TITLE PAGE

EVALUATING THE RATE OF OXYGEN MASS TRANSFER IN A

DIFFUSED BUBBLE SYSTEM USING LOW COST AERATION SYSTEM
BY

OKWUJIAKU AUGUSTINE EMENIKE

REG NO: 2015224063

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B. ENG.) IN
ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY, AWKA

SUPERVISOR: ENGR. Mrs. NWAJUAKU I.

JUNE, 2021

i
 CERTIFICATION PAGE

This is to certify that I Okwujiaku Augustine Emenike with registration number 2015224063
personally carried out this project till completion for the award of Bachelor's degree in
Engineering (B.Eng.), department of Civil Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.

.............................................. ...............................

Okwujiaku Augustine.E. DATE

ii
 APPROVAL PAGE

This is to attest that this project titled "Evaluating the rate of oxygen mass transfer in a diffused
bubble system using low cost aeration system", has been approved in fulfillment for the award
of Bachelor's degree in Engineering (B.Eng.), department of Civil Engineering Nnamdi Azikiwe
University, Awka.

.............................................. ...............................

Engr. Mrs. Nwajuaku. I. DATE

(Project Supervisor)

.............................................. ...............................

Engr. Prof. C. A. Chidolue DATE

(Head of Department)

.............................................. ...............................

(External Supervisor) DATE

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 DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to God almighty for his protection and guidance. Also to my
beloved and caring parent Engr. Mr. Augustine Okwujiaku and late Mrs. MaryRose Okwujiaku,,
and to all men of hard work and truth.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My deep sense of gratitude goes to the Father Almighty, the Great provider, the author and
finisher of my faith, for his grace and mercy towards me to the completion of this project, and to
my entire family for their spiritual, physical, emotional and financial support.

Special thanks go the Head of Department; Engr. Prof. C. A. Chidolue and my supervisor Engr.
Mrs. I. Nwajuaku for wonderful supervision and motherly guidance.

Special thank to all the lecturers and technologist in the department of Civil Engineering as well
as my course mates for their support and assistance during my stay in Nnamdi Azikiwe
University.

My appreciation also goes to Engr.Prof.C.A.Chidolue, my distinguished Head of Department for

being a father to me and my course mates throughout my stay in the university. My wish is to
thank Engr. Mr.Augustine and late Mrs.MaryRose Okwujiaku for their parental love and care,
not also forgetting their financial support wish saw me through the school.

Finally, I am indebted to various authorities and authors whose books have been consulted for
the preparation of this project.

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 ABSTRACT

Oxygen supply to biological wastewater treatment reactors and stripping of trihalomethanes from
drinking water are common examples. In this research, the rate of oxygen mass transfer was
evaluated in a diffused bubble system that was created using a low-cost aeration system. Two
aeration systems were employed in this experiment. One column contains tapwater while the
other contains synthetic wastewater. Each aeration column is outfitted with a diffused bubble
aerator and dissolved oxygen was determined by Winkler method described by Griffiths and
Jackman. Oxygen and temperature was measured at the beginning and end of each run of the
experiment. The result shows that the initial oxygen concentration in the wastewater and tap
water was 5.2mg/l and 8.0mg/l respectively for deoxygenation test while the initial oxygen
concentration in wastewater and tap water is 0mg/l and 0mg/l respectively for oxygenation test.
The saturation concentration of oxygen in tapwater (Cs) and wastewater (Cs) of both tests is
11mg/l and 6.8mg/l respectively and the KLa values obtained were compared for the both tests.
The correction factor ( α ) for oxygenation test was gotten as 0.4366 and correction factor( α) for
that of the deoxygenation test was 1.000. Also, the correction factor (β) gotten was 0.6182 for
both tests. This shows that using a low cost diffused bubble aerator system can be used to supply
oxygen in the aquarium and also in the household wastewater treatment plants effectively.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i

Certification page ii

Approval page iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgement v

Abstract vi

Table of content vii

List of Tables x

List of Figures xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1. Background of Study 1

1.2. Statement of Problem. 2

1.3. Aim of Research. 2

1.4. Objectives of Research. 2

1.5. Scope of the Research. 2

1.6. Limitation of Study. 3

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1. Aeration system 4

2.2. Aeration control. 5

2.3. Aeration types. 6

2.3.1 Cone Hypolimnetic Aerator and it Oxygenation Performance. 7

2.3.2. Diffused Air Aeration System. 8

2.4. Principle of Aeration system. 9

2.5. Chemicals removed or Oxidized during Aeration. 10

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2.6. Waste water Treatment. 13

2.6.1 Aeration tanks used in the biological stages of waste water treatment. 15

2.6.2 Factors affecting fine bubble creation and bubble size for activated sludge. 19

2.6. 3 Previous Studies on Factors affecting fine bubble creation and bubble size
for activated sludge.
20

2.7 Oxygen Mass Transfer 22

2.7.1. Previous Studies on Oxygen Mass Transfer. 22

2.8. Physical Factors Affecting Oxygen Mass Transfer 23

2.8.1. Aerator Type 24

2.8.2. Diffuser Configuration. 25

2.8.3. Diffuser Fouling. 26

2.8.4. Mixing. 28
2.8.5. Surfactants.

2.9. Biological Factors Affecting Oxygen Transfer 31

2.9.1. Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids 32

2.9.2. Solids Retention Time 33

2.9.3. Biological Floc Diameter 33

2.9.4. Extracellular Polymeric Substances 34

2.10. Oxygen Transfer Performance and it Analysis on Subsurface Aeration. 35

2.11. Oxygen mass transfer as a tool in Bioreactor Design. 36

viii
2.11.1. Method of predicting Oxygen Uptake Rate (OUR), Oxygen Transfer Rate (OTR),
and Dissolved Oxygen in Bioreactor using biological reaction Calorimeter. 36

2.12 Technique for Oxygen Transfer Measurement in Bioreactors. 38

2.12.1 Method for Measurement of Oxygen Concentration. 39

2.13 Effect of Different Shapes of Air Diffuser on Oxygen Mass Transfer Coefficient
In Aeration System. 40

2.14. Oxygen Transfer Rate (OTR). 41

2.14.1 Method for Measuring Oxygen Transfer Rate. 41

2.14.2 Method for Predicting Oxygen Mass Transfer Rate in Diffused Bubble 46
Using Discrete-BubbleModel

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHOD 49

3.1. Sample Preparation. 49

3.1.1. Preparation of Synthetic Waste Water. 49

3.2. Material Used For the Construction of the Low-Cost Aeration System. 50

3.3. Reagents Used For the Analysis of the Rate of Oxygen Mass Transfer. 51

3.4. Measurement of Rate Oxygen Mass Transfer. 51

3.5. Construction of the Aeration System. 51

3.6. Dissolved Oxygen. 52

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 53

4.1. Results 53

4.2. Discussions 59

4.3. Cost Estimation of Materials Used For the Study 60

ix
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 61

5.0. Conclusion 61
5.1. Recommendation 61
REFERENCE 62
APPENDIX 76

x
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 4.3: Cost estimation of materials used for study………………………………..60

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.4.1: A horizontal line graphs representing the measured Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations
versus time of tap water and waste water…………………………………………………...53

Fig.4.2: A horizontal line graphs representing the measured Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations
versus time of tap water and waste water…………………………………………………..54

– ∈(Cs−C 1)
Fig. 4.3: A graph of ¿ against time of tap water and waste water……………….56
Cs−Co¿

– ∈(Cs−C 1)
Fig. 4.4: A graph of ¿ against time of tap water and waste water……………….58
Cs−Co¿

xii
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0. INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGRONUD OF STUDY

Thermal stratification of reservoirs may result in substantial oxygen depletion. Low dissolved
oxygen (DO) levels have a negative impact on cold-water fisheries, hydropower discharges, and
the drinking-water treatment process (Daniel et al., 2000). Water pollution is mostly due to the
industrial development, population growth and urban discharge into rivers and lakes of
wastewater, more or less treated. Wastewater is the liquid end product or by-product of an
municipal, domestic or industrial activity. In the modern view, the protection of water quality
means that the industry deals with issues of water resources quality (Jency et al., 2015).
Currently, a determinant key of water quality is wastewater, which is seen as today’s only
practical means of combating water pollution (Rojanschi and Ognean, 1997). In water-supply
reservoirs, low DO may lead to the production of hydrogen sulfide and ammonia and can cause
the release of soluble reduced iron and manganese from the sediments. Iron, manganese, and
hydrogen sulfide impart undesirable color, taste, and odor to the water requiring additional
treatment prior to distribution (Cooke, 1989). The increased oxidant demand at the water
treatment plant increases costs and, if organic matter is present, may increase the concentration
of disinfection by products. Making dissolved oxygen (DO) transfer from gas phase to liquid
phase is energy intensive process in the wastewater treatment plant as well as crucial for the
biological process to operate satisfactorily (Linda, et al., 2013).In the case of hydropower
reservoirs, Regulatory Commission typically requires that releases meet local in-stream water-
quality standards with minimum DO levels of about 5 gm -3 (Mobley, 1997). Energy consumption
from aeration systems is a big part of the total energy cost in a wastewater treatment plant.
Therefore it is interesting to know how effective the aeration system is in comparison to the
energy consumption (Svenskt , 2007).Hypolimnetic aeration has also been proposed by the US
Army Corps of Engineers to replace fish habitat (USACE, 1998), creating an environment
upstream of a hydropower dam that is preferred by coldwater species. It is also used to replenish
DO in reservoirs while preserving stratification. Well-designed hypolimnetic aerators provide
measurable increases in DO levels (Gatchter, 1995), decrease total iron, manganese, and
hydrogen sulfide concentrations (Mc Queen, 1986; Thomas, 1994), and decrease blue green
algae concentrations in some cases (Gemza, 1995; Kortmann, 1994). In other to address some of
the problems associated with substantial oxygen depletion especially during waste water

1
treatment, this study will therefore, evaluate the rate of oxygen mass transfer in a diffused bubble
system using low cost aeration system.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

In today’s evolving world, there has been an increased demand for energy efficiency and cost
reduction. Water pollution control has been the problem of many individuals and groups due to
obvious detriment to the environment that it poses. Thermal stratification of reservoirs may result
in substantial oxygen depletion. Low dissolved oxygen (DO) levels have a negative impact on
cold-water fisheries, hydropower discharges, and the drinking-water treatment process. In water-
supply reservoirs, low DO may lead to the production of hydrogen sulfide and ammonia and can
cause the release of soluble reduced iron and manganese from the sediments. Iron, manganese,
and hydrogen sulfide impart undesirable color, taste, and odor to the water requiring additional
treatment prior to distribution (Cooke, 1989). This study will therefore focus essentially on the
assessment of the rate of oxygen mass transfer in diffused bubble adopting a low cost aeration
system.

1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The aim of the research is to evaluate the rate of oxygen mass transfer in a diffused bubble
system using low cost aeration system. While the objectives include:

1 To fabricate a low cost aeration system.

2 To estimate the saturation concentration of oxygen in waste water
3 To obtain the mass transfer of oxygen from the aerated water.

1.5. SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH

This research focused essentially on the determination of the rate of oxygen mass transfer in a
diffused bubble system using low cost aeration system. Two aeration systems will be employed
in this experiment. One system contains tap water while the other contains synthetic waste water,
oxygen will initially be stripped out of solution by boiling in a reduced pressure. Once the
dissolved oxygen has been virtually eliminated from the water, the gas supply will be converted
to air and oxygen will be transferred into the water samples. Also, the mass transfer coefficient
of oxygen will be determined from the initial and final concentration of the aerated water.

