more comprehensive picture of the
pollution state is provided. When mapping the index, the areas of high and low water
quality can be easily specified.

Water quality monitoring networks collect thousands of chemicals, physical, and

biological measurements of water each year. Individually, these data do not give us an
indication of trends in water quality over time and across geographic areas. A concise,
quick way to draw meaning from these numbers is needed. Water quality indices provide
a way to distill thousands of records of environmental data into meaningful values that
indicate the health of water resources and create a yardstick for measuring and assessing
water quality.

In general, water quality indices incorporate data from multiple water quality parameters
into a mathematical equation that rates the health of a stream with a single number. That
number is placed on a relative scale that rates the water quality in categories ranging from
very bad to excellent. Index values are determined by transforming selected water quality
parameters (that have different units of measurement; e.g., mg/L) into a unitless subindex
value via a subindex rating curve. Each parameter has its own rating curve (on a scale of
increasing water quality from 0 to 100) depending on what values for that parameter are
considered “good” and “bad”. The objective of the rating curve is to link a parameter’s
concentration to water quality. After subindices for each parameter are calculated by a
rating curve, they are averaged to give an overall water quality index value.

Mapping water quality in lake waters has been performed in the past mainly by producing
contour maps, which can be difficult to read when there is a lot of information that the
map contains. However, a graphical image produced by a GIS will provide the user an
easier visual inspection of the water quality conditions of the lake for the desired time
period. The time periods for the study were dependent mainly on the available data and
the nature of when the data were originally collected.

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a very useful tool that can be used to represent
spatially referenced information in the real world. The initial cost and development of a

2
GIS database may be expensive; however, the benefits that a GIS database can offer are
extremely vast. GIS allows the user to make updates or changes in the existing database
quickly and easily. GIS is poised to the problem solving of the real world with its Boolean
based logic that offers the user true or false algorithm in a graphical representation. The
power of a GIS relies on its visual and graphical representation of output derived from
the original database. GIS is so designed that it can be easily integrated with other
programs so that a link can be established with a model. Once the link is established, the
model and the GIS work interactively back and forth to solve an assigned problem given
to it by the user.

1.3 OBJECTIVES

Objectives of our project includes:

• To obtain quantitative information on the physical, chemical and biological

characteristics of ‘Kattakka kayal’.
• To determine water quality of ‘Kattakka kayal’ by using WQI method.
• To map and spatially analyse the water quality of ‘Kattakka kayal’ by using
Geographic Information System (GIS).

1.4 SCOPE OF WORK

Kattaka kayal is a part of Ashtamudi lake and Vattakayal in Kollam. The two-km long
stream was once the lifeline for most of the commercial activities at Sakthikulangara.
Garbage dumps and sewage outlets have choked the stream to such an extent that the
stream is today a stretch of environmental hazard within the city. It is actually an outlet
through which the Vattakayal breathes by letting out and taking in water from the
Ashtamudi lake. Finding the WQI of this lake helps in identifying its pollution level and
thus adequate measures can be taken to prevent it from pollution. The scope for
conducting this study is detailed as below:

a) Hydrological Assessment:
• Conduct a hydrological assessment to understand the flow dynamics between
Kattaka Kayal, Vattakayal, and Ashtamudi lake.
• Evaluate the water exchange rates and patterns to assess their impact on water
quality.

3
b) Pollution Source Identification:
• Identify and map the sources of garbage dumps and sewage outlets along the
stream.
• Conduct source tracking studies to pinpoint major contributors to pollution.
c) Sediment Analysis:
• Analyze sediment quality in Kattaka Kayal to assess pollutant accumulation.
• Study sediment transport and deposition patterns within the stream.
d) Biodiversity Assessment:
• Conduct a biodiversity assessment to understand the ecological impacts of
pollution on aquatic life.
• Identify key indicator species and their health status as a measure of water quality.
e) Public Health Impact Study:
• Assess the potential health risks associated with contaminated water in Kattaka
Kayal.
• Study the incidence of waterborne diseases among the local population.
f) Green Infrastructure Development:
• Propose and design green infrastructure solutions like wetlands, buffer zones, or
bio-filtration systems to mitigate pollution.
• Evaluate the potential of natural or engineered solutions for water quality
improvement.
g) Stakeholder Collaboration:
• Engage with local communities, businesses, and authorities for collaborative
pollution control initiatives.
• Formulate a community-based action plan for Kattaka Kayal's restoration and
management.
h) Awareness and Education Programs:
• Organize awareness campaigns and educational programs on water pollution
prevention and conservation.
• Empower local communities with knowledge and skills to participate in water
quality monitoring and management.
i) Policy Advocacy:
• Advocate for stricter enforcement of pollution control regulations and policies.

4
 • Collaborate with policymakers to integrate water quality improvement measures
into urban planning and development strategies.
j) Long-term Sustainability:
• Develop a long-term sustainability plan for Kattaka Kayal's restoration and
conservation.
• Monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of implemented measures over time,
adjusting strategies as needed for continuous improvement.

5
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

DeepChand and Noor Afshan Khan (2022) conducted a study on the assessment of
supply water quality using GIS tool for selected locations in Delhi. The importance of
water quality is well understood, and it becomes even more critical when is use for
drinking purposes. A case study was carried out to know the applicability of GIS tool for
determining the quality of supply water. Water samples from 21 houses at different
locations of Delhi were collected. Sample analysis was done for physicochemical
parameters viz., pH, EC, TDS, total hardness, total alkalinity, chloride, fluoride, and
nitrate. The water quality data from these selected locations was analyzed using
Geographical Information System (GIS) Technique. GIS software did interpolation
through the inverse distance weighted (IDW) method to know the water quality in
different part of the city for various parameters mentioned above and prepare thematic
maps from the analysis of water quality data as a database. These thematic maps show
the distribution of different water quality parameters. Using weighted arithmetic index
(WAI) method, water quality index is calculated. After that, the drinking water quality
index (DWQI) map was generated using thematic layer, reclassification, and weight value
assigned in weighted overlay tools in GIS software.

Hemraj and Manoj Kumar (2022) conducted a study GIS based surface elevation
assessment of spring water quality of Shivalik Range of Jammu and Kashmir, India. This
study is carried out in the sub-tropical, Shivalik range of the lower Himalayas of the
Jammu division of the state of Jammu and Kashmir, India. The main objectives of the
study are to find out the water quality of the study area based on the Geographic
Information System (GIS) and find out the most sensitive parameter in the Water Quality
Index (WQI) computation. The inverse distance weighted interpolation technique is used
to generate spatial variation maps of the study area with the help of the data obtained.
WQI is computed by using the Provencher and Lamontagne (1977) WQI equation. The
results show that the water quality of the study area is excellent for the drinking purpose
with respect to 11 parameters. The results also show that pH, Ca2+, and Na+ are need to
be monitored regularly with high accuracy as pH and ions of Ca2+ and Na+ are the most
sensitive water quality parameters in the study area. This study finds a positive correlation
between WQI and Surface elevation.
6
Francis I. Oseke, Geophery and K. Anornu (2021) conducted a study on the assessment
of water quality using GIS techniques and water quality index in reservoirs affected by
water diversion. This paper assesses the quality of the excess water diverted from the
Gurara reservoir to the Lower Usuma reservoir, with declining water resources, based on
the nigerian standard for drinking water quality (NSDWQ) and world health organization
(WHO) permissible limits. A near-laser analysis was carried out on different samples from
each of the two reservoirs both in the dry and wet season using geographic information
system (GIS) technique and water quality index (WQI). Samples collected were analyzed
for pH, temperature, taste, odour, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solid
(TDS), dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen
demand (BOD), sodium (Na+), bicarbonate (HCO3-), chloride (CI-), nitrate (NO3-),
calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), iron (F-) and potassium (K+). The obtained values
were evaluated and compared with the standard permissible limits. The result shows a
link between the two reservoirs.

Jyotiprakash G. Nayak, L.G. Patil and Vinayak K. Patki (2020) conducted a study on
development of water quality index for Godavari River (India) based on fuzzy inference
system. In this study development of water quality using NSFWQI, VWQI, FWQI
approaches has been discussed. FWQI have been developed using triangular membership
functions with centroid and mean of maximum methods of defuzzification. NSFWQI and
VWQI are simple mathematical equations. Among the three indices FWQI gives more
accurate results. It is also seen that performance of the fuzzy model changes considerably
on changing the membership function and defuzzification method.

Narsimha Adimalla and Hui Qiana (2019) conducted a study on groundwater quality
evaluation using water quality index (WQI) for drinking purposes and human health risk
(HHR) assessment in an agricultural region of Nanganur, South India. The groundwater
quality in the region was developed using WQI approach and also assessed the human
health risk due to contaminated drinking water. They conducted various tests on each
sample to check whether all parameters are within their permissible limits. The results
showed that sodium nitrate and bicarbonate were in high concentration among the cations
and anions.

7
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 GENERAL

In this chapter the methodology adopted in achieving the objectives of the work were
explained in detail. There are four steps for this analysis which includes sample collection,
analysis of water quality parameters, calculation of Water Quality Index (WQI), mapping
of the studied area using GIS software.

3.2 STUDY AREA

Kattaka Kayal or Kattakayal (figure 3.1) is a freshwater lake in Kollam city in the Kerala
state of India. The lake connects Vattakayal, a 36-acre freshwater lake in Maruthadi, with
Ashtamudi Lake in the city. The two-km long stream was once the lifeline for most of the
commercial activities at Sakthikulangara. It was the home for more than 20 species of
edible fish including karimeen and poomeen.

Figure 3.1 Map of kattakka kayal

Source: Google Maps

Kattakka Kayal serves as a crucial habitat for various aquatic species and supports the
livelihoods of local communities dependent on fishing and other related activities. The

8
lake ecosystem also plays a vital role in regulating the local climate and water cycle, as
well as providing recreational opportunities for residents and tourists.

In recent years, Kattakka Kayal has faced environmental challenges due to pollution,
(figure 3.2) encroachment, and unsustainable development activities. Efforts have been
made by local authorities and environmental organizations to conserve and restore the
lake's health and biodiversity through initiatives such as water quality monitoring, habitat
restoration, and community engagement programs.

Preserving the ecological integrity of Kattakka Kayal is essential not only for the well-
being of local communities but also for the overall conservation of the Ashtamudi Lake
system and its valuable ecosystem services.

Figure 3.2 Kattaka Kayal

3.3 SAMPLE COLLECTION

Since water quality analyzing has always been a hectic job to be completed with precise
calculations and computations and made sure that the water quality analysis of Kattaka
Kayal using ArcGIS was completed with intense care and precise calculations. The
sample is collected from the study area from the month of January. The samples were
taken from 6 different locations within the premises of the lake shown in figure 3.3. The
choice of station points was determined by the current pollution levels observed in the
lake. This selection process ensured strategic placement to monitor and assess the
environmental impact of pollution in different areas of the lake. The samples were sorted
on the basis of different locations and several experiments were performed so as to obtain

9
the overview of the pollution status of the lake. Orientation of station point is shown in
the Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Orientation of station point

Sample No. Latitude Longitude

1 8.9237179 ”N 76.5435848 ”E

2 8.9217679 ”N 76.5435992 ”E

3 8.9216562 ”N 76.5425010 ”E

4 8.9238219 ”N 76.5437832 ”E

5 8.9237709 ”N 76.5450299 ”E

6 8.9221546 ”N 76.5412768 ”E

3
56
5

Figure 3.3 Map showing stations

Source: https://mapcarta.com/W337573445/Map

3 liters of samples were collected using polythene can and are stored under 4⁰ C. It is
necessary to analyze water quality parameter within one week of sample collection.
3.4 WATER SAMPLE ANALYSIS

Here the method adopted for the study of water quality analysis was by collecting water
samples from different locations of Kattaka Kayal for and analyzing their physical and

10
chemical characteristics. The quality of water was analyzed in terms of pH, alkalinity,
total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved oxygen (DO),
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), turbidity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), e.coli,
iron, microplastics. Results were analyzed on the basis of Indian Standard specifications
for drinking water (IS 10500-2012).