2
1.6. Limitation of study

This research can however be limited as a result of the following factors and this includes:

1. Financial constraint: Lack of adequate fund has hampered the researcher ability from
carrying out some of the laboratory test outside the academic environment. This
development is as a result of non-functional equipment present in the school laboratory.
2. Suitable laboratory: Lack of well equipped laboratory within the academic
environment might hamper the research ability to conduct some of laboratory test
outside the academic environment due to it relatively high cost.
3. Time constraint: This research will be conducted simultaneously with academic work
and these have consequently reduced the time allocated for the research work.

CHAPTER TWO

3
1.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 AERATION SYSTEM

Aeration is important for providing sufficient dissolved oxygen (DO) for aerobic organisms
performing biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) removal and nitrification in activated sludge
plants, as well as keeping the biomass in suspension (Linda, et al., 2013). Aeration is a step in
wastewater treatment where air is added to wastewater for enhancing biological growth. The
purpose of aeration is to dissolve oxygen into wastewater so that the microorganisms can utilize
it while they breakdown organic materials (Ammar, et al., 2018). In wastewater treatment, an
aeration process introduces air into a liquid, providing an aerobic environment for microbial
degradation of organic matter. The purpose of aeration is to supply the required oxygen to the
metabolizing microorganisms and to provide mixing so that the microorganisms come into
intimate contact with the dissolved and suspended organic matter (Ammar, et al., 2018). It is one
of the basic stages in wastewater purification. It brings water and air in close contact by exposing
drops or thin sheets of water to the air or by introducing small bubbles of air (the smaller the
bubble, the better) and letting them rise through the water. The scrubbing process caused by the
turbulence of aeration physically removes dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide from solution
and allows them to escape into the surrounding air (Linda, et al., 2013).Iron, manganese, and
hydrogen sulfide impart undesirable color, taste, and odor to the water requiring additional
treatment prior to distribution (Cookeet, 1989). The increased oxidant demand at the water
treatment plant increases costs and, if organic matter is present, may increase the concentration
of disinfection by products. Oxygen serves as an electron acceptor when organic carbon and
nitrogen in the form of ammonium are oxidized. Blowers (not considering influent pumping) are
the largest single user of energy at treatment plants today, motivating appropriate aeration
control. Aeration energy is commonly responsible for around half of the plant power usage
(WEF, 2009) but numbers up to 75% have been reported (Rosso, et al., 2008). Aeration is based
on bio-scrubbers wastewater treatment and control, the performance and operating economy of
the entire wastewater treatment plant. Cost analysis for wastewater treatment stations repeatedly
show that the aeration is from 50% to 70% of the general budget of the station officials. Without
the right aeration technology and a properly designed aeration system, cleansing, guaranteed
performance and operating costs cannot be obtained (Steven, 2012).

2.2 AERATION CONTROL

4
Aeration energy is commonly responsible for around half of the plant power usage (WEF,2009)
but numbers up to 75% have been reported (Rosso, et al., 2008). Control of aeration systems
becomes even more important when treatment plants face more stringent discharge limits and
when energy efficiency is high up on the agenda. Earlier published material on the topic includes
the annual literature reviews published by Water Environment Research (Sweeney and Kabouris,
2011), and text books like Olsson & Newell (1999) and Olsson et al. (2005)where different
aspects of ICA (instrumentation, control and automation) within the wastewater and water
industries are presented. Weijers (2000) has documented a detailed list of control laws for
wastewater treatment control up to then, including aeration control. Another overview of
different control systems is found in Vanrolleghem (2001). Jeppsson et al. (2002) provide an
overview of ICA from a European perspective and conclude that PI (proportional–integral)
control or variations thereof were the most common strategies in full-scale at the turn of the last
century. During the control process, the nitrification capacity can be varied in relation to
dissolved oxygen (DO) control in two ways: by adjusting the aeration intensity or by adjusting
the aerated volume. Apart from DO concentration, several other factors have been reported to
affect nitrification rates including inorganic substrates, solids retention time (SRT), temperature,
pH and toxic inhibition. Other control handles which also will affect the nitrogen removal, and
hence might have an impact on the DO control loops, are return and waste activated sludge flows
and nitrate recycle or external carbon dosage for plants with denitrification.
The nitrifier growth rate depends on the DO concentration and is commonly described by
Monod kinetics (Monod, 1942). The growth rate function will increase significantly with the DO
at low DO concentrations but the dependence of DO becomes limited at high DO concentrations
when approaching the maximum growth rate. Already in 1965, scientists at the Stevenage site in
the UK reported that DO concentrations had very limited effects on nitrifier growth rates above
2.0 mg/l, but there is a wide range of reported effects of DO on maximum nitrifier growth rates
(Stenstrom andPoduska1980). A half-saturation concentration of 0.5–2.0 DOmg/l is reported
(Henze et al. 2000). The DO concentration should not be viewed on its own without considering
temperature and aerobic SRT. At lower SRT and temperature, higher DO concentrations might
be required to balance a loss in nitrification rate. For processes with denitrification, elevated
levels of DO can hamper denitrification performance if DO-rich water is re-circulated to the
anoxic zones. Low DO concentrations have been associated with high emissions of nitrous oxide
(N2O) (Kampschreur et al., 2009). Some groups of filamentous micro organisms can compete
with floc-forming organisms during low DO concentrations (<1.5 mg/l), which could affect

5
sludge settleability (Martins et al., 2004). This may set a lower bound on the acceptable DO level
in an aeration basin.

2.3 AERATION TYPES

In developing countries, the high costs of construction, operation, and maintenance of high-rate
energy-intensive wastewater treatment technologies represent a major challenge for the
governments of these countries to install such systems in small communities. This has created
considerable pressure to the government in these countries to find an alternative low cost
treatment solution (Claude Boyd -1998) and (Matter-Müller et al. -1981). Three methods are
commonly used for aeration; gravity aeration (natural aeration), mechanical aeration and diffused
air aeration. If site constraints and hydraulic conditions permit gravity flow, the least costly
method to raise dissolved oxygen levels is with the use of gravity aeration (Sanjib et al. - 2010;
Tchobanoglous, et al. 2003).
In the gravity aeration of wastewater, the aeration process brings wastewater and air into close
contact by exposing drops or thin sheets of wastewater to the air. Oxygen diffuses from the air
into the wastewater and helps to increase the DO content of the wastewater (Sanjib et al., 2010).
The efficiency of the natural aeration process depends almost entirely on the amount of surface
contact between the air and wastewater (Mrwa - 2010). This contact is controlled primarily by
the size of the wastewater drop or air bubble. In addition; the efficiency of the natural aeration
process depends on the geometry shape of natural aeration type, material properties and flow
conditions (Sanjib et al., 2010). Many types of natural aeration have been used such as Cascade
Aerators, Cone Aerators, Slat and Coke Aerators, Draft Aerators, and Spray Aerators (Mrwa
2010), (Twort, 2000).
Types of Aerators includes,
Cascade Aerators: A cascade aerator (one of the oldest and most common aerators) consists of
a series of steps that the water flows over (similar to a flowing stream). In all cascade aerators,
aeration is accomplished in the splash zones. Splash zones are created by placing blocks across
the incline. (They are the oldest and most common type of aerators.) Cascade aerators can be
used to oxidize iron ), (Twort, 2000).and to partially reduce dissolved gases.

Cone Aerators: Cone aerators are used primarily to oxidize iron and manganese from the
ferrous state to the ferric state prior to filtration. The design of the aerator is similar to the
cascade type, with the water being pumped to the top of the cones and then being allowed to
cascade down through the aerator.

6
Slat and Coke Aerators: Slat and coke trays are similar to the cascade and cone aerators. They
usually consist of three-to-five stacked trays, which have spaced wooden slats in them. The trays
are then filled with fistsized pieces of coke, rock, ceramic balls, limestone, or other materials.
The primary purpose of the materials is providing additional surface contact area between the air
and water.

Draft Aerators: Draft aerators are similar to other water-into-air aerators, except that the air is
induced by a blower. There are two basic type of draft aerators. One has external blowers
mounted at the bottom of the tower to induce air from the bottom of the tower. Water is pumped
to the top and allowed to cascade down through the rising air. The other, an induced-draft
aerator, has a top-mounted blower forcing air from bottom vents up through the unit to the top.
Both types are effective in oxidizing iron and manganese before filtration.

7
Spray Aerators: Spray aerators have one or more spray nozzles connected to a pipe manifold.
Water moves through the pipe under pressure, and leaves each nozzle in a fine spray and falls
through the surrounding air, creating a fountain affect. Spray aeration is successful in oxidizing
iron and manganese and increases the dissolved oxygen in the water.

Pressure Aerators: There are two basic types of pressure aerators. One uses a pressure vessel;
where water to be treated is sprayed into high-pressure air, allowing the water to quickly pick up
dissolved oxygen. The other is a pressure aerator commonly used in pressure filtration Air is
injected into the raw water piping and allowed to stream into the water as a fine bubble, causing
the iron to be readily oxidized. The higher the pressure, the more readily the transfer of the
oxygen to the water. The more oxygen that is available, the more readily the oxidation of the iron
or manganese.

8
Centrifugal Aerators Centrifugal aerators create enhanced conditions for dissolving gas into
liquid phase, including bubble size, and bubble size distribution and duration of interaction with
liquid. Centrifugal aerators combine several elements: 1. High turbulence swirling flow of liquid;
2. Orthogonal flow of liquid and gas; 3. Constant pressure inside the vessel; 4. Optimum flow
velocity generating centrifugal forces thereby extending diffusion rate within the vessel; and 5.
Very small pores, through which gas permeates into the liquid and is sheered off into liquid
phase, thereby forming small bubbles.

The naturally aerated biological filter is one of the most low energy consumption techniques for
the aerobic treatment of wastewater. In diffused air aeration method compressed air is blown
through the sewage and air is diffused in sewage by diffuser.  Diffusers are of two types: Plate
diffuser and Tube diffuser. The plate diffusers are rectangular/square plates made of crystalline
alumina or high silica sand. In this method the compressed air is blown through a perforated
plate diffuser. The air comes out through the holes of the diffuser plate and rises upward in the
form of bubbles. Thus, the sewage absorbs oxygen from the air. While the tube diffuser consists
of a perforated tube suspended in the waste water near the bottom and can be taken out while
cleaning. The compressed air is dent through the tube. The air comes out through the holes with
great force and agitates the sewage. Diffused aeration systems are not only receiving increased
theoretical attention but are also gaining a larger share of today's aeration market (EPA, 1989).