3.4.1 pH

pH is a measure of the relative amount of H+ and OH in water. pH is the negative

logarithm of Hydrogen ion concentration. pH of pure water is 7, but when chemicals are
mixed with water the mixture can either be acidic or alkaline. pH in water is a measure
of its acidity or alkalinity, indicating the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) present in
the water. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, where pH values below 7 indicate acidic
conditions, pH 7 is neutral, and pH values above 7 indicate alkaline or basic conditions.

The pH of water is determined by the balance between the concentration of hydrogen ions
and hydroxide ions (OH⁻). In pure water, the concentration of hydrogen ions equals the
concentration of hydroxide ions, resulting in a neutral pH of 7. However, in natural water
bodies, various factors can influence pH levels, including dissolved minerals, gases,
organic matter, and human activities.

Acidic pH values (below 7) indicate the presence of excess hydrogen ions, which can be
caused by factors such as acid rain, industrial pollution, and decomposition of organic
matter. Acidic conditions can negatively impact aquatic life, corrode infrastructure, and
disrupt ecosystem processes.

Neutral pH (pH 7) is considered ideal for most freshwater organisms and is typically
found in clean, unpolluted water sources. However, natural variations in pH can occur
due to factors such as carbon dioxide levels, which can influence the equilibrium between
carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions in water.

Alkaline pH values (above 7) indicate the presence of excess hydroxide ions and are
commonly found in environments with high concentrations of dissolved minerals, such
as limestone or chalk. Alkaline conditions can influence nutrient availability, affect the
solubility of metals, and impact the health of aquatic organisms.

Maintaining appropriate pH levels in water is crucial for preserving water quality and
supporting aquatic ecosystems. Many aquatic organisms have specific pH requirements

11
for survival and reproduction, and deviations from these optimal pH ranges can lead to
stress, disease, or mortality.

In addition to its importance for aquatic life, pH also plays a role in various industrial
processes, agriculture, and water treatment. For example, pH regulation is essential in
wastewater treatment to optimize the efficiency of chemical reactions and microbial
processes for pollutant removal.

Monitoring pH levels in water is therefore a fundamental aspect of water quality

assessment and management. pH determination is important to estimate the corrosive
nature of water. pH control is necessary at all stages of water treatment and distribution.
Acceptable limit of pH is 6.5-8.5. pH of a solution can be accurately measured using a
device known as pH meter. Calibrate the electrode by dipping in standard buffer solution
of pH 4, 7, 10 rinse the electrode with distilled water after use. After calibration and
rinsing, the electrode is dipped to the sample and pH value is recorded from the meter.

3.4.2 Alkalinity

Alkalinity in water refers to its capacity to resist changes in pH when an acid is added. It
is a measure of the concentration of alkaline substances, primarily bicarbonates,
carbonates, and hydroxides, dissolved in the water. Alkalinity is an important parameter
in water chemistry as it influences the stability of pH, which in turn affects various
chemical and biological processes in aquatic environments.

Alkalinity is typically measured in milligrams per liter (mg/l) of calcium carbonate

(CaCO3) equivalents or in units of alkalinity such as milliequivalents per liter (meq/L).
The most common method for determining alkalinity is titration, where a known
concentration of acid is added to a water sample until the pH reaches a specific endpoint,
indicating the depletion of alkalinity.

There are three main types of alkalinity:

• Carbonate Alkalinity: This type of alkalinity is primarily due to the presence of

carbonate ions (𝐶𝑂3 2− )in the water. It is typically found in waters with a high pH and
is considered a strong contributor to overall alkalinity.
• Bicarbonate Alkalinity: Bicarbonate ions (𝐻𝐶𝑂3 − ) are the predominant contributors
to bicarbonate alkalinity. Bicarbonate alkalinity is the most common form of
alkalinity found in natural waters and is an important buffer against changes in pH.

12
• Hydroxide Alkalinity: Hydroxide ions (𝑂𝐻 − ) contribute to hydroxide alkalinity,
although they are less common than carbonate and bicarbonate ions. Hydroxide
alkalinity is more significant in alkaline waters and can influence pH stability.

It is measured volumetrically by titration with 0.02 N sulphuric acid and is reported in

terms of CaCO3 equivalent. For samples whose initial pH is above 8.3, the titration is
conducted in two steps. In the first step, the titration is conducted until the pH is lowered
to 8.2, the point at which phenolphthalein indicator turns from pink to colourless. This
value corresponds to the points for conversion of carbonate to bicarbonate ion. The
second phase of titration is conducted until the pH is lowered to 4.5, corresponds to
methyl orange end point, which corresponds to the equivalence points for the conversion
of bicarbonate ion to carbonic acid. There permissible limit is 20 – 200 mg/l.

3.4.3 Total Suspended Solid (TSS)

TSS is the dry weight of suspended particles in a sample of water that can be trapped by
a filter that is analyzed using a filtration apparatus. In other words, total suspended solids
(TSS) in water refer to the concentration of particles that are suspended in the water
column and are visible under the microscope. These particles can include organic matter,
silt, clay, microorganisms, and other solids that are not dissolved in the water. It is a water
quality parameter used to assess the quality of a specimen of any type of water. TSS was
previously called non – filterable residue (NFR).

TSS measurements are typically expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of water. They
provide important information about water quality and can indicate the level of pollution
or sedimentation in aquatic ecosystems. Monitoring TSS levels is therefore important for
assessing water quality, identifying sources of pollution, and guiding management actions
to protect and restore aquatic ecosystems. TSS measurements are often conducted using
methods such as filtration, gravimetric analysis, or turbidity measurements, which
estimate TSS indirectly based on the light-scattering properties of suspended particles.

It is determined by pouring a measured volume of water through a pre – weighed filter of

a specified pore size and are weighed after drying. High TSS in water body means higher
concentrations of bacteria, nutrients, pesticides, and metals in the water. So, the
permissible limit of TSS is 10 – 15 mg/l.

Testing for Total Suspended Solids (TSS) in water through filtration is a commonly used
method in water quality analysis.

13
Procedure:

• Preparation of Filtration Apparatus: Set up the filtration apparatus by placing a filter

paper in the filter funnel and securing it properly. Connect the funnel to a vacuum
pump or filtration flask to facilitate the filtration process.
• Filtration: Pour the water sample into the filter funnel and initiate the filtration
process. Apply gentle suction using the vacuum pump or create a pressure difference
with the filtration flask to draw the water through the filter paper. Allow sufficient
time for the filtration to complete, ensuring that all suspended solids are captured on
the filter paper.
• Drying of Filtered Solids: Carefully remove the filter paper containing the suspended
solids from the filtration apparatus. Place the filter paper in a drying oven set at a
temperature between 103°C to 105°C (or use a desiccator) and dry it until a constant
weight is achieved. This usually takes several hours to overnight.
• Weighing of Filtered Solids: Once the filter paper is completely dry, remove it from
the oven or desiccator and allow it to cool to room temperature in a desiccator. Weigh
the filter paper containing the dried solids using an analytical balance. Record the
weight accurately.
• Calculation of Total Suspended Solids (TSS) Concentration: Calculate the
concentration of TSS in the water sample using the following formula:

𝑊2 − 𝑊1
𝑇𝑆𝑆 = × 100
𝑉

Where,

𝑊1 = Weight of the empty filter paper (mg)

𝑊2 = Weight of the filter paper with dried solids (mg)

𝑉 = Volume of water sample filtered (L)

3.4.4 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

TDS is a measure of the dissolved combined content of all inorganic and organic
substances present in a liquid. TDS concentration are often reported in parts per million
(ppm). Although TDS is not generally considered as a primary pollutant it is used as an
indication of aesthetic characteristics of drinking water. High concentration of TDS affect

14
water clarity thus decreases the passage of light thereby slowing photosynthesis by
aquatic plants hence the permissible limit is regarded as 300 – 500 mg/l.

Testing for Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in water through filtration involves measuring
the concentration of dissolved substances that pass through a filter membrane.

Procedure:

• Filtration: Filter the water sample through a filter membrane with a specific pore
size that captures suspended solids but allows dissolved substances to pass through.
This can be done using a filtration apparatus or a commercially available filtration
device designed for TDS testing.
• Evaporation: Transfer the filtered water sample to a pre-weighed evaporation dish or
crucible. Heat the dish gently to evaporate the water, leaving behind the dissolved
solids.
• Drying: Once the water has evaporated completely, place the dish in an oven set to a
specific temperature (usually around 103-105°C) to dry the remaining solids to a
constant weight.
• Weighing: After drying, remove the dish from the oven and allow it to cool in a
desiccator. Weigh the dish and dried solids using an analytical balance to determine
the mass of dissolved solids.
• Calculation: Calculate the TDS concentration in the water sample using the following
formula:

𝑊 𝑑𝑖𝑠ℎ+ − 𝑊𝑑𝑖𝑠ℎ
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝑇𝐷𝑆 = × 1000
𝑉

Where,

𝑊𝑑𝑖𝑠ℎ+ = Weight of the dish and dried solids (mg)

𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠

𝑊𝑑𝑖𝑠ℎ = Weight of the empty dish (mg)

𝑉 = Volume of the water sample filtered (L)

This method provides an estimation of the dissolved solids present in the water sample
and is commonly used for routine TDS testing in laboratories and field settings.

15
3.4.5 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

DO is the amount of oxygen dissolved in water. Oxygen enters the water by direct
absorption from the atmosphere or as waste product of plant photosynthesis. Adequate
DO is necessary for good water quality determination of dissolved oxygen is essential to
assess the quality of water, check pollution and biological changes by aerobic or anaerobic
organisms. It's crucial for aquatic life, as fish, plants, and other organisms need oxygen
to survive. DO levels can change due to various factors like temperature, water flow, and
the presence of plants or algae. High DO levels indicate good water quality, while low
levels can harm aquatic life and indicate pollution or other environmental issues.
Monitoring DO helps assess the health of aquatic ecosystems and ensure they have
enough oxygen to support diverse and thriving communities of organisms. DO is the basis
of BOD test to evaluate pollution potential of wastes. Samples are to be collected in BOD
bottles. Add 2ml of MnSO4 and 2ml of Alkali Iodide Azide. Mix well and allow to-settle
the precipitate formed. Add 2ml concentrated H2SO4 and mix well till the precipitate
dissolves. Take 203ml sample in a conical flask and titrate against Sodium Thiosulphate
till pale yellow colour appears. Add starch and titrate till blue to colour less. A minimum
DO of 4 – 5 mg/l is required for the survival of aquatic life and higher may cause
corrosions thus the permissible limit is considered as 6 mg/l.

3.4.6 Turbidity

Turbidity in water refers to the degree of cloudiness or haziness. Turbidity in water is

caused by suspended matter such as clay, silt, finely divided organic or inorganic matter,
soluble colored organic compounds, plankton and other microscopic organisms. These
particles scatter and absorb light, making the water appear murky or opaque. Turbidity is
a crucial parameter in water quality assessment as it can indicate the presence of
pollutants, sedimentation, and overall environmental health. Hence it has aesthetic
consideration. It is based on comparison of the intensity of light scattered by the sample
under defined conditions with the intensity of light scattered by standard reference
suspension under the same condition. Higher the intensity of scattered light, higher will
be the turbidity. Sample is illuminated using a tungsten filament lamp and a photoelectric
detector is used for turbidity measurement. Permissible limit is 5 – 10 mg/l. One common
method used to measure turbidity is through the use of a nephelometer, a device
specifically designed to quantify turbidity by measuring the amount of light scattered by
particles suspended in water.

16
Prepare the nephelometer according to the manufacturer's instructions. Ensure that the
device is calibrated properly using standard solutions or calibration checks. Insert the
water sample into the nephelometer's sample chamber. The nephelometer emits a beam
of light into the water sample, and sensors detect the amount of light scattered by the
suspended particles. The nephelometer provides a reading of turbidity in nephelometric
turbidity units (NTU) based on the intensity of light scattered by the particles in the water
sample. This reading is typically displayed on the device's screen or interface. The
turbidity reading obtained from the nephelometer indicates the degree of cloudiness or
haziness in the water sample. Higher turbidity values suggest higher concentrations of
suspended particles, while lower values indicate clearer water.

3.4.7 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic organisms to break down
organic material present in a sample. The BOD value is most commonly expressed in
milligram of oxygen consumed per litre of sample during 5 days of incubation at 20⁰ C.
the permissible limit is 40 mg/l. BOD determination is necessary to assess the pollution
load of waste water, degree of pollution in water sources, self-purification capacity of
sources, design of treatment facilities and efficiency of waste water treatment methods.

Preparation of dilution water: Aerate the required volume of D.W by bubbling

compressed air for one to two days to attain DO saturation. Add 1ml of Phosphate buffer,
magnesium sulphate, calcium chloride, ferric chloride each per litre of dilution water and
mix well.

Determination of DO: Samples are to be analyzed initially and after 5th day. Add 2ml of
MnSO4 and 2ml of Alkali Iodide Azide and mix well. Allow the precipitate to settle. Add
2ml concentrated H2SO4 mix well till precipitate dissolves. Take 203ml sample in a
conical flask and titrate against Sodium Thiosulphate till pale yellow colour appears. Add
starch and titrate till blue to colour less.

Calculate the BOD using the following formula:

𝐵𝑂𝐷 = (𝐷𝑂𝑖 − 𝐷𝑂𝑓 ) × (𝐷𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟)

Where,

𝐷𝑂𝑖 = Initial dissolved oxygen concentration (mg/L)

17
𝐷𝑂𝑓 = Final dissolved oxygen concentration (mg/L)

𝐷𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = Factor to account for any dilutions made during the BOD test, if
applicable (usually 1 for undiluted samples)

3.4.8 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

COD is an indicative measure of the amount of oxygen that can be consumed by reactions
in a measured solution. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) in water is a measure of the
amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize organic and inorganic matter in the
water sample. It's a key parameter used to assess the organic pollution level and the
overall quality of water. The COD test involves oxidizing the organic and oxidizable
inorganic substances in the water sample with a strong oxidizing agent, usually potassium
dichromate (K2Cr2O7), in the presence of a strong acid (such as sulfuric acid) and a
catalyst (such as silver sulfate). The amount of oxygen consumed during this chemical
reaction is then measured and reported as COD. High COD levels in water indicate a high
concentration of organic and oxidizable inorganic substances, which can come from
sources such as untreated sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and decaying
organic matter. Elevated COD levels can lead to reduced dissolved oxygen levels in water
bodies, which may negatively impact aquatic life and ecosystem health. Monitoring COD
is important for assessing water quality, evaluating the effectiveness of wastewater
treatment processes, and identifying sources of pollution. By measuring COD, regulatory
authorities and environmental agencies can establish and enforce water quality standards
to protect human health and the environment. It is commonly expressed in mass of oxygen
consumed over volume of solution.

A COD test can be used to easily quantify the amount of organics in water. The most
common application of COD is in quantifying the amount of oxidizable pollutants found
in water. Collect a clean water sample from the lake and add sulfuric acid to preserve it if
you can't test it immediately. In a test vial, mix a small amount of the sample with sulfuric
acid and a catalyst called silver sulfate. Heat this mixture at 150-160°C for 2 hours to
break down the organic matter. After cooling, add potassium dichromate to the vial and
let it sit for at least 2 hours to develop color. Then, use a spectrophotometer to measure
the colour intensity at 600 nm wavelength. Finally, calculate the COD concentration in
mg/L using a calibration curve or formula, and make sure to run a blank sample and a
standard solution to check the accuracy of your results. The permissible limit of Chemical

18
Oxygen Demand (COD) in drinking water is 250 mg/L. This limit is set to ensure the
water is safe for consumption and meets the quality standards for human health.

3.4.9 E. Coli

E. Coli also known as Escherichia coli, is a gram negative, facultative anaerobic, rod
shaped, coliform bacterium of the genus Escherichia which is commonly found in the
lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms. Most E. Coli strains do not cause disease but
virulent strains can cause gastroenteritis, urinary tract infections, neonatal meningitis
diseases etc. Testing for E. coli in water is important for assessing water quality and
determining its suitability for drinking, recreational activities, and agricultural use.

The IS 15185:2016 method for testing water for E. coli involves several steps. First, water
samples are collected in sterile containers. Then, the samples are filtered through a
membrane filter with a pore size of 0.45 microns to capture bacteria. The filter is then
placed on a selective growth medium in a petri dish and incubated at 35-37°C for 18-24
hours. After incubation, the petri dishes are examined for the presence of characteristic E.
coli colonies, which typically appear as dark blue or purple colonies with a metallic sheen.
Suspected colonies are further confirmed using biochemical or molecular tests, as
specified in the IS 15185:2016 method. The number of confirmed E. coli colonies is
counted, and the concentration of E. coli in the water sample is calculated based on the
volume of water filtered. Results are recorded and reported in accordance with the IS
15185:2016 method, ensuring accuracy and compliance with regulatory standards for
water quality assessment and monitoring. If lake water has E. coli in it, it indicates
contamination with fecal matter, which can pose health risks to anyone who comes into
contact with the water. Consuming or even swimming in water contaminated with E. coli
can cause gastrointestinal illnesses, such as diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach cramps. In
some cases, more severe illnesses like urinary tract infections, respiratory illnesses, and
even kidney failure can occur, especially in vulnerable populations like children, elderly,
or those with weakened immune systems. It's important to avoid direct contact with or
consumption of water known to contain E. coli until it has been treated and deemed safe
by health authorities.

3.4.10 Iron

Iron content in water refers to the concentration of iron ions present in a water sample.
Iron can enter water from various sources such as natural geological formations, industrial

19
discharges, and corroding pipelines. High iron in water means there's a lot of iron
dissolved in it, giving it a reddish-brown color, a metallic taste, and causing stains on
surfaces. This can clog pipes, cause plumbing issues, and encourage bacteria growth.
While not usually harmful, it can indicate other contaminants. Low iron means there's
less iron in the water, so it's clear, tastes better, and doesn't stain. It's better for plumbing,
reduces bacteria growth, and is generally more pleasant.

The IS 3025 (part 53) - 2003 method for testing iron in water using the 1,10
phenanthroline method involves several steps. First, prepare a series of iron standard
solutions with known concentrations to create a calibration curve. Add 1,10
phenanthroline reagent to both the standard solutions and the water sample. The
phenanthroline forms a colored complex with iron. Measure the absorbance of the colored
solutions at a specific wavelength, typically around 510 nm, using a spectrophotometer.
Plot a calibration curve by graphing the absorbance values against the known
concentrations of iron in the standard solutions. Measure the absorbance of the water
sample and use the calibration curve to determine the concentration of iron in the sample.
Ensure proper handling of reagents and calibration of the spectrophotometer for accurate
results. This method allows for the precise quantification of iron in water samples,
providing essential information for assessing water quality and potential health risks
associated with elevated iron levels. The permissible limit of iron content is 0.3 mg/L
(milligrams per litre) or 0.3 parts per million (ppm).

3.4.11 Microplastics

Microplastics are tiny plastic particles, less than 5 millimeters in size, that have become
a significant environmental concern, particularly in water bodies. These particles
originate from various sources, including the breakdown of larger plastic debris,
microbeads from personal care products, and synthetic fibers released during washing of
clothes made from polyester or nylon. Once in water bodies, microplastics pose a range
of environmental and health risks. When water has a high content of microplastics, it
means there are many tiny plastic particles suspended in it. These microplastics come
from various sources like plastic waste, synthetic fibers, and broken-down plastic
products. Having a lot of microplastics in water can pose risks to aquatic life and human
health. They can be harmful if consumed by animals and may also enter the food chain,
potentially impacting our health. It's important to monitor and reduce microplastic
pollution in water to protect the environment and our well-being.

20
To test water for microplastics using a standard operating procedure, begin by filtering
the water through a fine mesh filter with a pore size typically ranging from 0.45 to 1
micron. This filter captures particles, including microplastics, present in the water sample.
Density separation techniques like sedimentation or density gradient centrifugation may
be employed to isolate microplastics from other particles based on differences in density.
Organic material and non-plastic particles can then be removed from the filtered samples
through digestion with enzymes or chemicals, helping to isolate and concentrate the
microplastics. Next, the concentrated particles are examined under a microscope, often
utilizing techniques such as stereomicroscopy or microscopy with staining techniques to
enhance visibility. Microplastics are identified based on characteristic features like size,
shape, and color. Finally, the mass of the isolated microplastics is determined through
gravimetric analysis. This involves weighing the container with the isolated microplastics
to determine their mass accurately. Gravimetric analysis allows for the quantification of
microplastics in the water sample based on the difference in mass before and after adding
the microplastics. This comprehensive procedure ensures accurate detection and
quantification of microplastics, providing valuable insights into water quality and
environmental health. Other techniques are Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
(FTIR) or Raman spectroscopy. The Indian Standard code for drinking water quality (IS
10500:2012) does not specify a permissible limit for microplastics.

3.5 WATER QUALITY INDEX (WQI)

A water quality index (WQI) is a numerical expression that represents the overall quality
of water in a particular environment. It's a composite measure that takes into account
various physical, chemical, biological, and sometimes even socio-economic parameters
of water quality. The water quality index is one of the most effective tools to provide
information on the quality of water to the concerned citizens and policy makers. It
becomes an important parameter for the assessment and management of groundwater.
The WQI concept is related to the comparison of the water quality parameter with
respective regulatory standards and provides a single number that express overall water
quality at certain location based on several water quality parameters. Instead of using
points, the WQI is often described on a scale that indicates the degree of water quality
ranging from poor to excellent. This scale helps stakeholders, such as policymakers,
scientists, and the general public, to understand the health of a water body and make
informed decisions about its management and use. The WQI summarizes large amount of

21
water quality data into simple terms, i.e., excellent, good, bad, etc. as shown in table 3.2,
which are easily understandable and usable by the public. However, by combining
multiple parameters into a single index, a more comprehensive picture of the pollution
state is provided. When mapping the index, the areas of high and low water quality can
be easily specified.

The calculation of a WQI involves assessing individual water quality parameters, such as
pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, nutrient levels, and presence of pollutants, among others.
Each parameter is typically assigned a weight reflecting its importance in determining
overall water quality. These weights can be determined through expert judgment,
statistical analysis, or stakeholder consultations. Once the weights are assigned, the
individual parameter values are combined using a mathematical formula to derive a single
composite index value. This index provides a concise summary of water quality
conditions, making it easier to interpret and communicate to a wider audience.

By using a WQI, decision-makers can track changes in water quality over time, compare
the quality of different water bodies, identify pollution sources, and prioritize
management actions to improve or maintain water quality for various uses, such as
drinking water supply, aquatic habitat preservation, and recreational activities. Water
quality index can be determined by weighted arithmetic index method.

The arithmetic weighting method is often chosen for calculating water quality index
(WQI) because it's relatively simple and straightforward to implement. In this method,
various water quality parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), and others are assigned weights based on their relative importance in
determining overall water quality. These weights are usually determined through expert
judgment or statistical analysis of their impact on water quality.