9
This mode of aeration is selected for a variety of reasons including land availability, operation at
high power levels with minimal surface spray and mist, and the ability to achieve high uptake
rates with a large degree of process flexibility (WEF, 1996). These influences combined with the
magnitude of the aeration market have provided the force for the development of numerous types
of models, which used for the evaluation of these systems (EPA, 1989). In the mechanical
aeration method, the surface of sewage is agitated violently with the help of some mechanical
equipment to encourage absorption of oxygen from atmosphere. There are two well-known
forms of mechanical aerator.  Vertical surface aerator and Horizontal surface aerator. This
aerators consist of electrically driven propellers (vanes) mounted in either a floating or fixed
support. They throw the bulk liquid (sewage) through air and oxygen transfer occurs both at the
surface of the droplets and at the surface of the bulk liquid and is then mixed by the currents
produced by agitation. In this method the performance is seriously affected by ice formation in
winter.
Cone Hypolimnetic Aerator and it Oxygenation Performance.
Hypolimnetic aeration is an important water quality improvement technique because of its ability
to selectively oxygenate the hypolimnion of stratified lakes and reservoirs, while maintaining
thermal stratification. This capability is desirable in eutrophic lakes and reservoirs as the
presence of a cold, aerobic hypolimnion significantly improves (i) water quality for domestic and
industrial applications and (ii) the management of freshwater fisheries. Hypolimnetic aeration
systems can be grouped into seven general categories: (i) mechanical agitation systems, (ii) full-
lift designs using compressed air or oxygen (or both), (iii) partial-lift designs using compressed
air or oxygen (or both), (iv) downflow air injection (DAI), (v) deep oxygen bubble injection
(DOBI) using oxygen, (vi) side stream injection (SSI) systems using oxygen, and (vii)
Down flow bubble contact aeration (DBCA) or ‘‘Speece Cone’’ aerators using oxygen
(Lorenzen and Fast 1977). The DOBI, SSI, and DBCA designs utilize oxygen only due to
concerns about nitrogen gas super saturation and low oxygen transfer performance if operated on
air. Hypolimnetic aeration systems, by definition, are deployed in lakes and reservoirs that are
thermally stratified, but are usually greater than 15–20 m in depth, to ensure sufficient depth is
available to physically contain the works and provide adequate hydrostatic pressure; this is
especially important when operating on air only, to achieve acceptable oxygen transfer rates.
Hypolimnetic aeration systems are rarely installed in water bodies shallower than 10 m, and
virtually never installed in depths less than 9 m, even if these water bodies have a definable,
albeit occasionally transient, hypolimnion. Consequently, no in situ engineering solutions have

10
been available to oxygenate the hypolimnia of eutrophic lakes and reservoirs at the shallow end
of the depth – thermal stratification spectrum. A variety of lake restoration techniques and
watershed nutrient reduction strategies are available to eventually improve water quality in
eutrophic ecosystems (Dunst et al. 1974; Cook et al. 2005); however, none of these are capable
of providing rapid oxygenationof anoxic hypolimnia. Recently, the Speece Cone design has
generated considerable interest, because of its ability to discharge oxygenated water with
unusually high concentrations of dissolved oxygen (i.e., > 30 mg/L), even when operating at
depths traditionally considered too shallow (i.e., <10 m) for conventional hypolimnetic aerator
designs. The Speece Cone design was originally proposed in 1971, as a down flow bubble
contact aerator (DBCA) with an open cone (Speece, 1971), but was never field tested. The
concept was redesigned with a closed cone and subsequently field tested in 1990, for the
Alabama Power Company, at the outlet of the Logan Martin Dam, Alabama.
The first Speece Cone designed for in situ lake water quality improvement was tested in 1992
in Newman Lake, Washington (Doke, et al. 1995). An innovative design of a hypolimnetic
aerator was necessary as Newman Lake is large (490 ha), but quite shallow, with a maximum
depth of 9.1 m and a mean depth of only 5.8 m. As such, it was too shallow for conventional full-
lift, partial-lift, DAI, mechanical or DOBI hypolimnetic aerator designs, and the high energy
discharge jet from a SSI system may have destratified the lake. The Speece Cone installed in
Newman Lake was 2.8 m in diameter, 5.5 m high, with a 45 kW submerged axial flow pump for
water circulation. Two, 37 kW compressors supplied compressed air to two pressure swing
adsorption (PSA), on-site, oxygen generation units. The system was designed to distribute 1360
kg_d–1 of oxygen to the hypolimnion via an extended diffuser, to avoid sediment disturbance
and unintentional de -stratification [G. Lawrence, Civil Engineering Dept., The University of
British Columbia (UBC), Vancouver, B.C., personal communication, 1991]. The system has
performed exceptionally well to date, with oxygen concentrations >30 mg/L routinely measured
in the outlet ports, despite being located in only 8.7 m of water. The system also increased
average summer hypolimnetic oxygen concentrations to 5.5 mg/L in 1992; however, thermal
stratification was less stable, due to occasional severe storm events (Thomas, et al. 1994).

2.3.1 Diffused Air Aeration System.

Diffused-air system aerators use a low pressure, high volume air blower to provide air to
diffusers positioned on the pond bottom or suspended in the water. A variety of types of diffusers
have been used, including ceramic dome diffusers, porous ceramic tubing, porous paper tubing,

11
perforated rubber tubing, perforated plastic pipe, packed columns. Most diffused-air aerators
release a large volume of air at low pressure. The minimum permissible system pressure
becomes greater with increasing depth of water above diffusers, because enough pressure must
be available to force air through the piping system and cause the air to exit from the diffuser
against the hydrostatic pressure at the discharge point. Diffused-air systems that release fine
bubbles usually are more efficient than those that discharge coarse bubbles. This is because fine
bubbles present a greater surface area to the surrounding water than larger bubbles. Oxygen
diffuses into water at the surface, so a large surface area facilitates great oxygen absorption.
Diffused-air systems also are more efficient in deep ponds than in shallow ponds. Diffuse
aeration devices are usually classified as either fine or coarse bubble referring to the relative
diameter of the bubble produced. Oxygen can be supplied by means of air or pure oxygen
bubbles introduced to the water to create additional gas-water interfaces. Submerged bubbles
aeration is most frequently accomplished by dispersing air bubbles in the liquid. The diffused or
bubble aeration process consists of contacting gas bubbles with water for the purpose of
transferring gas to the water. The most commonly used diffuser system consists of a matrix of
perforated tubes or membranes or porous plates arranged near the bottom of the pond to provide
maximum gas to water contact (Marcos, et al., 1998).
2.4 Principle of Aeration System

The air contains 20.95% oxygen. At standard barometric pressure (760 mmHg), the pressure or
‘tension’ of oxygen in air is 159 mmHg. The pressure of oxygen in air drives oxygen into water
until the pressure of oxygen in water is equal to the pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere. When
pressures of oxygen in water and atmosphere are equal, net movement of
oxygen molecules from atmosphere to water ceases. The water is said to be at equilibrium, or at
saturation, with dissolved oxygen (DO) when the oxygen pressure in the water equals the
pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere. The DO concentration in water at saturation varies with
temperature, salinity, and barometric pressure. As water temperature increases, DO concentration
at saturation decreases. At a given temperature, the DO concentration at saturation increases in
proportion to increasing barometric pressure. The concentration of DO at saturation decreases
with increasing salinity. Water also may contain less DO than expected at saturation. At night,
respiration by fish, plants, and other pond organisms causes DO concentrations to decline. Thus,
during warm months, night-time DO concentrations in ponds often are below saturation. In
production ponds, DO may decrease by 5–10 mg/L at night, and in un-aerated ponds, DO
concentrations at sunrise may be less than 2 mg/L (Claude , 1998).

12
2.5 Chemicals Removed or Oxidized during Aeration.
Chemical constituents commonly affected by oxygen mass transfer during aeration include:
1 Iron and Manganese
2 Carbon dioxide
3 Hydrogen sulfide
4 Methane

1. Iron and Magnesium

Iron and manganese is minerals that naturally exist in the Earth’s crust, where iron is the metal
most widely discovered and usually coexist with manganese. The existing iron and mineral in
drinking water are not health threatening but this is a problem when bacteria occur in soil,
aquifers and some surface waters (Rathinakumar, et al., 2014). According to Rein Munter et al.
(2005), iron behaviour depends on organic types and concentration whereas organic substances
(or silica) in water may interfere with the iron removed process, forming the stable complexes
with iron, Fe(II) and Fe(III). The concentration of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) in well water
can be seasonally and vary with the depth and location of the well and the geology of an area
where the iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) naturally occur in groundwater that has little or no
oxygen. The bacteria feed on iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) in water, and then these bacteria
will form red-brown for iron or black-brown for manganese, this reaction often detected in toilet
tanks, pipe systems and clog water system. The presence of iron and manganese in domestic
drinking water delivery has become a serious problem because it changes the taste, color and
odor to the water. To solve this problem a better technology has to find, make the water quality
that used to have a standard quality. The technologies that used should be suitable with the raw
water source conditions, social, and economic, to make this water treatment work properly. The
removal of iron and manganese from groundwater were accomplished by oxidation, precipitation
and sand filtration for separation the oxidation metal (Ellis, et al., 2000). Iron (Fe) and
manganese (Mn) usually not affect the health but can cause offensive taste, appearance and
straining. Testing the water treatment is a method to clean public water channels and private
water supplies. Iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) is a metal that exists in the earth's crust.
Sometimes, iron in pipes could cause the appearance of iron in water supply (Bruce, et al.,
2014), in deep wells, where oxygen content is low, the iron/manganese bearing water is clean

13
and colorless. This means if the iron and manganese is not exposed to air then changes of taste,
appearance and straining won't happen.
When the iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) expose to oxygen, discoloration will occur, the iron
is oxidized into red brown while manganese will change to brownish-black. This can be seen
when there is a reddish brown color on laundry, porcelain, dishes, glassware and utensils. There
are two tests conducted by researcher to test public water supplies and private water supplies
(Bruce, et al., 2014) . Testing of public water supplies follows the U.S Environment Protection
Agency (EPA) fall into two categories: Secondary Standards and Primary Standards. Secondary
Standards are based aesthetic factors such as taste, color, appearance, straining and others.
Primary Standards are based on health considerations and designed to protect human health. For
testing the private water supplies, they needs to do their own tests at laboratory or checked with
EPA methods.
There are many ways of removing the iron and manganese from the domestic water system.
In aeration system, there are a few ways that will be used to remove iron and manganese such as
the biological aerated filter, chemical reaction, stepped spillway and cascade aeration. These
systems are usually used in the real work in order to remove iron and manganese in water
surface, groundwater and wastewater treatment. The use of bio-filtration has been studied by
(Burger et al., 2008), where the difference between a small columns that has been injected with
indigenous bio-films from Manganese (Mn) filtration plant and filtration columns that has been
injected with a liquid suspension of Leptothrixdiscophora SP-6 was studied from the previous
experiments, showed that the removal manganese can be used a larger pH range than the
previous researcher studied. In this paper the presenting about dissolved oxygen (DO), the
aeration and the system that will be use in removing iron and manganese. Removal of iron (Fe)
and manganese (Mn) from the lake using chlorine dosage has been investigated using
ultrafiltration (UF) systems, in this system chlorine were added to remove iron (Fe) and
manganese (Mn) from drinking water (Choo, 2005).

2. Carbon dioxide

Surface waters have low carbon dioxide content, generally in the range of 0 to 2 mg/l. Water
from a deep lake or reservoir can have high carbon dioxide content due to the respiration of
microscopic animals and lack of abundant plant growth at the lake bottom. Concentration of
carbon dioxide varies widely in groundwater, but the levels are usually higher than in surface
water. Water from a deep well normally contains less than 50 mg/l, but a shallow well can have a

14
much higher level, up to 50 to 300 mg/l. Excessive amounts of carbon dioxide (above 5-15
mg/L) in raw water can cause three operating problems:
 Increases the acidity of the water, making it corrosive. Carbon dioxide forms a “weak”
acid, H2C03 (carbonic acid).
 Tends to keep iron in solution, thus making iron removal more difficult.
 Reacts with lime added to soften water, causing an increase in the amount of lime needed
for the softening reaction.
Most aerators can remove carbon dioxide by the physical scrubbing or sweeping action
caused by turbulence. At normal water temperatures, aeration can reduce the carbon
dioxide content of the water to as little as 4.5 mg/l.

3. HydogenSulphide
Hydrogen sulfide can present dangerous problems in water treatment. Brief exposures (less
than 30 minutes) to hydrogen sulfide can be fatal if the gas is breathed in concentrations as
low as 0.03 percent by volume in the air. The Immediate Dangerous to Life and Health level
for hydrogen sulfide is 300 ppm. Hydrogen sulfide occurs mainly in groundwater supplies,
and may be caused by the action of iron or sulphur reducing bacteria in the well. The rotten-
egg odor often noticed in well waters is caused by hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide in a
water supply will disagreeably alter the taste of coffee, tea, and ice. Occasional disinfection
of the well can reduce the bacteria producing the hydrogen sulfide.
Serious operational problems occur when the water contains even small amounts of hydrogen
sulfide:
 Disinfection of the water can become less effective because of chlorine demand exerted
by the hydrogen sulfide.
 Corrosion to piping systems and the water tanks, water heaters, and copper alloys.
Aeration is the most common choice for removal of hydrogen sulfide from water. Hydrogen
sulfide has a low boiling point and vaporizes easily. The turbulence from the aerator will
easily displace the gas from the water; however the designer of the system needs to consider
how the gas is discharged from the aerator. If the gas accumulates directly above the water,
the process will be slowed and corrosive conditions can be created.

15
 4. Methane
Methane is a colorless gas that is highly flammable and explosive and can be found in
groundwater. It may be formed by the decomposition of organic matter. It can be found in
water from aquifers that are near natural-gas deposits. Methane tends to make the water taste
like garlic. The gas is only slightly soluble in water, has a low boiling point, vaporizes easily,
and therefore is easily removed by the aeration of the water.

2.6 Waste Water Treatment.

In waste water treatment, for certain specific treatments, the transfer processes of gaseous
components in/off water are important (introduction of atmospheric oxygen in the water,
removing carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide from the water, introduction of chlorine or
ozone in the water). Among these, the most representative treatment and widely used in practice
is the introduction of gaseous oxygen in the effluent, in order to remove organic impurities
under the action of a biomass of aerobic bacteria, for chemical oxidation of hardly biodegradable
or mineral compounds, or to eliminate gaseous compounds for improving water taste (Radu, and
panaitescu, 2012). The oxygen comes most often from the atmosphere, and in this case the
process is called water aeration. Wastewater aeration process is performed by secondary sewage
treatment plants, also called biological treatment. Usually, the wastewater doesn’t contain
gaseous oxygen due to the organic pollution load. Dissolved oxygen is naturally found only in
clean natural waters (i.e., unpolluted) (Safta, et al., 2012). The process of water aeration is
quantified by the oxygenation capacity. There are two methods for determining the oxygenation
capacity of a system: unsteady state method and steady state method. The steady state method is
based on the implementation of a biological process in an aeration tank (bioreactor) which
contains activated sludge, in which all state parameters of the process remain constant and a
certain amount of oxygen is introduced continuously to maintain a constant level of dissolved
oxygen (between 1-2 mg/l). This method is more accurate and more difficult to apply in practice.
The unsteady state method is much simpler to perform, and it is equally accurate and reliable.
The principle of this method is the following: a gas forming part of an atmosphere in contact
with a liquid in which it is soluble, will pass into a solution up to the point at which gas
concentration in the liquid is in equilibrium with the concentration of the gas in the atmosphere.
The equilibrium point is determined by the coefficient of absorption Ks (Eq. 1), which is the
value of gas concentration in the liquid when the atmosphere is composed entirely of the of the
considered gas:

16
 InDt 1−InDt 2 2.303(logDt 1−logDt 2)
Ks = = (1)
t 2−t 1 t 2−t 1

Where :Ks – coefficient of absorption, which in this type of experiments, is conveniently

expressed in [h-1]; Dt1, Dt2 [mg/l] – two selected readings of oxygen deficit concentration in
fluid; t1, t2 [h] – corresponding values of time to achieve adequate oxygen deficits Dt1, Dt2
(Safta, et al., 2012).
The oxygenation capacity R of a system is defined as the rate of absorption of oxygen during the
aeration process of completely de-oxygenated water. The oxygenation capacity is determined by
the following relation:
R = Ks. F. Cs(10).V (2)
where: R [g/h] - water oxygenation capacity; Ks [h-1] - coefficient of absorption; F –
temperature
correction factor; Cs(10) [mg/l] - oxygen saturation concentration at 10ºC; V [l] – the volume of
liquid in the system (Safta, et al., 2012). Figure 1 shows how the variation of oxygen available in
the aeration basin depends on the degree of water purification. Perfect knowledge of the
processes and factors influencing the aeration process, as well as that of their best correlations,
leads to biological treatment with maximum efficiency and to neutralizing the organic
substances.
Figure 2.0: indicates the electricity requirements for primary production in an activated sludge
plant. Aeration is based bioscrubbers wastewater treatment and controls the performance and
operating economy of the entire wastewater treatment plant. Cost analysis for wastewater
treatment stations repeatedly show that the aeration is from 50% to 70% of the general budget
of the station officials. Without the right aeration technology and a properly designed aeration
system cannot be obtained cleansing guaranteed performance and operating costs (Steven, 2012).

17
Figure 2.0: The way of change of the oxygen required for aeration in the tank depending on the
degree of purification of water (Steven, 2012).
Plate 2.1: presents the technological process of the biological stage of a wastewater treatment
plant. After settling, the wastewater falls into a pool - aeration basin - where is put into contact
with sludge flocs, infused with oxygen and nutrients, for biochemical processes of degradation of
organic substances. Next, newly synthesized cellular material must be separated in the secondary
clarifier. Part of the sludge is recycled, and the other part is removed as excess sludge from the
settling sludge in the household.

Plate 2.1 Plate 2.2

Plate 2.1: The level of energy used in a typical station for wastewater treatment (Steven, 2012).
While Plate 2.2: is the Schematic diagram of a biological treatment plant.
Aerators are typically used for wastewater applications like sewage and effluent treatment.
Typical applications for floating aerators include oxygenation of harbours, rivers, canals,
lakes and reservoirs, but they can be equally used well for sewage and effluent treatment in
balancing tanks, in concrete aeration channels or in low cost lagoon type aeration systems.

18
2.6.1 Aeration Tanks used in Biological Stages of Waste water Treatment Plants.
If activated sludge wastewater treatment has an important role, aeration tanks form and
maintain the activated sludge. Aeration tanks are building whose plane shape maybe radial,
rectangular or square. In terms of construction, an aeration tank has the form of a rectangular
concrete pool, where biological treatment takes place in the presence of a mixture of activated
sludge and wastewater. To ensure continuous contact of the two components of the mixture,
constant stirring is required to ensure their breathalyser constantly the oxygen needed by aerobic
colony existing in the activated sludge in the form of flakes (Figure 4). Besides stirring and
aerating, the mixture in the tank aims to maintain a quasi-constant concentration of activated
sludge as a result recirculating a part of sludge settled in the secondary clarifier (Rao and
Bimlesh, 2012).Generally, the equipment operates in the water and under the influence of
atmospheric oxygen. For this reason, corrosion-resistant materials are preferred, such as stainless
steel, cast iron, bronze and other non-ferrous materials like ceramics, plastics etc.

Plate 2.3: Schematic diagram of a surface aeration tank (Rao and Bimlesh, 2012).
The biological process requires oxygen taken from the atmosphere, which is introduced in
reaction basin through three categories:
a) pneumatic methods - the atmospheric air is compressed and introduced by means of the
reaction tank equipment in the form of: fine bubbles, medium bubbles and large bubbles.
b) mechanical methods - when are put in contact with activated sludge basin content and
ambient air through an intense mechanical mixing.
c) mixed methods - which use both air insufflation devices and mechanical agitators.
Generally, the functioning scheme of the pneumatic equipment for wastewater oxygenation
comprises four distinct phases: the air supply; purifying the feed air; the distribution of the
purified air; dispersing air into the water table. If the pneumatic aeration tank requires it, oxygen
is introduced with the air. Thus , compressed air is introduced through a series of underwater
pipes provided with nozzles or porous plates. Aeration tanks are characterized by the

19
introduction of air bubbles into the water. Depending on their size, the bubbles can be: fine
bubbles (with diameter between 1-1.5 mm) (Figure 5); medium bubbles (diameter 1.5-3 mm);
large bubbles (diameter over 3 mm) (Figure 6). Fine bubbles are obtained by porous diffusers or
air distribution through membranes with very fine holes. Medium bubbles resulting from the air
distribution tubes provided with orifices whose diameter is between 1-5 mm and is spaced less
than 5 mm from each other. Large bubbles are the result of air distribution through pipes or
plates drilled with holes opening over 5 m.

Plate 2.4: Fine bubble aeration System (http://www.intelliwater.ro).

Plate 2.5: Large bubble aeration system (http://www.intelliwater.ro).

20
If mechanical adhesion achieves strong water agitation in the tank, it produces intense mixing
between water, mud and air. Considering the way in which the air suction is made, mechanical
aeration systems are the following:
aspirated mechanical aerators;
mechanical rotor aerators;
mechanical aerators with blades or brushes.
Mechanical aeration tanks with aspiration are rarely used. These aerators are actually vertical
tubes through which the air is sucked with water through pipes, known as the „Venturi”
effect and water + air mixture is pushed to the bottom.

Plate 2.6: Mechanical aerator surface (http://www. Sistemedaerare.ro)

In the case of mixed aeration methods (Figure 8), the two schemes mentioned above are used
which achieves the dispersion of air into the water table (pneumatic) and forcing convection by
mechanical system (system recommended in waters heavily organic loaded).

21
Plate 2.7: Mixed aeration tank (http:// www.isu, indstate.edu)
Regardless the aeration system, there must be taken into consideration the amount of air
circulated and how the transfer of oxygen from air to water is achieved. Using oxygen from the
air for biological wastewater treatment depends on the variation of physical quantities (pressure,
temperature, etc.) and the characteristics of wastewater (biodegradability of organic materials,
their amount in the water, the oxygen content initially).

2.6.2 Factors affecting fine bubble creation and bubble size for activated sludge.
Aeration is a step in wastewater treatment where air is added to wastewater for enhancing
biological growth. The purpose of aeration is to dissolve oxygen into wastewater so that the
microorganisms can utilize it while they breakdown organic materials. In wastewater treatment,
an aeration process introduces air into a liquid, providing an aerobic environment for microbial
degradation of organic matter. The purpose of aeration is to supply the required oxygen to the
metabolizing microorganisms and to provide mixing so that the microorganisms come into
intimate contact with the dissolved and suspended organic matter. The most important factor is
the oxygen concentration between inside and outside the air bubbles. Surface area is the next
important factor as more surface area promotes oxygen transfer. A longer bubble residency time
for air bubble inside the water gives the oxygen more time to dissolve in water. A small bubble
size improves oxygen transfer with two reasons: first, if a large bubble divides into smaller
bubbles then these bubbles will have a larger surface area. Second, a smaller bubble will have
less buoyancy force so that it will lead to a higher residency time resulting in more travelling
time to reach the water top surface. Horvath et al. (2009, p. 605) studied the dispersion of gas
(through a distributor or a membrane) in the bottom of a column filled with a liquid. The
buoyancy-driven flow yields excellent mixing behaviour and large inner surface area without the