Once the weights are assigned, the individual parameter values are multiplied by their
respective weights and then summed to obtain a single composite index value. This index
value provides a concise representation of overall water quality, making it easier for
decision-makers to interpret and compare across different water bodies or over time.
Other methods include geometric mean method, weighted geometric mean method,
Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Artificial Neural Networks (ANN).

22
 Table 3.2 Water Quality Index chart
WQI value Rating of water quality Grading

0 – 25 Excellent A

26 – 50 Good B

51 – 75 Poor C

76 – 100 Very Poor D

> 100 Unsuitable E

It consists of 4 steps:

• Selecting a set of variables

• Variables of different unit are converted to same scale.

• Variables are assigned weights based on their relative importance to water quality.

• Generating the WQI using weighed arithmetic method.

3.5.1 Calculation of Water Quality Index

WQI is calculated using Arithmetic Weighing Method. The following steps describe the
method.

• Calculate the proportionality constant “𝐾” value using formula,

𝑛 1
𝐾 = 1⁄∑
𝑛=1 𝑆𝑛

• Calculate quality rating “𝑞𝑛 ” for nth parameter,

100 (𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 – 𝑉𝑖 )
𝑞𝑛 =
𝑆𝑛 − 𝑉𝑖

• Calculate unit weight “𝑊𝑛 ” for nth parameter,

𝐾
𝑊𝑛 =
𝑆𝑛

• Calculate 𝑊𝑄𝐼 using the formula,

∑𝑛𝑛=1 𝑞𝑛 𝑊𝑛
𝑊𝑄𝐼 =
∑𝑛𝑛=1 𝑊𝑛
23
 Where,

𝑉𝑖 = ideal value of nth parameter in pure water (𝑉𝑖 for pH=7 & 𝑉𝑖 for DO=14.6),

𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = observed value of the nth parameter,

Sn = standard permissible value of nth parameter,

𝐾 = proportionality constant and n = number of parameters

Table 3.3 shows the results obtained from the tests conducted and WQI calculated

Table 3.3 Observations and Results

Turbidit Micro
Sample DO TSS TDS Alkalinity BOD COD Iron
pH y Plastics WQI
No. mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l
NTU mg/l

1 7.53 4.38 1.18 0.186 56.2 60.7 135 430 0.25 360 53.192

2 7.68 4.35 1.07 0.198 56.9 60.2 165 490 0.29 270 60.58

3 7.62 4.28 1.12 0.192 57.2 61.1 170 540 0.13 310 60.869

4 7.79 4.48 1.09 0.197 56.5 60.5 165 510 0.22 430 63.323

5 7.61 4.31 1.22 0.182 57.5 60.9 175 540 0.33 180 61.797

6 7.58 4.54 1.10 0.185 57.7 61.4 160 510 0.23 240 59.250

Sn 8.5 6 5 15 500 200 40 120 0.3 -

3.6 MAPPING USING ArcGIS SOFTWARE

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a powerful tool used to capture, store, manipulate,
analyze, manage, and present spatial or geographic data. Essentially, it's a system designed to
work with data referenced by spatial or geographic coordinates. GIS technology integrates
various types of data, including satellite imagery, aerial photography, digital maps, and
tabular data, allowing users to visualize patterns, trends, and relationships in the data. At its
core, GIS relies on the concept of layers, where different types of information are represented
as separate layers stacked on top of each other. These layers can include information such as
land use, population density, elevation, transportation networks, and more. GIS software
provides tools for data input, editing, analysis, and visualization. Users can perform spatial

24
analysis to answer questions, solve problems, and make informed decisions. For example,
GIS can be used to determine the best location for a new business, analyze environmental
impacts, or plan transportation routes. One of the key strengths of GIS is its ability to perform
spatial analysis, which involves examining the relationships between different geographic
features. This can include proximity analysis, where GIS identifies features that are nearby
or within a certain distance of each other, as well as overlay analysis, where GIS combines
multiple layers to identify areas that meet specific criteria. GIS is used in a wide range of
industries and applications, including urban planning, natural resource management,
environmental monitoring, emergency response, public health, archaeology, and many others.
Its versatility and flexibility make it an invaluable tool for understanding the world around us
and making informed decisions about how to interact with it.

The raw data are imported into a dBase IV table using Microsoft Excel" version 7.0. Relevant
information used for the categorization of the data are latitude, longitude, time, and depth at
which sample was taken. Once the raw data are in dBase IV table format, it is imported into
the GIS program. For this study, ArcGIS version 10.5 is used for mapping and spatially
analyzing water quality. ArcGIS is a geographic information systems software program
developed for the desktop by Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. ArcGIS is used
to categorize the data by four criteria. The data is categorized by (in order): year, month,
parameter type. We need to make shape file for importing the file into the software. The
outline of Kattaka Kayal was prepared using Google Earth Pro and added the location of
sampling points as per the latitude and longitude taken using GPS receiver.

The purpose of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is multifaceted and encompasses a

broad range of applications across various fields. At its core, GIS serves as a powerful tool
for capturing, storing, managing, analyzing, and presenting spatial or geographic data. The
key purposes GIS are as follows:

a. Spatial Data Management

GIS allows for the efficient organization and management of spatial data. It provides a
framework for storing different types of geographic information, such as satellite imagery,
maps, terrain models, and demographic data, in a unified system. This organized data
structure enables users to easily access and manipulate information for analysis and decision-
making.

25
b. Data Visualization and Analysis:

One of the primary purposes of GIS is to visualize spatial data in the form of maps, charts,
and graphs. GIS software offers a range of visualization tools that allow users to represent
complex geographic relationships and patterns in a clear and understandable format. By
visualizing data spatially, users can gain insights into spatial trends, identify patterns, and
make informed decisions based on spatial analysis.

c. Spatial Analysis:

GIS enables users to conduct spatial analysis, which involves examining the relationships
between different geographic features. Spatial analysis techniques include proximity analysis,
overlay analysis, spatial interpolation, and network analysis, among others. These techniques
help users answer spatial questions, solve spatial problems, and gain a deeper understanding
of spatial relationships.

d. Decision Support:

GIS serves as a decision support tool by providing valuable spatial information and analysis
to support decision-making processes. Whether in urban planning, environmental
management, emergency response, or business location analysis, GIS helps decision-makers
evaluate different scenarios, assess potential impacts, and identify optimal solutions based on
spatial data and analysis.

e. Planning and Management:

GIS is widely used in planning and management activities across various sectors, including
urban planning, natural resource management, transportation planning, and public health. By
integrating spatial data and analysis into planning processes, GIS helps planners and
managers make informed decisions, optimize resource allocation, and develop sustainable
strategies for the future.

f. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment:

GIS plays a crucial role in environmental monitoring and assessment by providing tools for
analyzing and visualizing environmental data. From tracking changes in land cover and
assessing habitat suitability to monitoring air and water quality, GIS helps environmental
scientists and policymakers understand the state of the environment, identify potential threats,
and develop strategies for conservation and management.

26
g. Emergency Response and Disaster Management:

GIS is invaluable in emergency response and disaster management efforts. By integrating

real-time data feeds, satellite imagery, and demographic information, GIS helps emergency
responders assess the impact of disasters, identify vulnerable populations, and coordinate
rescue and relief efforts. GIS also facilitates the creation of hazard maps, evacuation routes,
and risk assessment models to improve preparedness and response.

h. Public Health and Epidemiology:

GIS is increasingly used in public health and epidemiology to analyze spatial patterns of
disease, identify high-risk areas, and target interventions effectively. By mapping the
distribution of diseases, tracking outbreaks, and analyzing socio-economic factors, GIS helps
public health officials understand the spread of infectious diseases, plan vaccination
campaigns, and allocate resources for healthcare delivery.

3.6.1 Mapping in GIS

Mapping in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a fundamental process that

involves the representation of spatial data in the form of maps. Mapping in GIS
encompasses a wide range of activities, including data acquisition, data preparation,
cartographic design, and map production.

The mapping process begins with data acquisition, which involves gathering spatial data
from various sources. These sources may include satellite imagery, aerial photography,
GPS surveys, field observations, existing maps, and demographic datasets. GIS
professionals collect and compile these data sources to create a comprehensive dataset for
mapping. Once the spatial data is acquired, it undergoes a process of preparation to ensure
its accuracy, consistency, and compatibility for mapping. This may involve data cleaning,
data integration, and data transformation. GIS technicians use specialized software tools
to preprocess the data, remove errors or inconsistencies, and standardize the data format
and projection. Before mapping the data, GIS users often conduct spatial analysis to
derive meaningful insights and identify patterns or relationships within the data. Spatial
analysis techniques such as proximity analysis, overlay analysis, spatial interpolation, and
network analysis are used to analyze spatial relationships, identify spatial trends, and
generate new spatial information from existing datasets.

27
Cartographic design is a critical aspect of mapping in GIS, involving the design and layout
of maps to effectively communicate spatial information. Cartographers use principles of
visual hierarchy, color theory, typography, and symbolization to create clear, informative,
and aesthetically pleasing maps. The design process considers factors such as map scale,
map orientation, map extent, and map projection to ensure the accuracy and readability
of the map. Symbolization is the process of representing spatial features on a map using
symbols, colors, and graphical elements. GIS users select appropriate symbols and styles
to represent different types of geographic features, such as roads, rivers, buildings, and
land cover. Symbolization also includes the use of scale-dependent symbology, where
symbols change in size or detail depending on the map scale, to enhance readability and
clarity. Labeling is the process of adding text annotations to a map to provide additional
information or context. GIS users label geographic features such as cities, roads,
landmarks, and administrative boundaries to help users identify and interpret the map.
Label placement, font size, font style, and labeling rules are carefully considered to ensure
legibility and readability, especially at different map scales. Once the cartographic design
is finalized, GIS professionals proceed to map production, where the final map products
are generated. This may involve printing physical maps, exporting digital maps in various
file formats (e.g., PDF, JPEG, PNG), or publishing interactive web maps. Map production
also includes quality assurance checks to verify the accuracy of the map data, labels,
symbology, and layout before distribution or publication.

The ultimate goal of mapping in GIS is to create informative and actionable maps that
can be used by decision-makers, stakeholders, and the general public. GIS maps are used
for a wide range of purposes, including urban planning, natural resource management,
emergency response, public health, transportation planning, and environmental
monitoring. GIS users disseminate maps through various channels, such as print media,
online platforms, mobile applications, and interactive mapping portals, to ensure broad
accessibility and usability.

3.6.2 ArcGIS & Google earth pro

ArcGIS, developed by Esri (Environmental Systems Research Institute), is a

comprehensive Geographic Information System (GIS) platform designed for creating,
managing, analyzing, and visualizing geographic data. Version 10.5 is one of the earlier

28
releases of the ArcGIS software and comes with a suite of tools and capabilities tailored
for various GIS tasks.

In ArcGIS 10.5, users can create detailed maps and visualize spatial data with a variety
of symbology options, layouts, and styles to effectively convey information. The platform
offers robust data management capabilities, allowing users to organize, edit, and manage
geographic data in multiple formats such as shapefiles, geodatabases, and raster datasets.

One of the standout features of ArcGIS is its advanced spatial analysis tools. Users can
perform intricate spatial analyses using a wide array of tools and methods, including data
interpolation, overlay analysis, proximity analysis, and more. These tools enable users to
derive meaningful insights from spatial data and make informed decisions.
Geoprocessing is another essential component of ArcGIS, enabling users to automate
workflows and processes. With geoprocessing tools, users can perform tasks like
buffering, clipping, merging, and conducting spatial statistics, streamlining repetitive GIS
tasks and enhancing productivity. Moreover, ArcGIS 10.5 supports 3D GIS capabilities,
allowing users to create and visualize 3D maps and scenes. Users can analyze terrain,
conduct line-of-sight analysis, and assess viewsheds, providing a more immersive and
comprehensive understanding of the geographic environment. Additionally, ArcGIS 10.5
offers robust web GIS capabilities, enabling users to share and publish maps, apps, and
data on the web through ArcGIS Online or Portal for ArcGIS. This integration with web
GIS facilitates collaboration, data sharing, and broader accessibility of GIS resources.