22
need of moving parts, fixed baffles or any type of filling material in the column. The authors
presented transient simulations, using a commercial and an open source computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) programme, of rising bubble swarms. Results were compared with
experimental results. The simulations make use of two available implementations of volume of
fluid (VOF) model that is capable of describing the phase distributions of completely immiscible
gas and liquid phases using a finite volume approach.
Alkhalidi & Amano (2010, p. 335) studied air bubble creation through an investigation by using
CFD that was validated by experimental results. Contact angle was also investigated for air–
water interface at a rubber membrane exit nozzle to find the contact angle for air exiting diffuser
plate. The results of the bubble formation show a very close similarity in the bubble size when
compared with previous experimental results. Kawamura et al. (2004, p. 145) studied the effects
of the bubble size on the skin friction reduction and its persistence. Various bubble injection
methods were examined for controlling the bubble size. Measurements of the bubble distribution
and skin friction were carried out for a spatially developing boundary layer in a test section and
50 m flat plate ship model in a towing tank. The results indicate that smaller bubbles disperse
faster while larger bubbles stay close to the wall because of the buoyancy force. It has also been
confirmed that the skin friction reduction persists for longer distance when the bubble size is
large. This suggests that larger bubbles are more efficient for the purpose of skin friction
reduction of a ship Mineta et al. (2011, p. 266) studied the volumetric oxygen transfer coefficient
and oxygen uptake rate in a dense activated sludge slurry bubble column. This was measured by
varying activated sludge concentrations (from 2000 to 8000 mg/L) and aeration rates (from 0.3
to 1.5 L/min). They were separately determined by the dynamic methods. The endogenous
oxygen uptake rate of the activated sludge was estimated by monitoring the dissolved oxygen
concentration rate after turning off the air sparging in a stirred tank. The volumetric oxygen
transfer coefficient in a dense activated sludge slurry bubble column was determined using the
dissolved oxygen concentration profiles and the oxygen uptake rates predetermined from the
separate measurements. While the oxygen uptake rate almost linearly increased with increasing
the activated sludge concentration, the volumetric oxygen transfer coefficient decreased with an
increase in the activated sludge concentration. Their empirical correlations were obtained as a
function of activated sludge concentration by fitting the experimental data. Colombet et al.
(2011, p. 3432) considered the liquid-side mass transfer coefficient in a dense bubble swarm for
a wide range of gas volume fraction (0.45% ≤ αG ≤ 16.5%). The study was performed for an air–
water system in a square column. Bubble size, shape and velocity have been measured for

23
different gas flow rates by means of a high-speed camera. Gas volume fraction and bubble
velocity have also been measured by a dual-tip optical probe. Both of these measurements show
that the bubble vertical velocity decreases when increasing αG in agreement with previous
investigations. The mass transfer was measured from the time evolution of the dissolved oxygen
concentration, which is obtained by the gassing-out method. The mass transfer coefficient was
found to be very close to that of a single bubble provided the bubble Reynolds number is based
on the average equivalent diameter and the vertical slip velocity.

2.6.3 Previous Studies on Factors affecting fine bubble creation and bubble size for
activated sludge.
Levitsky et al. (2005, p. 242) studied the water oxygenation in an experimental aerator with
different air–water interaction patterns. A device for water saturation by gas using enhanced air–
water interaction was studied experimentally. The flow of gas and water in the device was
organized in a way providing efficient gas dispersion into fine bubbles at relatively low gas and
liquid supply pressures. This permits water oxygenation to be improved and the aeration
expenses to be reduced as compared with existing aerators. The setup for experimental study of
the device and the measurement procedure were described. The data obtained confirm an
efficiency of the proposed aerator for water oxygenation. Lauterborn &Ohl (1997, p. 65)
investigated the dynamics of cavitation on water for bubbles produced optically and acoustically.
Single bubble dynamics was studied with laser produced bubbles and high-speed photography
with framing rates up to 20.8 million frames per second. Acoustic cavitation was produced in
water in the interior of piezoelectric cylinders of different sizes (up to 12 cm inner diameter).
The filamentary structure composed of bubbles was investigated and their light emission studied
for different various strengths.Sussman (2003, p. 110) presented a coupled level set VOF method
for computing growth and collapse of vapour bubbles. In their study, the liquid was assumed to
be incompressible and the vapour was assumed to have a constant pressure in space. Second
order algorithms were used for finding ‘mass conserving’ extension velocities, for discretizing
the local interfacial curvature and for the discretization of the cell-centred projection step.
Alkhalidi& Amano (2012) studied the air bubble behaviour under water and its effect on
oxygenation process. It was found that the bubbles oxygenate the water behind the bubbles while
it travels towards the top surface in the waterpool. This system reduced the oxygen transfer
efficiency as the diffuser releases the bubble on the same path as air bubbles travel in oxygen-
saturated water. To overcome this problem, a bubble deflector was designed and tested to

24
improve the mixing process within the tank and to improve oxygen transfer efficiency Chudoba
et al. (1973, p. 1163) have conducted laboratory experiments on four activated sludge systems
with various flow patterns. In this system, the degree of mixing was characterized by dispersion
numbers which give a numerical value for mixing. Perfect mixing has a dispersion number of
infinity. The dispersion numbers in the four systems were ∞, 1.06, 0.17 and 0.033. All systems
were operated at the same detention period of 8 h and approximately at the same sludge loadings.
It was concluded that the complex mixing system tends to lead to excessive growth of the
filamentous microorganisms.Alkhalidi& Amano (2011a, p. 397) presented the factors affecting
air bubble size when air is injected through a perforated membrane into a water pool. Critical
factors that govern the size of air bubbles are the air pressure, the flow rate and the hole size of
the diffuser membrane. In order to have better understanding of how bubble size can be affected
and what the most affecting conditions are, the study was conducted in a CFD investigation that
was validated by the experimental results. Alkhalidi & Amano (2011b) reported a study of air
bubble creation and contact angle effect on bubble size through an investigation by using CFD
that were validated to experimental results. A contact angle was also investigated for the air–
water interface at rubber membrane exit surface, Tefloncoatedsurfaces and polytetra-
fluoroethylene-coated surface to find the contact angle for air exiting rubber membrane and the
tested coating. The results show very good comparison with the experimental results.

2.7 Oxygen Mass Transfer

Oxygen transfer is described by the value of mass transfer and the equilibrium concentration
of oxygen in the liquid (Chaumat, et al., 2006). Most projects require a field oxygen transfer
test to verify diffusers performance (Warriner and Brenner1 1996). Oxygen transfer
efficiency information can also be obtained by using laboratory apparatus (EPA,1989). There
are several experimental methods to determine mass transfer coefficient and the oxygen
equilibrium concentration. Clean water mass transfer coefficient is usually determined by the
non-steady state test procedure described in the standard methods (APHA,2005). A second
procedure involves a steady state test. Both techniques (steady and non-steady state) produce
acceptable results (EPA, 1989).

2.7.1 Previous Studies on Oxygen Mass Transfer.

(Molder, et al., 2009), studied the influence of alcohol molecules, as surfactants, on the oxygen
mass transfer and bubbles surface tension in diffused aeration system. The experiments revealed

25
that oxygen permeability was inhibited at very low surfactant concentrations, whereas a
considerable increase in the surface tension was observed in a higher concentration range.
(Chaumat, et al., 2006) investigated the bubbles hydrodynamics parameters of subsurface
aeration systems. The result showed that there is a strong effect of liquid flow on both of axial
and radial variations, bubble average diameter and frequency, and bubble surface area at low gas
flow rate. On the contrary, liquid flow has limited effects at very high gas flow rates. (Adil, et
al., 2006), explored the effect of surfactant on bubbles hydrodynamic and oxygen mass transfer
at low Reynolds and Sherwood numbers. (Gamal and Smith, 2003), suggested a steady-state one-
phase axial dispersion model to determine the overall mass transfer coefficient (kLa) and liquid-
phase axial dispersion coefficient (DL). The model has proven to be an accurate for describing
the oxygenating process. (Tzeng, et al.,2003). developed a dynamic mathematical model to
simulate the oxygen transfer rate inactivated sludge process. Simulations showed that, optimal
control system was able to reduce aerator power compared to a conventional design. (Mingyan,
2003), investigated the chaotic bubbling mechanism in a gas-liquid bubble column. It was found
that, the bubbling process exhibits a deterministic chaotic behavior in a certain range of the gas
flow rate. When increasing the gas flow rate, the sequence of periodic bubbling, primary and
advanced chaotic bubbling, and random bubbling were successively observed. (Chern and Yang,
2003), initiated a series of aeration studies to investigate the performance of the diffused aeration
system. The experimental results showed that the volumetric mass-transfer coefficients increase
with the airflow rate and temperature, but decrease with the water depth. The two zone model
can satisfactorily predict the saturation DO concentrations and the volumetric oxygen transfer
rates. (Rosso, et al., 2001), measured the oxygen transfer efficiencies for different types of
diffusers at various depths and mean cell retention times. The results showed that aeration
efficiencies are linearly related to depth of submergence, strongly influenced by mean cell
retention times (MCRT). (Dold and Fairlamb, 2001), derived a mathematical model to describe
the effect of airflow rate and diffuser density on the oxygen mass transfer coefficient in aerated
activated sludge reactors. (Chern, et al., 2001), investigated the effects of the impurities on the
oxygen transfer rate. The ASCE and the two zone oxygen mass-transfer models were used to
analyze the unsteady state re-aeration data. The results showed that the alpha factors based on the
ASCE model are less sensitive to the impurity concentration while the presence of the impurities
significantly reduces the alpha factors in the gas bubble zone.

2.8. Physical Factors Affecting Oxygen Mass Transfer

26
2.8.1. Aerator Type. Air delivery for the activated sludge process has historically been
accomplished via diffused or mechanical aeration or some combination of both. Mechanical
aeration typically consists of mixers and or spargers that physically entrain oxygen within the
mixed liquor. Diffused aeration typically consists of diffusers which are submerged within
the mixed liquor which produced either coarse bubble or fine bubbles.
Mechanical Aeration equipment is generally divided into two categories: horizontal axis and
vertical axis aerators. Horizontal axis aerators are generally found on shallow oxidation ditch
processes; however, applications do exist in basins up to 4.8 m deep. These aerators
maximize air entrainment air by “slapping” the water with shaped, discrete paddles. These
aerators generally provide for both aeration and mixing of the activated sludge mixed liquor.
Vertical shaft aerators tend to be highly variable in configuration, based on the method of
installation. Two broad categories of vertical shaft aerators include the bridge and float
mounted units. For bridge mounted units, the aerator motor and gear reducers are typically
mounted on an operator accessible bridge, with the aerator impeller located in the mixed
liquor and connected to the drive unit via a vertical shaft which passes through the bridge.
The impellers can be completely submerged, with air introduced directly below the impeller,
or at the liquid surface where air is entrained via splashing and surface turbulence. The float
mounted units consist of a drive unit, aerator impeller and connecting drive shaft mounted on
floats and moored to an operator accessible location at the perimeter of the aeration basin.
These units can be either aspirating or non-aspirating. The aspirating units will draw air into
the aerator shaft and discharge the air at the impeller, where the air bubbles are sheared and
dispersed across the tank to promote oxygen transfer. The non-aspirating units are similar to
the bridge mounted units with impellers mounted at the liquid surface, promoting oxygen
transfer via surface turbulence.

Table 2.0. Normalized Standard Aeration Efficiencies (SAE) for mechanical aerators.