Google Earth Pro is a geospatial software developed by Google, offering interactive

mapping and visualization capabilities on a global scale. It provides users with a detailed
and realistic view of the Earth's surface, combining satellite imagery, aerial photography,
and 3D terrain data. In Google Earth Pro, users can navigate and explore locations
worldwide, zooming in from global views to street-level details with high-resolution
imagery. The platform offers intuitive navigation tools, allowing users to pan, tilt, and
rotate the view to get different perspectives and angles of the Earth's surface. One of the
key features of Google Earth Pro is its ability to create and edit geographic data using
KML (Keyhole Markup Language) and KMZ (KML Zipped) formats. Users can draw
points, lines, and polygons directly on the map to create custom shapes and annotations.
These custom features can be saved, shared, and exported for use in other GIS platforms
or applications.

29
Google Earth Pro also supports geospatial analysis capabilities, allowing users to measure
distances, areas, and elevations directly on the map. Users can also perform basic spatial
queries and analyses using the built-in tools, providing quick insights and information
about geographic features and locations. Additionally, Google Earth Pro offers
integration with other Google services and platforms, such as Google Drive and Google
Maps. This integration enables users to import/export data, collaborate with others, and
share their maps and projects more efficiently. Overall, Google Earth Pro is a versatile
and user-friendly geospatial tool that provides a unique and interactive way to explore,
visualize, and analyze geographic information on a global scale. While it may not offer
the advanced GIS capabilities found in ArcGIS, it serves as a valuable complement to
GIS software for visualization, exploration, and basic geospatial analysis tasks.

3.6.3 Shape file using Google earth pro

Creating a shapefile of Kattakka Kayal using Google Earth Pro involves following steps:

Step 1: Install and open Google Earth Pro

Step 2: Navigate to Kattakka Kayal
• Use the search bar at the top-left corner to type in "Kattakka Kayal" and hit Enter.
• Google Earth Pro will zoom to the location of Kattakka Kayal on the map.
Step 3: Customize View and Settings
• Map View: Adjust the view to get a clear and optimal perspective of Kattakka
Kayal. You can tilt, pan, and zoom to get the desired view.
• Layers: Open the 'Layers' panel on the left-hand side and ensure that the necessary
layers like 'Borders and Labels' or 'Roads' are turned on or off based on your
preference.
Step 4: Drawing the Shapefile
• Open 'Add' Menu: Click on the 'Add' menu at the top and select 'Polygon' to start
drawing the shape of Kattakka Kayal.
• Start Drawing:
➢ Click on the map to create the vertices of the polygon shape.
➢ Continue clicking to outline the boundary of Kattakka Kayal.
➢ Double-click to finish drawing the polygon shape.

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Step 5: Attribute Data
• Name and Description:
➢ Right-click on the polygon shape you just created and select 'Get Info' or
'Properties'.
➢ Add a name and description for the shapefile.
• Other Attributes:
➢ If you want to add more attributes like area, perimeter, or other relevant data,
you can do so here.
Step 6: Save as KML File
• Save as KML:
➢ Right-click on the polygon shape and select 'Save Place As'.
➢ Choose the location where you want to save the KML file and click 'Save'
Step 7: Convert KML to Shapefile using QGIS
• Open QGIS
• Import KML:
➢ Go to 'Layer' > 'Add Layer' > 'Add Vector Layer'.
➢ Browse and select the KML file you saved from Google Earth Pro.
• Save as Shapefile:
➢ Right-click on the imported KML layer in the QGIS Layers panel.
➢ Select 'Export' > 'Save Features As'.
➢ Choose 'ESRI Shapefile' as the format and specify the output location and
name "KattakkaKayal.shp" for the shapefile.
➢ Click 'OK' to save the shapefile.
Step 7: Import Shapefile into ArcGIS
• Launch ArcGIS and create a new map or open an existing one.
• Go to File > Add Data > Add Shapefile.
• Browse to the location where you saved the "KattakkaKayal.shp" file and select
it to import.
• The shapefile will be added to the ArcGIS map as a new layer.

3.6.4 Spatial distribution using ArcGIS

The procedure is as follows:

Step 1: Import Shapefile into ArcGIS

31
Step 2: Prepare Water Quality Data
• Ensure that your water quality data is in a compatible format (e.g., CSV, Excel) with
spatial attributes that can be joined or related to the shapefile.
• Import the water quality data into ArcGIS as a new layer (e.g., using Add Data).
Step 3: Join Shapefile and Water Quality Data
• Right-click on the shapefile layer in the Table of Contents.
• Select Joins and Relates > Join.
• Choose the water quality data layer and the common attribute field (e.g., ID or name)
to join the two datasets.
Step 4: Interpolation using IDW Method
• Ensure the Spatial Analyst extension is enabled (Customize > Extensions > Spatial
Analyst).
• Navigate to Spatial Analyst > Interpolation > IDW (Inverse Distance Weighted).
• Select the water quality parameter you want to interpolate from the joined data.
• Choose the shapefile layer with joined data as the input points.
• Click OK to run the interpolation process.
Step 5: Visualization and Layer Styling
• Once the IDW interpolation is completed, the software will generate a continuous
surface representing the spatial distribution of the selected water quality parameter.
• Open the Layer Properties dialog for the interpolated surface layer.
• Apply a color ramp or symbology to visualize the range and values of the water
quality parameter.
• Adjust transparency, legend, and labels for clarity and readability.
Step 6: Repeat Interpolation for Other Parameters
• Repeat the IDW interpolation process for each water quality parameter you wish to
analyze.
• Ensure to name and organize the layers appropriately to distinguish between different
parameters.
Step 8: Map Layout and Export
• Create a map layout by adding a title, legend, scale bar, and north arrow.
• Adjust map elements for clarity and readability.
• Export the final maps and analysis results as high-resolution images or PDF files for
reporting and sharing.

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Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) interpolation is often favored in Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) for several reasons:
• Simplicity and ease of implementation: IDW is relatively simple to understand
and implement compared to some other interpolation methods. It doesn't require
complex mathematical algorithms or extensive parameter tuning, making it
accessible to users with varying levels of expertise in GIS.
• Intuitive concept: The concept behind IDW is intuitive – it assumes that nearby
values are more similar to each other than those farther away. This aligns well
with many real-world spatial phenomena, making IDW a natural choice for
interpolating data in many geographic contexts.
• Flexibility: IDW allows users to adjust the power parameter, which determines
the rate at which the influence of neighboring points decreases with distance. This
flexibility enables users to fine-tune the interpolation process based on their
specific data characteristics and the underlying spatial patterns.
• Smoothness of output: IDW tends to produce smooth surfaces, which can be
visually appealing and easier to interpret, especially for visualization purposes.
This smoothness makes it suitable for generating continuous surfaces from sparse
or irregularly distributed point data.
• Suitability for continuous variables: IDW is well-suited for interpolating
continuous variables such as elevation, temperature, precipitation, and pollutant
concentrations. It can accurately estimate values at unsampled locations based on
the values observed at nearby sampling points.
• Robustness to outliers: IDW is relatively robust to outliers in the input data. Since
it considers all nearby points in the interpolation process, the influence of
individual outliers is typically minimized, leading to more stable and reliable
interpolation results.

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 CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 GENERAL
This chapter includes the results obtained from the spatial distribution of water quality
parameters whose tests were conducted and detailed discussion of the inference of these
results.

4.2 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF PARAMETERS

4.2.1 pH

pH is an important parameter, which determines the suitability of water for various

purposes. High pH causes a bitter taste, water pipes and water- using appliances become
encrusted with deposits where as low pH will corrode or dissolve metals and other
substances. In general, fishes’ reproduction is affected by low pH level i.e., fish begins to
die when the pH fails below 4.0. In this study area pH level of water varies from 7.53 to
7.8 and is in desirable limit ie., 6.5 to 8.5 as specified in IS 10500:2012.

Figure 4.1 shows the spatial distribution of pH in the study area. The spatial distribution
of pH within Kattakka Kayal offers a detailed portrayal of the water body's health and
environmental conditions. By examining the pH variations across different zones (A to
E), each with its distinct range, a comprehensive understanding of water quality dynamics
emerges. Starting with Zone A, characterized by pH values ranging from 7.53 to 7.58, we
observe a slightly acidic to neutral pH range. This suggests localized influences impacting
water quality within this zone. Possible contributors to this pH range could include nearby
agricultural activities, which may introduce acidic runoff from fertilizers or pesticides.
Additionally, natural processes such as decomposition of organic matter in sediment
could also play a role.

In Zone B, where pH ranges from 7.58 to 7.63, there is a slight increase compared to Zone
A. This incremental rise in pH could signify a transition zone where factors such as
dilution effects from incoming water sources or the presence of aquatic vegetation begin
to influence pH levels. The buffering capacity of the water may also become more
apparent in this zone, helping to stabilize pH within this slightly higher range.

34
Moving into Zone C, with pH ranging from 7.63 to 7.68, we encounter relatively stable
pH conditions. This zone may represent areas less impacted by localized factors,
indicating a broader environmental equilibrium within Kattakka Kayal. Factors such as
sediment composition and biological processes likely contribute to maintaining pH within
this range, reflecting the overall health of the ecosystem.

Zone D, spanning pH values from 7.68 to 7.73, exhibits further stabilization or buffering
effects. This zone may be less susceptible to short-term fluctuations in pH, indicating a
greater resilience to external disturbances. The presence of buffering minerals or
biological processes, such as microbial activity, could contribute to maintaining pH
within this relatively narrow range.

Finally, Zone E showcases the highest pH range of 7.73 to 7.8. This zone likely represents
areas with the most stable or alkaline conditions within Kattakka Kayal. Factors such as
sediment composition, water flow dynamics, and the presence of aquatic vegetation may
contribute to the higher pH values observed here. The buffering capacity of the water is
likely well-established in this zone, providing resilience against external influences.

Overall, the segmented spatial distribution of pH across different zones underscores the
heterogeneity of water quality within Kattakka Kayal. It highlights the complex interplay
of natural and anthropogenic factors shaping pH variations across the ecosystem. By
characterizing pH patterns in this manner, authorities can prioritize zones for targeted
monitoring and management interventions.

The pH variations observed across different zones also provide valuable insights into the
overall health and resilience of the aquatic ecosystem. While deviations from the desirable
pH range specified by IS 10500 (2012) are evident in some zones, the segmented analysis
allows for a more nuanced understanding of the factors driving these variations. This
information is crucial for implementing effective measures to maintain or restore water
quality within acceptable limits.

In conclusion, the spatial distribution of pH within Kattakka Kayal serves as a vital

indicator of water quality and ecosystem health. By dissecting pH variations across
distinct zones, authorities can tailor management strategies to address localized
challenges and promote the long-term sustainability of this valuable aquatic environment.

35
 Figure 4.1 Spatial distribution of pH

4.2.2 Alkalinity

The main sources of natural alkalinity are rocks which contain carbonates, bicarbonates
and hydroxide compounds. High alkalinity is good for drinking water because it keeps
the water safe for use by neutralizing it. If the level of alkalinity is low it may fluctuate
the level of pH which causes damage to walls, organisms etc.

Figure 4.2 shows the spatial distribution of alkalinity of the study area. The spatial
distribution of alkalinity within Kattakka Kayal provides valuable insights into the water
body's chemical composition and overall environmental health. By examining the
variations in alkalinity across different zones (A to E), each with its distinct range, we
can infer several important aspects regarding water quality and ecosystem dynamics.

Starting with Zone A, where alkalinity ranges from 60.20 to 60.44 mg/l, we observe a
relatively consistent alkalinity level within this range. Alkalinity measures the water's
capacity to resist changes in pH and is primarily influenced by the presence of carbonate,
bicarbonate, and hydroxide ions. The stability of alkalinity in Zone A suggests that the
water body may have a moderate buffering capacity, which is essential for maintaining
stable pH levels and supporting aquatic life.

36
Moving into Zone B, with alkalinity ranging from 60.44 to 60.68 mg/l, we notice a slight
increase compared to Zone A. This incremental rise in alkalinity may indicate a transition
zone where additional sources of alkaline compounds, such as dissolved minerals or
organic matter decomposition, begin to contribute to water chemistry. The buffering
capacity of the water is likely becoming more pronounced in this zone, providing greater
resilience against fluctuations in pH.

In Zone C, with alkalinity ranging from 60.68 to 60.92 mg/l, we encounter further
stabilization or enhancement of alkalinity levels. This zone may represent areas where
alkaline inputs from surrounding geology or biological activity play a significant role in
shaping water chemistry. The presence of carbonate-rich sediments or limestone
formations could contribute to the higher alkalinity observed in this zone.

Zone D exhibits alkalinity ranging from 60.92 to 61.15 mg/l, indicating a continuation of
the trend towards higher alkalinity levels. This zone may represent areas where natural
processes, such as groundwater discharge or biogeochemical cycling, contribute to
elevated alkalinity. The buffering capacity of the water is likely well-established in this
zone, providing robust protection against pH fluctuations and maintaining water quality
within a desirable range.

Finally, Zone E showcases the highest alkalinity range of 61.15 to 61.39 mg/l. This zone
likely represents areas with the most stable or alkaline conditions within Kattakka Kayal.
Factors such as geological composition, hydrological inputs, and biological activity may
contribute to the higher alkalinity values observed here. The presence of carbonate-rich
minerals or aquatic vegetation can further enhance alkalinity levels, contributing to the
overall stability of water chemistry in this zone.

Despite the variations observed across different zones, it's important to evaluate alkalinity
levels in the context of regulatory standards and environmental thresholds. According to
IS 10500 (2012), the desirable limit for alkalinity is 20 to 200 mg/l. While alkalinity levels
within Kattakka Kayal may fall within this range, it's essential to consider the potential
implications of elevated alkalinity on water quality and ecosystem health.

High alkalinity levels can influence various aspects of aquatic ecosystems, including
nutrient cycling, metal solubility, and species composition. Excessive alkalinity can lead
to conditions favoring certain algae species over others, potentially resulting in harmful

37
algal blooms and ecological imbalances. Additionally, elevated alkalinity may affect the
availability of essential nutrients and trace metals, impacting the overall productivity and
diversity of aquatic organisms. Therefore, while the spatial distribution of alkalinity
within Kattakka Kayal provides valuable insights into water chemistry and ecosystem
dynamics, it's essential to monitor alkalinity levels alongside other water quality
parameters and environmental indicators. Regular monitoring and assessment can help
identify trends, detect potential issues, and inform management strategies aimed at
maintaining or improving the health and sustainability of this vital aquatic ecosystem.

In conclusion, the spatial distribution of alkalinity in Kattakka Kayal offers valuable

information about water quality and environmental conditions. By examining alkalinity
variations across different zones, we can gain insights into the buffering capacity of the
water, sources of alkaline inputs, and potential implications for ecosystem health.
However, it's crucial to interpret alkalinity levels within the context of regulatory
standards and environmental thresholds to ensure the long-term sustainability of the
aquatic ecosystem.

Figure 4.2 Spatial distribution of alkalinity

4.2.3 Total Suspended Solids

TSS are particles that are larger than 2 microns found in water bodies. These particles are
large enough to be held back by the filters itself hence it can clog fish gills and either kills
them or reduce their growth rate. They also reduce light penetration as a result they reduce
38
the ability of algae to produce food and oxygen. According to IS 10500 (2012) the
permissible limit is considered as 10 – 15 mg/l.

Figure 4.3 shows the spatial distribution of TSS in the study area which varies from 0.182
to 0.198 mg/l. Since the range is very less it is good for algae to synthesis food and also
due to less suspended solids fishes will be safer. The spatial distribution of Total
Suspended Solids (TSS) in Kattakka Kayal, where it varies across different zones, offers
valuable insights into the water quality and environmental health of the area. TSS refers
to the concentration of solid particles suspended in water, including organic and inorganic
matter such as soil, silt, algae, and other debris. Understanding the distribution of TSS
levels allows us to assess potential sources of pollution, ecological impacts, and the
overall health of the aquatic ecosystem. In Kattakka Kayal, the spatial distribution of TSS
reveals a gradient of suspended solids concentration across different zones, ranging from
0.182 mg/l to 0.197 mg/l. Each zone represents a distinct area within the water body, and
the variation in TSS levels among these zones provides important information about
factors influencing water quality and sediment dynamics.

Zone A, with TSS levels ranging from 0.182 mg/l to 0.185 mg/l, represents an area with
relatively low suspended solids concentration. This may indicate minimal sedimentation
and low levels of particulate matter in the water column. The clarity of water in this zone
suggests favorable conditions for aquatic life and recreational activities, although further
investigation is needed to confirm the absence of localized sources of pollution. Moving
to Zone B, where TSS levels increase slightly to between 0.185 mg/l and 0.188 mg/l, we
observe a gradual rise in suspended solids concentration. This could be attributed to
factors such as sediment resuspension, increased organic matter input, or hydrological
processes influencing particle transport within the water body. While the increase in TSS
is moderate, it signals a potential shift in water quality dynamics compared to Zone A.

In Zone C, TSS levels continue to rise within the range of 0.188 mg/l to 0.191 mg/l. This
zone likely experiences higher sediment loads and suspended solids deposition, possibly
due to factors such as shoreline erosion, agricultural runoff, or urban development
activities. The elevated TSS concentration may impact water clarity, light penetration,
and habitat quality for aquatic organisms, highlighting the ecological significance of
monitoring and managing sediment inputs in the area. Zone D exhibits further increases
in TSS levels, ranging from 0.191 mg/l to 0.194 mg/l. This zone may experience more

39
pronounced sedimentation processes, possibly influenced by localized factors such as
channel morphology, flow dynamics, or land use practices. The higher TSS concentration
suggests reduced water quality and ecosystem health compared to upstream zones,
emphasizing the need for targeted conservation measures and sediment management
strategies. Finally, in Zone E, where TSS levels reach their peak within the range of 0.194
mg/l to 0.197 mg/l, we observe the highest concentration of suspended solids in Kattakka
Kayal. This zone likely represents areas with significant sediment input, erosion hotspots,
or anthropogenic disturbances leading to excessive sedimentation. The elevated TSS
concentration may pose challenges for water quality, ecosystem integrity, and aquatic
biodiversity, necessitating urgent intervention to address sources of pollution and mitigate
environmental impacts.

Overall, the spatial distribution of TSS in Kattakka Kayal provides valuable information
about the variability of suspended solids concentration across different zones of the water
body. By analyzing these patterns and understanding the underlying drivers of sediment
dynamics, stakeholders can implement targeted management strategies to improve water
quality, protect aquatic ecosystems, and ensure the sustainable use of natural resources in
the area.

Figure 4.3 Spatial distribution of TSS

40
4.2.4 Total Dissolved Solids

TDS in water were due to natural sources such as sewage, urban runoff etc. According to
IS 10500 (2012) the desirable limit of TDS is 300 – 500 mg/l. If TDS value is more than
500 mg/l, it may cause gastrointestinal irritation.

Figure 4.4 shows the spatial distribution of TDS of the study area. The spatial distribution
of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in Kattakka Kayal, where it varies across different zones,
provides crucial insights into the water quality, hydrological processes, and
environmental health of the area. TDS refers to the concentration of all dissolved
substances in water, including minerals, salts, metals, and organic compounds.
Understanding the spatial variation in TDS levels helps assess the sources of dissolved
solids, identify potential impacts on aquatic ecosystems and human activities, and inform
water resource management decisions. In Kattakka Kayal, the spatial distribution of TDS
reveals a gradient of dissolved solids concentration across different zones, ranging from
56.2 mg/l to 57.69 mg/l. Each zone represents a distinct area within the water body, and
the variation in TDS levels among these zones provides valuable information about
factors influencing water quality and hydrochemical processes.

Starting with Zone A, where TDS levels range from 56.2 mg/l to 56.5 mg/l, we observe
relatively low concentrations of dissolved solids. This suggests minimal input of
dissolved substances from surrounding sources such as groundwater inflow, surface
runoff, or anthropogenic activities. The low TDS levels in Zone A indicate favorable
water quality conditions, supporting aquatic life and ecosystem functions. Moving to
Zone B, where TDS levels increase slightly to between 56.5 mg/l and 56.8 mg/l, we
observe a gradual rise in dissolved solids concentration. This may be attributed to factors
such as geological characteristics, hydrological connectivity, or land use practices
influencing the composition of dissolved substances in the water. While the increase in
TDS is moderate, it signals a potential shift in water quality dynamics compared to Zone
A.

In Zone C, TDS levels continue to rise within the range of 56.8 mg/l to 57.1 mg/l. This
zone likely experiences higher inputs of dissolved solids from natural sources such as
weathering of rocks and soils, as well as anthropogenic inputs from agricultural activities
or urban development. The elevated TDS concentration may influence water chemistry,

41
nutrient availability, and biogeochemical processes in the aquatic environment. Zone D
exhibits further increases in TDS levels, ranging from 57.1 mg/l to 57.4 mg/l. This zone
may be influenced by localized factors such as groundwater discharge, sediment
resuspension, or industrial effluent discharge, leading to higher concentrations of
dissolved solids. The elevated TDS concentration in Zone D highlights the importance of
understanding site-specific hydrological processes and sources of contamination in the
area. Finally, in Zone E, where TDS levels reach their peak within the range of 57.4 mg/l
to 57.69 mg/l, we observe the highest concentration of dissolved solids in Kattakka Kayal.
This zone likely represents areas with significant inputs of dissolved substances from
multiple sources, including agricultural runoff, industrial discharges, and natural
processes. The high TDS concentration may have implications for water quality, aquatic
habitat suitability, and ecosystem health, underscoring the need for effective management
strategies to address sources of contamination and protect water resources.

Overall, the spatial distribution of TDS in Kattakka Kayal provides valuable information
about the variability of dissolved solids concentration across different zones of the water
body. By analyzing these patterns and understanding the underlying drivers of
hydrochemical processes, stakeholders can implement targeted management actions to
improve water quality, enhance ecosystem resilience, and ensure the sustainable use of
water resources in the area.

Figure 4.4 Spatial distribution of TDS

42
4.2.5 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Low levels of oxygen (hypoxia) or no oxygen levels (anoxia) can occur when excess
organic materials, such as large algal blooms, are decomposed by microorganisms.
During this decomposition process, DO in the water is consumed. Low oxygen levels
often occur in the bottom of the water column and affect organisms that live in the
sediments. As DO levels drop, some sensitive animals may move away, decline in health
or even die. According to IS 10500:2012 the permissible limit is considered as 6.5-8 mg/l.

Figure 4.5 shows the spatial distribution of DO of the study area. The spatial distribution
of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) in Kattakka Kayal, with varying levels across different zones,
provides critical insights into the water quality, ecological health, and environmental
conditions of the area. Dissolved oxygen is essential for the survival of aquatic organisms
and serves as a key indicator of water quality, reflecting the balance between oxygen
production and consumption processes in aquatic ecosystems.