27
(Jenkins &Wanner, 2014; Rosso, 2018; Tchobanoglous et al., 2014)

In most cases, the efficiency of oxygen transfer for mechanical aeration is strongly affected
by the mixing energy transferred to the mixed liquor and the equipment ability to entrain
oxygen in the mixed liquor. This can be influenced by changing the liquid depth, or by
varying the operating speed or elapsed run-time of the equipment. Mechanical aerators are
generally rated in terms of their standard aeration efficiency, expressed as kilograms of
oxygen transferred per kilowatt-hour of energy consumed at standard conditions of 20°C at
sea level and clean liquid (tap water).
Diffused aeration devices are generally categorized based on the size of the bubble produced.
Coarse bubble diffusers generally produce bubbles having diameters of greater than 6 mm in
clean water (USEPA, 1989). Fine bubble diffusers generally produce bubbles greater than 1
mm diameter; however, the bubble diameter will tend to increase as fouling and diffuser
aging impose changes to the diffuser orifice size (USEPA, 1989). For both the coarse and
fine bubble diffusers, the bubbles are released at or near the bottom of the reactor and are
allowed to rise through the mixed liquor, inducing mixing and promoting mass transfer.
Coarse bubble aerators are generally produced in tubular or disc configurations. The tubular
coarse bubble diffusers range in length between 12 and 36 inches in length, having multiple
air orifices located along the length of the tube (Jenkins, 2014). Newer designs have two
sizes of orifices that extend along the sides of the diffuser and are commonly referred to as
“wide band” diffusers (Jenkins, 2014; Rosso, 2018). The orifices are arranged with smaller
diameter orifices at the top of the diffuser to allow an enhanced turn-down range for the air
delivery rate (Rosso, 2018). The tubular coarse bubble diffusers are generally designed to
limit fouling as a result of rags or biofilm formation. The disc configurations generally
consist of a single orifice with an integral check feature that restricts water from entering the
air distribution piping (Jenkins, 2014; Rosso, 2018). Coarse bubble diffusers were widely

28
utilized in activated sludge processes prior to 1990, however, due to the larger bubble size
which decreases the specific interfacial area available for oxygen transfer and consequently
OTE, the use of coarse bubble diffusers for delivery of process air has declined rapidly over
the last 25 years (Jenkins &Wanner, 2014). However, coarse bubble diffusers are typically
employed for applications where mixing is the limiting design factor and not process
aeration, such as mixing in large distribution channels and aerobic digesters (Jenkins, 2014).
Fine bubble diffusers are considerably diverse in their geometry and materials of
construction. Fine bubble diffusers are generally categorized as plates through which air is
forced or devices that mechanically shear bubbles (Rosso, 2018). The plate-style diffusers
can come in a number of different geometries, including tubes, discs, plates or panel
geometries. Initially, aluminum oxide or silicon oxide ceramic discs were produced, having a
high porosity which imposed a circuitous path on air traveling from the header to the mixed
liquor (Jenkins, 2014). Experience has shown that ceramic discs are more prone to fouling,
labor-intensive to maintain and have a higher initial capital cost (Jenkins, 2014). Ceramic
discs have been largely replaced by membrane-style diffusers constructed with organic
materials such as EPDM and polyurethane and inorganic materials such as silicone due to
issues with permanent fouling of ceramic discs(Jenkins, 2014; Jenkins &Wanner, 2014).
2.8.2. Diffuser Configuration. Diffuser layout within the aeration basin can have an impact
on oxygen transfer. For example, the spiral roll aeration, characterized by the installation of
diffusers on one side (see Figure 1.8.a) or in the center of the basin to establish a liquid
circulation pattern has been shown to result in decreased volumetric mass transfer rates
(Fujie et al., 1992). Air bubbles and the closely attached water rise in the bubbling zone
immediately above the diffuser causing a large-scale anisotropic motion of the liquid. As the
liquid reaches the free surface, the water rolls downward in the bubble-free zone. Some
bubbles are carried downward in the bubble free zone; however, not all of the bubbles are
transferred as many are released at the liquid surface. As a consequence, the upward velocity
of the bubble and liquid serves to reduce the contact time between the liquid and bubble
(Bewtra& Nicholas, 1964; Fujie et al., 1992; Fujie et al., 1997).
Installation of diffusers in discrete, widely spaced lines was found to generate circulation
patterns near the reactor walls which had negligible air volume fraction (Gresch et al., 2011).
A more uniform distribution of diffusers resulted in a more homogenous distribution of air
volume fraction across the reactor cross section. A 20% difference in the air volume fraction
for both cases was observed, revealing that the uniform diffuser configuration enhances

29
oxygen transfer by increasing the bubble residence time in the reactor (Gresch et al., 2011).
This finding supports the previous research that demonstrated that higher diffuser densities
uniformly spaced along the bottom of shallow basins was found to result in higher specific
oxygen adsorption, especially when the air flow rates per diffuser was low (Wagner &Popel,
1998). Total floor coverage with diffusers operating at lower volumetric flow rates in
cylindrical tanks was found to result in a 40% increase in the SAE as compared to a grid
diffuser arrangement with wide spacing as a result of increased bubble rise velocity induced
by liquid circulation patterns (Duchène et al., 2001).

a) b) c) d)
Plate 2.5. Effect of diffuser configuration on liquid circulation patterns in a reactor. Different
diffuser configurations include: a) single spiral roll; b) double spiral roll; c) line
configuration; and d) full floor grid.
2.8.3. Diffuser Fouling. Physical fouling and aging of fine bubble diffusers also impacts air
delivery and the OTE. Fouling consists of two separate mechanisms: 1) plugging of diffuser
pores with particulate matter or the formation of scale and 2) the formation of a biofilm on
and within the diffuser (Campbell & Boyle, 1989). Biofilm formation has been further
classified based on the presence of microbial growth alone and the presence of biomass with
entrapped inorganic particles (Kim & Boyle, 1993).
The plugging of pores with particulate contaminants in the gas or liquid phase and the
formation of inorganic scale on the diffuser surface can reduce the diffuser flux and increase
the dynamic wet pressure (DWP) (Kim & Boyle, 1993; Rosso et al., 2008). The DWP is the
differential headloss across the diffuser installed in a submerged condition (USEPA, 1989).
As the scale forms, the DWP increases, small pore openings are engaged, causing more,
smaller bubbles to form which enhance mass transfer; however, this impact appears to be
offset by the associated increase in DWP (Kim & Boyle, 1993).

30
The increased DWP exerts back-pressure on blowers, reducing air delivery capacity and
operating efficiency of the blowers, increasing energy demands (Kim & Boyle, 1993; Rosso et
al., 2008; USPEA, 1989). Eventually, even the small pores plug, forcing more volumetric
airflow through large pores that remain open causing the formation of larger bubbles and reduced
oxygen transfer efficiency.

The formation of biofilms on and within the diffuser has been shown to reduce the transfer
efficiency of fine bubble diffusers. Biofilm formation alone was found to be weakly correlated
with increases in the DWP and bubble size (Kim & Boyle, 1993). For needle punched EPDM
membranes, the biofilm that formed between orifices did not directly impact the oxygen transfer,
but the biofilm formation in the pores was found to reduce oxygen transfer through a reduction in
the active surface area of the membrane (Wagner & von Hoessle, 2004). The structure of the
biofilm was also found to result in a reduction in oxygen transfer by causing channeling within
and above the diffuser body and increasing airflow to larger orifices, increasing bubble diameters
and significantly reducing OTE (Garrido-Baserba et al., 2016; Kim & Boyle, 1993; Wagner &
Von Hoessle, 2004). This negative impact was enhanced when inorganic particles were
entrapped within the biofilm (Kim & Boyle, 1993). Recently, biofilm DNA concentrations were
positively correlated with diffuser fouling factors, illustrating the role of biofilm formation on the
reduction in oxygen transfer from diffusers and the increased operating costs (Garrido-Baserba
et al., 2016; Garrido-Baserba et al., 2016).

2.8.4. Mixing. Mixers in bioreactors have multiple purposes. First, they can beutilized to
maintain the microbial community in suspension. Secondly, mixers can blend the reactor mixed
liquor, promoting uniform distributions of substrates. Furthermore, mixers can be utilized to
improve mass transfer of substrates to the microbial aggregates.

As a mixer operates, it will impart energy into the liquid medium, resulting in large scale,
anisotropic motion. Typically, the size of the largest eddies is on the order of the equivalent
diameter of the reactor. These large primary eddies tend to be unstable and transfer their inertial
energy into intermediately sized eddies. The intermediate eddies contain the majority of the
kinetic energy of turbulent motion present within the reactor. The energy containing eddies
subsequently disintegrate into terminal eddies, which are very small and tend to behave in an
isotropic nature. Even though the observable nature of the macroscale system may be
anisotropic, the terminal eddies will still be isotropic as directionality of inertial motion is lost
during the process of eddy degradation.

31
2.8.5. Surfactants. Surface active agents, or surfactants, are a relatively common constituent
in domestic wastewater. Surfactants are large organic molecules that are slightly soluble in
water. They tend to have a strongly hydrophilic head and strongly hydrophobic aliphatic or
aromatic tail comprised of 8 to 20 carbon atoms (Cowan-Ellsberry et al., 2014; Georgiou et
al., 1992). The hydrophobic tail will tend to migrate to the gas-liquid interface with the
hydrophilic head extending into the bulk solution. The surfactant will form an ordered
molecular monolayer up to and including the Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC), above
which micelles or multiple adsorption layers exist.

Surfactants are found in a wide range of commercial and industrial products that are
consumed and discharged as wastewater. They are commonly utilized in detergents, cleaners,
cosmetics, textiles and for industrial applications such as mining, coatings, food processing
where dispersal and solubilization of key process constituents is key. Several major classes of
surfactant exist, which include anionic, cationic and non-ionic surfactants. Anionic
surfactants tend to have a negatively charged hydrophilic group (sulfate, sulfonate,
carboxylate, etc.), whereas cationic surfactants have a positively charged hydrophilic group
(amine, quaternary ammonia salts, etc.,) (Cowan-Ellsberry et al., 2014; Georgiou et al.,
1992). Non-ionic surfactants have functional groups are commonly comprised of various
numbers of ethylene oxide groups. Within these classes, there are several predominant
surfactant types that constitute the bulk of consumption in the United States of America
(USA), including alkyl ethoxylates (AE), alkyl ethoxysulfonates (AES), alkyl sulfonates
(AS) and linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (LAS). Figure 1.9 illustrates the breakdown of major
surfactant usage in the USA by class.

Plate 2.6. Surfactant usage breakdown in the United States of America. (Cowan-
Ellsberry et al., 2014).

32
Surfactant concentrations in municipal wastewater have been well characterized. Typical
influent concentration range between 6 and 10 mg L -1 with peak concentrations 350 mg L-1
having been reported (Henkel, 2010; Liwarska-Bizukojc, 2005). Anionic surfactants and
non-ionic surfactant concentrations contained within influent wastewater to German WWTPs
were reported to range between 6.6 – 11.9 mg L-1 and 1.1 to 3.1 mg L-1, respectively (Wagner
&Popel, 1996). Other reported influent surfactant concentrations for facilities in Europe and
the United States of America have been summarized in Table 1.5. The reported influent
surfactant concentrations must be qualified in that they are largely influenced by the degree
and nature of industrial discharges to the wastewater stream.