Starting with Zone A, where DO levels range from 4.28 mg/l to 4.33 mg/l, we observe
relatively low concentrations of dissolved oxygen. This suggests potential limitations on
oxygen availability for aquatic organisms, which may impact their metabolic activities,
growth, and survival. Low DO levels in Zone A could be attributed to factors such as
reduced photosynthetic activity, organic matter decomposition, or microbial respiration,
indicating potential stressors on the aquatic ecosystem. Moving to Zone B, where DO
levels increase slightly to between 4.33 mg/l and 4.38 mg/l, we observe a gradual rise in
dissolved oxygen concentration. This may indicate improved oxygenation and mixing of
water within the zone, possibly influenced by factors such as water flow dynamics,
turbulence, or oxygen diffusion from the atmosphere. While the increase in DO is
moderate, it suggests a favorable environment for aquatic organisms compared to Zone
A.

In Zone C, DO levels continue to rise within the range of 4.38 mg/l to 4.43 mg/l. This
zone likely experiences further oxygenation due to increased water movement, aeration,
or biological oxygen production from photosynthesis. The higher DO concentration in
Zone C indicates improved habitat quality and ecosystem resilience, supporting diverse
aquatic communities and ecological functions. Zone D exhibits further increases in DO
levels, ranging from 4.43 mg/l to 4.48 mg/l. This zone may be characterized by enhanced

43
oxygenation processes, such as water mixing, turbulence, or oxygen diffusion from
surrounding vegetation. The elevated DO concentration in Zone D signifies favorable
conditions for aerobic organisms, promoting biological diversity and ecological stability
in the area. Finally, in Zone E, where DO levels reach their peak within the range of 4.48
mg/l to 4.53 mg/l, we observe the highest concentration of dissolved oxygen in Kattakka
Kayal. This zone likely represents areas with optimal oxygenation conditions, such as
well-oxygenated inflows, vegetated habitats, or high rates of oxygen production from
photosynthesis. The high DO concentration in Zone E supports robust aquatic
ecosystems, healthy fisheries, and recreational opportunities, contributing to the overall
ecological integrity of the water body.

Overall, the spatial distribution of DO in Kattakka Kayal provides valuable information

about the variability of oxygen availability across different zones of the water body. By
analyzing these patterns and understanding the underlying factors influencing DO
dynamics, stakeholders can implement targeted management strategies to improve water
quality, enhance habitat suitability, and protect the ecological health of the area.

Figure 4.5 Spatial distribution of DO

44
4.2.6 Turbidity

High concentrations of particulate matter affect light penetration and ecological

productivity, recreational values, and habitat quality, and cause lakes to fill in faster. High
turbidity can promote re-growth of pathogens in the water, leading to waterborne disease
outbreaks, which have caused significant cases of intestinal sickness. According to IS
10500:2012 the permissible limit is considered as 5 NTU.

Figure 4.6 shows the spatial distribution of turbidity of the study area. The spatial
distribution of turbidity in Kattakka Kayal, with varying levels across different zones,
provides valuable insights into water quality, sediment dynamics, and environmental
conditions in the area. Turbidity refers to the cloudiness or haziness of water caused by
suspended particles such as sediment, silt, and organic matter, which scatter and absorb
light.

Starting with Zone A, where turbidity levels range from 1.07 NTU to 1.09 NTU, we
observe relatively low turbidity. This suggests minimal suspended particle concentration,
indicating clearer water with better light penetration and visual clarity. The low turbidity
in Zone A indicates favorable conditions for aquatic life and recreational activities, as
well as potential sediment stabilization and minimal erosion impacts. Moving to Zone B,
where turbidity levels increase slightly to between 1.09 NTU and 1.12 NTU, we observe
a gradual rise in turbidity. This may indicate a slight increase in suspended particle
concentration, possibly due to factors such as sediment resuspension, increased water
flow, or sediment input from surrounding areas. While the increase in turbidity is
moderate, it suggests a slight degradation in water clarity compared to Zone A.

In Zone C, turbidity levels continue to rise within the range of 1.12 NTU to 1.15 NTU.
This zone likely experiences further increases in suspended particle concentration,
possibly influenced by localized factors such as shoreline erosion, agricultural runoff, or
anthropogenic activities. The elevated turbidity in Zone C may impact water quality, light
penetration, and habitat suitability for aquatic organisms, highlighting potential
sedimentation issues and erosion hotspots. Zone D exhibits further increases in turbidity
levels, ranging from 1.15 NTU to 1.18 NTU. This zone may be characterized by higher
sediment loads, increased turbidity, and reduced visual clarity, indicating potential
sources of pollution or sediment input. The higher turbidity in Zone D suggests reduced

45
water quality and ecosystem health compared to upstream zones, emphasizing the need
for targeted sediment management and erosion control measures. Finally, in Zone E,
where turbidity levels reach their peak within the range of 1.18 NTU to 1.21 NTU, we
observe the highest turbidity in Kattakka Kayal. This zone likely represents areas with
significant suspended particle concentration, possibly influenced by localized factors
such as sediment resuspension, dredging activities, or urban runoff. The high turbidity in
Zone E may have implications for water quality, aquatic habitat suitability, and ecosystem
resilience, highlighting the importance of sediment monitoring and management in the
area.

Overall, the spatial distribution of turbidity in Kattakka Kayal provides valuable

information about the variability of suspended particle concentration across different
zones of the water body. By analyzing these patterns and understanding the underlying
factors influencing turbidity dynamics, stakeholders can implement targeted management
strategies to improve water quality, protect aquatic ecosystems, and ensure the sustainable
use of natural resources in the area.

Figure 4.6 Spatial distribution of turbidity

4.2.7 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

BOD is the amount of oxygen required for microbial metabolism of organic compounds
in water. Dissolved oxygen depletion is most likely to become evident during the initial

46
aquatic microbial population explosion in response to a large amount of organic material.
If the microbial population deoxygenates the water, however, that lack of oxygen imposes
a limit on population growth of aerobic aquatic microbial organisms resulting in a longer-
term food surplus and oxygen deficit. According to IS 10500 (2012) the desirable limit
of BOD is 40 mg/l.

Figure 4.7 shows the spatial distribution of BOD of the study area. The spatial distribution
of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) in Kattakka Kayal, with varying levels across
different zones, provides significant insights into organic pollution, water quality, and
ecosystem health. BOD measures the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms to
decompose organic matter in water, indicating the level of organic pollution and the
oxygen demand of the aquatic environment.

Starting with Zone A, where BOD levels range from 135 mg/l to 143 mg/l, we observe
relatively high concentrations of organic pollutants. This suggests significant inputs of
organic matter from sources such as sewage discharge, agricultural runoff, or organic
waste, leading to increased microbial activity and oxygen depletion in the water. Moving
to Zone B, where BOD levels increase to between 143 mg/l and 151 mg/l, we observe a
gradual rise in organic pollution. This may indicate additional inputs of organic
contaminants, possibly from upstream sources or localized pollution sources within the
zone. The increasing BOD levels in Zone B suggest deteriorating water quality and
potential impacts on aquatic life and ecosystem functioning.

In Zone C, BOD levels continue to rise within the range of 151 mg/l to 159 mg/l,
indicating further deterioration of water quality due to high organic pollution. This zone
likely experiences significant oxygen depletion and reduced habitat suitability for aquatic
organisms, highlighting the ecological stressors associated with elevated BOD levels.
Zone D exhibits further increases in BOD levels, ranging from 159 mg/l to 167 mg/l,
indicating severe organic pollution and oxygen demand in the water. This zone may
experience hypoxic or anoxic conditions, leading to adverse impacts on aquatic
biodiversity, water quality, and ecosystem services. Finally, in Zone E, where BOD levels
reach their peak within the range of 167 mg/l to 175 mg/l, we observe the highest organic
pollution levels in Kattakka Kayal. This zone likely represents areas with intense
anthropogenic activities, such as industrial discharge, sewage effluent, or agricultural

47
runoff, contributing to the accumulation of organic contaminants and oxygen depletion
in the water.
The spatial distribution of BOD in Kattakka Kayal provides critical information about the
extent of organic pollution and its implications for water quality and ecosystem health.
By analyzing these patterns and understanding the underlying drivers of BOD dynamics,
stakeholders can implement targeted management strategies to reduce pollution inputs,
improve water quality, and protect the ecological integrity of the water body.

Figure 4.7 Spatial distribution of BOD

4.2.8 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Higher COD levels mean a greater amount of oxidizable organic material in the sample,
which will reduce dissolved oxygen (DO) levels. A reduction in DO can lead to anaerobic
conditions, which is deleterious to higher aquatic life forms. According to IS 10500
(2012) the desirable limit of COD is 120 mg/l.

Figure 4.8 shows the spatial distribution of COD of the study area. The spatial distribution
of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) in Kattakka Kayal, with varying levels across
different zones, provides important insights into water quality, organic pollution, and
environmental health. COD measures the amount of oxygen required to chemically

48
oxidize organic and oxidizable inorganic substances in water, indicating the concentration
of organic pollutants and the oxygen demand of the aquatic ecosystem.

Starting with Zone A, where COD levels range from 430 mg/l to 452 mg/l, we observe
elevated concentrations of organic pollutants. This suggests significant inputs of organic
matter from sources such as industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, or sewage effluent,
leading to increased oxygen demand and potential degradation of water quality. Moving
to Zone B, where COD levels increase to between 452 mg/l and 474 mg/l, we observe a
gradual rise in organic pollution. This may indicate additional inputs of organic
contaminants, possibly from upstream sources or localized pollution sources within the
zone. The increasing COD levels in Zone B suggest deteriorating water quality and
potential impacts on aquatic life and ecosystem functioning.

In Zone C, COD levels continue to rise within the range of 474 mg/l to 496 mg/l,
indicating further deterioration of water quality due to high organic pollution. This zone
likely experiences significant oxygen depletion and reduced habitat suitability for aquatic
organisms, highlighting the ecological stressors associated with elevated COD levels.
Zone D exhibits further increases in COD levels, ranging from 496 mg/l to 518 mg/l,
indicating severe organic pollution and oxygen demand in the water. This zone may
experience hypoxic or anoxic conditions, leading to adverse impacts on aquatic
biodiversity, water quality, and ecosystem services. Finally, in Zone E, where COD levels
reach their peak within the range of 518 mg/l to 540 mg/l, we observe the highest organic
pollution levels in Kattakka Kayal. This zone likely represents areas with intense
anthropogenic activities, such as industrial discharge, sewage effluent, or agricultural
runoff, contributing to the accumulation of organic contaminants and oxygen depletion
in the water.

The spatial distribution of COD in Kattakka Kayal provides critical information about the
extent of organic pollution and its implications for water quality and ecosystem health.
By analyzing these patterns and understanding the underlying drivers of COD dynamics,
stakeholders can implement targeted management strategies to reduce pollution inputs,
improve water quality, and protect the ecological integrity of the water body.

49
 Figure 4.8 Spatial distribution of COD

4.2.9 E. Coli

According to IS 10500 (2012) it shall not be detectable in any 100 ml sample. Test results
shows the presence of E. coli in each samples. The presence of Escherichia coli (E. coli)
bacteria in six stations of Kattakka Kayal indicates potential contamination of the water
body with fecal matter, posing significant risks to human health and environmental
integrity. E. coli is a type of bacteria commonly found in the intestines of warm-blooded
animals, including humans and animals. While most strains of E. coli are harmless, certain
pathogenic strains can cause serious gastrointestinal illnesses if ingested.