Surfactants commonly present in wastewater can negatively affect operations at biological

wastewater treatment plants. For example, surfactants have been implicated as negatively
impacting the oxygen mass transfer process (Baquero-Rodr´ıguez et al., 2018). Oxygen
transfer efficiency is an important consideration in the design and operation of the activated
sludge wastewater treatment process, affecting process stability, energy demand and
operating costs. Inherent in process design are assumptions regarding the diffuser layout,
mixing intensity, basin geometry, etc., as encapsulated by the alpha (α) value and the mixed
liquor chemistry, as encapsulated by the beta (β) value. The negative impact to oxygen
transfer associated with surfactants is generally accommodated for in the selection of an
appropriate α-value (Amaral et al., 2019).
The α-values observed for municipal wastewater is typically taken to be 0.4 to 0.8 for
diffused aeration and 0.6 to 1.2 for mechanical aeration (Tchobanoglous et al., 2014). The
lower α-values associated with diffused aeration are hypothesized to be related to the
deleterious impact of surfactants on the bubble formation, break-up and coalescence process
(Rosso, 2018).Surface active compounds have been demonstrated to reduce oxygen transfer
rates in two-phase systems. As air is introduced into the water column, the hydrophobic
group in the dissolved surfactant will preferentially migrate toward the gas-liquid interface.
They hydrophilic tail will extend into the bulk liquid phase. The surface-active compound
will accumulate at the interface, forming a uniform molecular monolayer up to and including
the CMC, above which micelles or multiple absorption layers tend to exist. This monolayer
formation can have a detrimental impact on the surface tension of the liquid, resulting in a
significant reduction in the liquid surface tension with increasing surfactant concentrations
(Deindoerfer&Gaden, 1955; Eckenfelder & Barnhart, 1961; Masutani&Stenstrom, 1991;
Wagner & Popel, 1996). This impact to the surface tension results as the surfactant molecules

33
tend to form lattice structures which impede the hydrogen bonding responsible for the
uniform distribution of stresses at the gas-liquid interface of the bubble (Rosso et al., 2006a).
For example, sodium dodecyl sulfate (anionic, alkyl sulfonate) and sodium tetradecyl sulfate
(anionic, alkyl sulfonate) were applied to clean water at concentrations of 50 and 103 mg L -1
which resulted in the reduction the bubble radius between approximately 50 and 70 percent
due to a reduction in the surface tension (Masutani&Stenstrom, 1991).

2.9 BIOLOGICAL FACTORS AFFECTING OXYGEN TRANSFER

2.9.1 Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids. Mixed liquor biomass concentrationstend to be
negatively correlated to OTE (Baquero-Rodríguez et al., 2018; Capodici et al., 2019; Durán
et. al., 2016; Rodríguez et al., 2012). For mixed liquor suspended solids concentration
(MLSS) in excess of 5,000 mg L-1, the KLa, is significantly reduced with increasing MLSS
and is often expressed as a reduced alpha (α)-value (Henkel, 2010; Krampe& Krauth, 2003;
Wagner et al., 2002). The relationship tends to be linear in this region of MLSS-values. For
mixed liquor concentrations less than 5,000 mg L -1, there is considerable variability in the
process α-values. As can be observed in Figure 1.10, reported α-values range from 0.98 to
0.22. Where the data of Kaiser, Muller, Roest and Wolfbauer tends to follow the general
linear trend observed for high MLSS values, the data of Rosso et al tends to be modeled as a
double exponential function with α-values increasing to a maximal α-value at an MLSS of
4,000 mg L-1, after which a rapid decline is observed (Baquero-Rodr´ıguez et al., 2018;
Henkel, 2010). Reviewing Figure 1.10, it can clearly be identified that the MLSS alone does
not adequately describe the differences in α-values between processes.

Here, the α-value is a lumped parameter that is used to account for many different
phenomena that can potentially impact mass transfer (Amaral et al., 2018). Many different
empirical relationships have been developed to describe the KLa and α as

34
function of the MLSS (Baquero-Rodr´ıguez et al., 2018; Henkel, 2010; Hu, 2006;
Krampe&Krauthe, 2003; Schwarz et al., 2006 ). The impacts of MLSS on oxygen mass transfer
are thought to be associated with the apparent viscosity (μapp), which results in increased bubble
coalescence, increased bubble diameter, and reduced bubble specific surface area (Schwarz et
al., 2006). Numerous studies have demonstrated the mixed liquor apparent viscosity, which is
directly affected by the mixed liquor concentration, as providing a more thorough description of
the variations in the process α-values (Krampe& Krauth, 2003; Nittami et al., 2013; Wagner et
al., 2002).

Plate 2.7. Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) versus process α-value. Adapted from
Henkel 2010 and Baquero-Rodr´ıguez et al. 2018.

35
2.9.2 Solids Retention Time. Short SRTs tend to exhibit reduced OTE as compared to long
SRT processes (Henkel, 2009a; Garrido-Baserba et al., 2017; Rosso et al., 2008). Several
theories regarding the impact of SRT on OTE have been proffered. Long SRT process afford
greater adsorption capacity and reduced specific loading of organic molecules that can
degrade OTE, allowing those compounds to be incorporated into the floc matrices (Henkel et
al., 2009a). Long SRT processes were also found to attenuate shock load events with
minimal change to the process α-value, whereas short SRT processes where observed to
exhibit significant decreases in α-values as a result of exhausted adsorption capacity (Henkel,
2009).
It has also been hypothesized that the SRT impacts the variety of enzymatic equipment
necessary for respiration, facilitating the degradation of soluble organic molecules that can
otherwise block the active surface area available for oxygen mass transfer, reduce the liquid
surface tension and otherwise restrict oxygen transfer (Henkel et al., 2009a; Rosso, 2006).
Long SRT processes have been shown to exhibit enhanced OTE, which is thought to be
associated with the degradation of recalcitrant organic compounds such as surfactants (Leu et
al., 2012; Li, 2016). This impact of SRT is significant because it means that the increased
oxygen demand associated with the augmented role of endogenous respiration at long SRTs
can be offset by the improvements in OTE.

2.9.3 Biological Floc Diameter. The diameter of biological floc can influence oxygen
transfer in the activated sludge process in a number of different ways. First, it can influence
the volumetric mass transfer coefficient and associated α-value governing
oxygen transfer from the gas to liquid phases. Secondly, it can impact influence external and
internal mass transfer resistances governing the rate of biochemical reaction.
Several studies have reported an increase in α-value associated with a reduction in the floc
size distribution. It has been reported that for MBRs operating under similar conditions to
conventional activated sludge (CAS) processes, the α-value increased, which was attributed
to the particle size distributions for the MBR process being smaller than for CAS. (Capodici
et al., 2019; Hu, 2006). Floc found in MBRs were found to have lower oxygen half saturation
coefficients as compared to conventional activated sludge systems as a consequence of
smaller floc diameters (Manser, 2005; Hocaoglu et al., 2011). Here it is understood that the

36
oxygen half saturation coefficient encapsulates the mass transfer effects on the bio-kinetic
reaction that occurs within the activated sludge floc (Henze, 2000). Henkel et al. (2009a;
2009b) observed a significant negative linear correlation between the floc volume,
characterized by the free water content, and the α-value which was thought to be related to a
reduction in the gas-liquid interfacial area that occurs when the bubbles contact the biomass.
It is likely that the impact of floc size distribution impact on the α-value is related to the
biochemical reaction rate, especially for nitrifying systems. It has been demonstrated that
increasing floc diameters can impede nitrification due to oxygen limitation that develop
within the floc (Zhang et al., 1997; Fan et al., 2017). As the reaction rate increases, a
proportional increase in the volumetric mass transfer coefficient must occur to maintain the
system at a steady state condition. The floc diameter can also influence mass transfer
resistance external and internal to the floc. For example, it was observed that overall reaction
effectiveness factor
decreased significantly for floc having diameters greater than 140 μm, whereas the
effectiveness factor for floc less than 40 μm was unity (Beccari et al., 1992). Respirometric
and microsensor measurements demonstrated that external mass transfer limitations existed
for floc having median sizes of 100 – 247 μm and granular activated sludge (GAS) having
median sizes of 500 – 690 μm (Wilen et al., 2004). Internal mass

transfer resistances were observed, requiring a bulk solution DO of 6 mg L -1 and 12 mg L-1

for the activated sludge and GAS, respectively, to maximize the OUR for the systems (Wilen
et al., 2004). This finding supports the assertion that external mass transfer limitation cannot
exist without an internal mass transfer limitation being present (Stenstrom& Song, 1991).

2.9.4. Extracellular Polymeric Substances. Extracellular polymeric substances(EPS) are

the heterogeneous mix of carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids and nucleotides, humic acids,
and other materials that are secreted by the activated sludge microbes to promote
flocculation, afford protection from the environment, etc. Several studies have highlighted
the potential influence of the EPS concentration on the α-value and oxygen mass transfer. For
example it has been observed that oxygen diffusivity increases with reductions in the specific

37
 EPS (Fan et al., 2017). Oxygen diffusivities within floc matrices have been demonstrated to
be 0.2 to 0.9-times those observed for water (Beccari et al., 1992; Wilen et. al., 2004).

2.10 Oxygen Transfer Performance and it Analysis on Subsurface Aeration.

The efficiency of oxygen transfer depends on many factors including the type, size and shape of
diffusers and the tank geometry. (Kossayand Al-Ahmady, 2006). Although, their size, shape, and
materials of construction may vary considerably, diffused aeration devices are usually classified
as either fine or coarse bubble referring to the relative diameter of the bubble produced. The
demarcation between fine and coarse bubbles is not well defined (Richard, C.A, 1974; Warriner,
and Brenner, 2006). However, the improvement of the degree of treatment and consideration of
nitrification has resulted in increased requirements for aeration system. Supply of oxygen
constitutes a major operating cost for biological wastewater treatment systems. Many researchers
(ASTM, 1991), contend that the potential economical design capabilities of the activated sludge
process have not been reached. It has been suggested that oxygen transfer limitations restrict the
design of plants beyond the present accepted limits of loading. Oxygen transfer, the process by
which oxygen is transferred from the gaseous to the liquid phase, is a vital part of a number of
wastewater treatment processes. The functioning of aerobic processes, such as activated sludge,
depends on the availability of sufficient quantities of oxygen. Because of the low solubility of
oxygen and the consequent low rate of oxygen transfer, sufficient oxygen to meet the
requirements of aerobic waste treatment does not enter water through normal surface air-water
interface. To transfer the large quantities of oxygen that are needed, additional interfaces must be
formed. Oxygen can be supplied by means of air or pure oxygen bubbles introduced to the water
to create additional gas-water interfaces. In wastewater treatment plants, submerged bubbles
aeration is most frequently accomplished by dispersing air bubbles in the liquid. The diffused or
bubble aeration process consists of contacting gas bubbles with water for the purpose of
transferring gas to the water. The most commonly used diffuser system consists of a matrix of
perforated tubes (or membranes) or porous plates arranged near the bottom of the tank to provide
maximum gas to water Contact. Various types of diffusers and diffuser systems are presented in
the Environmental Protection Agency’s technology transfer design manual on aeration systems
(COED, 1989).