Firstly, the presence of E. coli suggests the possible contamination of Kattakka Kayal
with untreated sewage or fecal matter from human or animal sources. This contamination
can occur due to various factors, including improper sewage disposal, agricultural runoff,
or direct animal waste discharge into the water body. Secondly, the presence of E. coli in
multiple stations indicates widespread contamination across different areas of Kattakka
Kayal. This suggests that the water quality issues are not localized but rather systemic,
affecting large sections of the water body. The widespread presence of E. coli underscores
the urgency of addressing the sources of contamination and implementing effective
management strategies to improve water quality. Thirdly, the presence of E. coli in
Kattakka Kayal poses risks to human health, particularly for individuals who come into

50
direct contact with the contaminated water through recreational activities such as
swimming, fishing, or boating. Ingesting or coming into contact with water contaminated
with E. coli can lead to gastrointestinal illnesses, including diarrhea, nausea, vomiting,
and in severe cases, more serious infections. Furthermore, the presence of E. coli can also
have detrimental effects on the aquatic ecosystem of Kattakka Kayal. Elevated levels of
E. coli can indicate high levels of organic pollution and nutrient loading, which can lead
to algal blooms, oxygen depletion, and habitat degradation, adversely affecting aquatic
biodiversity and ecosystem health.

In conclusion, the presence of E. coli in six stations of Kattakka Kayal signifies

widespread contamination, posing risks to human health and environmental integrity.
Addressing the sources of contamination and implementing measures to improve water
quality are essential to safeguarding public health and preserving the ecological balance
of the water body.

4.2.10 Iron

Higher iron content in lake water can cause taste and odor issues, staining of surfaces,
adverse effects on aquatic life and ecosystems, and potential health concerns for humans
and animals consuming the water. According to IS 10500-2012 the desirable limit of iron
is 0.3 mg/l.

Figure 4.9 shows the spatial distribution of iron of the study area. The spatial distribution
of iron in Kattakka Kayal, with varying levels across different zones, provides important
insights into water quality, geochemical processes, and potential environmental impacts.
Iron is a naturally occurring element found in water bodies, and its concentration can vary
due to geological characteristics, land use practices, and anthropogenic activities.

Starting with Zone A, where iron levels range from 0.13 mg/l to 0.17 mg/l, we observe
relatively low concentrations of iron. This suggests minimal inputs of iron from natural
sources such as weathering of rocks and soils, with limited anthropogenic influence. The
low iron levels in Zone A indicate favorable water quality conditions and minimal risk of
iron-related water quality issues. Moving to Zone B, where iron levels increase to between
0.17 mg/l and 0.21 mg/l, we observe a gradual rise in iron concentration. This may
indicate increased inputs of iron from geological formations, sediment erosion, or
anthropogenic sources such as industrial discharges or agricultural runoff. While the

51
increase in iron concentration is moderate, it suggests potential impacts on water quality
and aquatic ecosystems.

In Zone C, iron levels continue to rise within the range of 0.21 mg/l to 0.25 mg/l,
indicating further enrichment of iron in the water. This zone may be characterized by
localized sources of iron contamination, such as mining activities, industrial effluents, or
groundwater discharge from iron-rich aquifers. The elevated iron concentration in Zone
C may have implications for water treatment, aquatic habitat quality, and aesthetic
considerations. Zone D exhibits further increases in iron levels, ranging from 0.25 mg/l
to 0.28 mg/l, indicating significant iron enrichment in the water. This zone may
experience pronounced inputs of iron from natural or anthropogenic sources, leading to
elevated concentrations and potential water quality challenges. The higher iron levels in
Zone D suggest the need for monitoring and management efforts to mitigate adverse
impacts on aquatic ecosystems and human activities. Finally, in Zone E, where iron levels
reach their peak within the range of 0.28 mg/l to 0.32 mg/l, we observe the highest
concentration of iron in Kattakka Kayal. This zone likely represents areas with intense
iron inputs from industrial discharges, mining activities, or natural weathering processes,
leading to elevated iron concentrations and potential water quality issues. The high iron
levels in Zone E underscore the importance of understanding sources of contamination
and implementing measures to protect water quality and environmental health.

Figure 4.9 Spatial distribution of iron

52
The spatial distribution of iron in Kattakka Kayal provides valuable information about
the variability of iron concentration across different zones of the water body. By
analyzing these patterns and understanding the underlying factors influencing iron
dynamics, stakeholders can implement targeted management strategies to address sources
of contamination, improve water quality, and protect the ecological integrity of the water
body.

4.2.11 Microplastics

Higher microplastics content in lake water can cause contamination of aquatic

environments, ingestion by marine life, bioaccumulation in the food chain, potential harm
to human health through consumption of contaminated water or seafood, and negative
impacts on ecosystem health and biodiversity. The Indian Standard IS 10500-2012 for
drinking water quality does not specify a permissible limit for microplastics.

Figure 4.10 shows the spatial distribution of microplastics of the study area, which is
fluctuating between 180-430 mg/l. The spatial distribution of microplastics in Kattakka
Kayal, with varying levels across different zones, provides valuable insights into pollution
sources, environmental degradation, and potential risks to aquatic ecosystems.
Microplastics are tiny plastic particles measuring less than 5 millimeters in size,
originating from various sources such as plastic debris, microbeads, and fibers.

Starting with Zone A, where microplastics levels range from 180 particles per liter to 230
particles per liter, we observe relatively low concentrations of microplastics. This
suggests minimal inputs from nearby sources such as urban areas, recreational activities,
or industrial discharges. The low microplastics levels in Zone A indicate favorable
conditions for water quality and aquatic life compared to other zones. Moving to Zone B,
where microplastics levels increase to between 230 particles per liter and 279.99 particles
per liter, we observe a gradual rise in microplastics concentration. This may indicate
increased inputs from upstream sources, hydrological processes, or atmospheric
deposition. While the increase in microplastics concentration is moderate, it suggests
potential sources of pollution and environmental stressors affecting the water body. In
Zone C, microplastics levels continue to rise within the range of 279.99 particles per liter
to 329.99 particles per liter, indicating further enrichment of microplastics in the water.
This zone may be characterized by localized sources of microplastic contamination, such
as plastic waste accumulation, shoreline erosion, or plastic debris transport from

53
surrounding areas. The elevated microplastics concentration in Zone C highlights the
need for monitoring and management efforts to mitigate environmental impacts and
protect aquatic ecosystems. Zone D exhibits further increases in microplastics levels,
ranging from 329.99 particles per liter to 379.99 particles per liter, indicating significant
microplastic pollution in the water. This zone may experience pronounced inputs from
anthropogenic activities, plastic manufacturing facilities, or inadequate waste
management practices. The higher microplastics levels in Zone D suggest potential risks
to aquatic organisms, wildlife, and human health, underscoring the urgency of addressing
sources of contamination and implementing mitigation measures. Finally, in Zone E,
where microplastics levels reach their peak within the range of 379.99 particles per liter
to 429.99 particles per liter, we observe the highest concentration of microplastics in
Kattakka Kayal. This zone likely represents areas with intense anthropogenic activities,
plastic debris accumulation, or inadequate pollution control measures, leading to elevated
microplastics concentrations and environmental degradation. The high microplastics
levels in Zone E highlight the need for comprehensive management strategies to reduce
plastic pollution, improve water quality, and protect the ecological integrity of the water
body.

Figure 4.10 Spatial distribution of

microplastics

54
The spatial distribution of microplastics in Kattakka Kayal provides critical information
about the extent of plastic pollution and its implications for environmental health. By
analyzing these patterns and understanding the underlying factors influencing
microplastics dynamics, stakeholders can implement targeted management strategies to
address sources of contamination, mitigate environmental impacts.

4.2.12 WQI

The test results show that the WQI at different stations chosen vary between 53.192-
63.323. According to the Water Quality Index (WQI) chart, the water quality of Kattakka
Kayal falls under the C grade classification, indicating poor quality. This classification
suggests that the overall health and suitability of the water body for various uses are
compromised. The C grade designation implies that there are significant levels of
pollutants or contaminants present in the water, which may pose risks to human health,
aquatic life, and ecosystem integrity. As a result, water quality improvement measures
may be necessary to address the identified pollution sources, mitigate environmental
impacts, and restore the health of the water body. The C grade classification serves as a
clear indication that targeted management interventions are required to improve water
quality and promote the sustainable use of this vital resource.

Fig 4.11 shows the spatial distribution of WQI. The spatial distribution of the Water
Quality Index (WQI) in Kattakka Kayal provides crucial insights into the overall health
and suitability of the water body for various uses. WQI is a composite measure that
combines multiple water quality parameters into a single value, offering a simplified
assessment of water quality conditions.

In Kattakka Kayal, the variation in WQI across different zones indicates varying degrees
of water quality degradation and pollution levels. Zones A and B exhibit relatively lower
WQI values, ranging from 53.19 to 57.24, suggesting moderate to poor water quality. This
indicates that these zones may experience contamination from various sources, such as
agricultural runoff, industrial discharge, or urban activities, leading to compromised water
quality. As we move towards Zone C, WQI values increase to between 57.24 and 59.27,
indicating slightly improved water quality compared to Zones A and B. However, despite
the increase, the water quality in Zone C remains classified as poor according to the WQI
chart. This suggests that while there may be some mitigation of pollution sources in this
zone, significant challenges still exist in maintaining acceptable water quality standards.

55
In Zone D, WQI values further increase to between 59.27 and 61.29, indicating a marginal
improvement in water quality compared to the preceding zones. However, similar to Zone
C, the water quality in Zone D is still classified as poor according to the WQI chart. This
suggests ongoing pollution and degradation processes affecting water quality despite
efforts to address pollution sources. Finally, in Zone E, the WQI values reach their highest
levels, ranging from 61.29 to 63.32. While this indicates a relatively better water quality
compared to other zones, the WQI chart still categorizes the water quality in Zone E as
poor. This suggests that while there may be localized improvements, overall water quality
in Kattakka Kayal remains compromised and unsuitable for various uses.

The spatial distribution of WQI in Kattakka Kayal reflects the complex interplay of
natural processes and anthropogenic activities influencing water quality. By
understanding these variations and the corresponding WQI classifications, stakeholders
can prioritize targeted management interventions to improve water quality and promote
the sustainable use of this vital resource.

Figure 4.11 Spatial distribution of WQI

56
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS

Water quality is an important component to understanding the health of water body. Water
quality monitoring has high priority for the determination of current conditions and long-
term trends for effective managements. In conclusion, the comprehensive assessment of
laboratory test results conducted across different zones of Kattakka Kayal provides
valuable insights into the overall water quality conditions and environmental health of the
water body. This study has also demonstrated the utility of GIS combined with laboratory
analysis to assess and mapping of water quality. The spatial distribution of each
parameter, including pH, alkalinity, TSS, TDS, DO, turbidity, BOD, COD, iron, E. coli,
microplastics, and the WQI, reveals varying levels and trends across the zones. Starting
with the physicochemical parameters, pH levels remain within acceptable limits across
all zones, indicating neutral to slightly alkaline conditions conducive to aquatic life.
Alkalinity levels show slight variations, while total suspended solids exhibit increasing
concentrations downstream, indicating potential sedimentation issues. Dissolved oxygen
levels decline gradually from Zone A to Zone E, suggesting increased organic pollution
and oxygen demand downstream. Turbidity levels increase progressively, indicating
higher suspended particle concentrations and reduced water clarity in downstream zones.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) show
significant increases from Zone A to Zone E, indicating elevated organic pollution levels
and deteriorating water quality conditions downstream. Iron levels also rise steadily,
reflecting potential contamination from anthropogenic sources. The presence of E. coli in
multiple stations suggests fecal contamination and risks to human health, while
microplastics indicate pollution from plastic debris, posing threats to aquatic ecosystems.
Each parameter contributes to the WQI, WQI chart categorizes the water quality of
Kattakka Kayal as poor quality (C grade). This classification underscores the urgent need
for targeted management interventions to address pollution sources, improve water
quality, and protect the ecological integrity of the water body. Implementing measures to
reduce organic pollution, control sedimentation, mitigate contamination sources, and
raise public awareness can contribute to the sustainable management and restoration of
Kattakka Kayal.

57
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