38
2.11 Oxygen mass transfer as a tool in Bioreactor Design
Oxygen transfer is one of the key issues considered in aerobic bioreactor design (Galaction et al, 2004)
bioreactor Design is a complex Engineering task (Gomez, 2005). Oxygen transfer in aerobic bioprocesses
is essential and shortage of it would drastically affect the process performance as it is observed that at
optimum conditions, microorganisms or cells will reproduce at an outstanding rate. The vessel geometry
and operating conditions like gas (i.e. air, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide), flow rates, temperature, pH
and dissolved oxygen levels and agitation speed have to be closely controlled.
Bioprocesses are usually carried out in aqueous media, where the solubility of oxygen is very low owing
to the presence of ionic salts and nutrients and at the same time the rate of oxygen utilization by the
microorganism is rather high. Oxygen transfer through microbial cells controls the most of aerated
biological systems. The amount of DO into the broths is limited by its solubility and mass transfer rate, as
well as by its consumption rate on cells metabolic pathways (Calik et al.1997).
Oxygen transfer is usually helped by agitation, and is also for mixing nutrients and to keep the system
homogeneous. There are, however, limits to the speed of agitation, due to high power consumption
(which is proportional to the cube of the speed of the electric motor)and the damage to organisms due to
excessive tip speed. Gas-liquid mass transfer is commonly the rate-limiting step in industrial-scale
biochemical reactions. For this reason, bioreactor design and scale-up focuses on providing ample gas
mass transfer. The oxygen mass transfer can be described and analyzed by means of volumetric mass
transfer coefficient, kLa. It represents the most important parameter implied on the design and operation
of mixingsparging equipment of the bioreactors. Maintaining a constant volumetric mass-transfer
coefficient is a common scale-up strategy (Ozbek and Gayik, 2001). The oxygen mass transfer rate in a
bioreactor depends on several factors, such as the geometry of the bioreactor (type of bioreactor,
distributor or stirrer design, etc.), the liquid properties (viscosity, superficial tension, etc.), and the
dissipated energy in the fluid, which depends on the air flowrate, the stirrer speed, etc. Therefore,
composition and rheological properties of the medium changing with time have an important effect on
mass transfer rate (Montes et al. 1999; Chisti et al. 2002). Thus, the coefficient (kLa) plays an important
role in design, scale-up and economy of the process.
2.11.1 Method of predicting oxygen uptake rate (OUR), Oxygen Transfer Rate (OTR), and
Dissolved Oxygen in Bioreactor using biological reaction Calorimeter.
Dynamic method (Singh, 1996) was used for measuring OUR (oxygen uptake rate) and kLa in the
calorimeter by using polarographic DO probe. The following mass balance equation for the reaction can

………………(1)

39
where the first term on the right hand side of the equation is the oxygen transfer rate (OTR) and the
second term is the Volumetric Oxygen uptake Rate (OUR) of the culture. The measurement of OUR and
OTR can be made using the dynamic technique, in two stages.
In the first stage, the inlet of airflow to the broth is interrupted, and a decrease of DO concentration
due to cellular respiration is observed, which was recorded by a polarographic oxygen probe. The volumetric

OUR isdetermined by noting the changes in the DO concentration when the oxygen flow was stopped.
Equation (1) can be simplified to:

………… (2)
The DO concentration should be maintained higher than10% of saturation value to ensure that the micro
organisms are not damaged due to lack of oxygen. The volumetricOUR is obtained from the slope of the
linear regression of the change in DO concentration vs. time. This first stage is employed to obtain the
value of the specific OUR (qo2) by the microorganism, by dividing the volumetric OUR by the biomass
concentration. In the second stage the inlet of oxygen flow to the broth is restarted (stirrer speed and
airflow rate are fixed at predetermined values) and this lead to increase in DO concentration. Oxygen
flow was maintained till the DO concentration(Co2) reached the steady state value. Under these conditions
Equation (1) can be integrated, taking into account the moment at which the oxygen supply of the culture
began

and another time (t =t2 therefore Co2 = C2yielding the equation:

…………. (3)

Equation (3) was used to determine the volumetric mass transfer coefficient. Equation 3 was solved by
plotting

……………… (4)

against steady state DOconcentration value C o2for each data set of experimental values of DO
concentration and time, to obtain volumetric mass transfer coefficient. Experiments were carried out for
measuring both OUR and OTR at different stages of growth: lag, exponential and stationary stages.

40
Volumetric mass transfer coefficient values, kLa, have been determined in a wide range of operational
conditions viz. impeller speed (50-250 rpm), oxygen flow (0.5-1.5 l min-1) and impeller type (Rushton-
Turbine &Turbine). The measurements have been carried out changing the superficial gas velocity, Vs, as
0.00165,0.0003304 and 0.004976 ms-1, which corresponding to oxygen flow rates between 0.5, 1 and 1.5
l min-1. The stirrer speed, N, was varied between 50 and 250 rpm and simultaneously OUR, OTR and
kLa values were determined.

2.12 Technique for Oxygen Transfer Measurement in Bioreactors.

Oxygen is the most essential requirement for aerobic bioprocesses. The microbial growth in a
bioreactor depends upon the oxygen transfer rate (OTR). The OTR is widely used to study the
growth behavior of microbial and plant cell cultures. The mass transfer coefficient (kLa)
determines the magnitude of the OTR. There are many techniques for measuring oxygen
Concentration and OTR in bioreactors. Zirconia, electrochemical, infrared, ultrasonic and laser
cells are used to measure oxygen concentration in the liquid medium. Optical sensors are better
alternatives to measure oxygen concentration in small bioreactors. Sulfite oxidation and gassing-
out methods with a Clark-type electrode have been used for OTR measurements in bioreactors.
Many new novel techniques have evolved recently for intermittent and continuous online
measurement of OTR/kLa in various types of bioreactors. Availability of oxygen strongly affects
the process performance of aerobic bioprocesses. These bioprocesses are mostly carried out in
aqueous media where the solubility of oxygen is low owing to the presence of ionic salts and
nutrients, and the rate of oxygen utilization by the microorganisms is high. Hence, oxygen
transfer is an important and rate limiting step in bioprocesses (Gupta, 2003: Gogate, 1999).
Changes in oxygen availability lead to drastic effects on fermentation kinetics (Clark, et al, 1995:
Cascaval, et al, 2006). An increase in the availability of dissolved oxygen in the culture medium
often results in improved yield of secondary metabolites (Varder, 1982). Oxygen limitation can
be overcome by increasing the oxygen transfer rate (OTR). The introduction of pure oxygen into
the fermenter to enhance the microbial cell harvest or product accumulation has attracted special
attention (Morimoto, 1979). Special aeration systems, e.g. aeration using oxygen enriched air
and increased reactor pressure are also commonly applied techniques to increase oxygen
availability (Maier, 2004: Knol, 2005: Belo, 2003). During the last decade, the use of in situ

41
production of oxygen and use of oxygen vectors have gained significant interest (Van, 1995:
Galaction, 2004).

2.12.1 Method for Measurement of Oxygen Concentration.

The oxygen measurement techniques include zirconia, electrochemical (also known as galvanic),
infrared, ultrasonic and laser-based methods. A zirconium dioxide or zirconia lambda sensor is
an electronic device based on a solid-state electrochemical fuel cell called the Nernst cell. I
measures the proportion of oxygen (O2) in the gas or liquid being analyzed. Its two electrodes
provide an output voltage corresponding to the quantity of oxygen in the exhaust effluent relative
to that in the atmosphere. The majority of electrochemical systems are based on a Clarktype
oxygen sensor. The Clark cell is a linear amperometric oxygen sensor based on the
electrochemical cell with an external polarization voltage (Freden, 1990). Its output is a current
that is proportional to the oxygen content or more appropriately to the partial pressure of oxygen
in the fluid (Jalukse, et al., 2004). The partial pressure can be expressed by the concentration
level or percentage saturation. The output current is very small, ranging from several nA to
several μA or even smaller for some models of oxygen sensors (Hrgreti, et al., 2005).
Commercially available dissolved oxygen measurement systems typically have an accuracy of
2.5–5% (Hrgreti, et al., 2005). The theory of operation and practical usage of electrochemical
oxygen sensors has been discussed extensively in the literature with several excellent reviews
(Chang, et al., 1993). Conventional galvanic oxygen sensor technology uses two dissimilar metal
electrodes, typically silver and lead, which are consumed in the process of measuring oxygen.
The sensors have a relatively short life-span of several months because the lead anode is
consumed and the silver cathode is attacked by trace acid gases. Thus, the electrolyte becomes
susceptible to contamination (Delt, 108). The galvanic sensors operate like a battery. As these
sensors age, electrode sites become depleted and the sensor begins to read lower than the actual
oxygen concentration. False low readings lead operators to believe that the process is proceeding
normally when higher oxygen levels are causing poor product quality. The disadvantage of this
type of electrode is that it consumes oxygen during the measuring process. The sample is
required to be stirred during measurement, thus requiring long measurement times.
Also, it is easily poisoned by the hydrogen sulfide. The partial pressure sensor is very similar in
construction to the electrochemical sensor in many ways. This sensor is mainly used for medical

42
purposes, where the effect on the human body is the most important aspect of the measurement.
It has the major advantage of not being sensitive to carbon dioxide. Since this sensor measures
the partial pressure of oxygen directly, it is essential to compensate for ambient pressure
(Habmigern, 2003).The paramagnetic oxygen sensor is a highly accurate measurement technique
for oxygen concentration. All paramagnetic measuring instruments available in the market utilize
the paramagnetic properties of oxygen. Oxygen is one of the very few gases with a strong
magnetic susceptibility. The movement of the electrons within a molecule generates magnetic
moments. However, such sensors are beset by high costs. A paramagnetic measuring instrument
is an obvious choice in those applications where the concentrations of contaminant gases are
large. Such sensors are not damaged by CO2 unlike electrochemical sensors. Typical areas of
application for paramagnetic oxygen sensors include the measurement of oxygen in waste
treatment gas, landfill gas and biogas and the monitoring of the oxygen concentration in
putrefaction or fermentation processes.

2.13 Effect of Different Shapes of Air Diffuser on Oxygen Mass Transfer Coefficient in
Aeration System.
A lot of factors determine the re-aeration performance of microporous aeration system, such as
air flow rate, water depth, air bubble size and number, , installation form, the aerator number and
so on Xiangju et al.(2010) studied the effect of air flow on aeration performance in sewage
treatment. (Kossay, 2006) discussed the effect of water depth and the size of the diffuser on
aeration capacity, oxygen utilization efficiency and the percentage of oxygen absorption. Gillot
et al.(2000) investigated the effects of the rate of flow in oxidation pool on oxygen utilization.
Gu et al. (2103), compared the aeration capacity of microporous aeration and impeller aerator.
Most of these researches were tested by an aeration disk or nozzles as a diffuser. There is a
certain empirical and blindness in this method, besides, the current research of aeration
performance in different shapes of diffusers is blank.(Xiangju, et al, 2016) conducted a study on
effect of different shapes of air diffuser on oxygen mass transfer coefficient in aeration system.
And from the results it shows that, regardless of the depth of 0.7m, 0.55m or 0.4m, the optimal
aeration efficiency was the I-shaped air diffuser, and then was C-shaped and disc-shaped
diffuser, the poorest one was S-shape, which is against the previous empirical idea.

43
2.14 Oxygen Transfer Rate (OTR).
Earlier, oxygen absorption rate (OAR) used to be measured to see the effect on the growth of the
microbial species.90–92 The OAR was defined as milli-mole (mmol) of oxygen absorbed per
liter (dm3) of solution per minute. Currently, OTR is more widely used to discuss the transfer
rate of oxygen and the various resistances that are encountered during the transfer of oxygen
from gas to liquid phase in bioreactors. OTR in an agitated gas–liquid system is obtained by
oxygen balance across the gas–liquid interface. It is proportional to the driving force
(CG/H−CO2,L) and is given by the following equation:

CG
OTR = KLa ( −Co 2L) = KLa (C*o2, GL-CO2L) = KLaLO2 (Po2G- Po2L) (1)
H
where kL is the individual mass transfer coefficient, which provides a measure of resistance for
oxygen transfer across the gas–liquid interface, a is the specific surface area, CG is the O2
concentration in the gas phase, CO2,L is the O2 concentration in the liquid phase and H is
Henry’s constant. The term CG/H = C*o2GL represents the oxygen concentration in the liquid
phase at the gas–liquid interface. LO2 is the oxygen solubility and (pO2,G-pO2,L) is the driving
pressure difference. The magnitude of the OTR is greatly influenced by the kLa. Equation (2)
can be used to obtain the maximum oxygen transfer rate (OTRmax) under the conditions of
negligible liquid phase resistance. In such a case,

OTRmax = KLaC*o2, GL = KLaLo2Po2G (2)

2.14.1 Method for Measuring Oxygen Transfer Rate.

Sulfite oxidation method
The sulfite oxidation method is based on the oxidation of sodium sulfite to sulfate by oxygen.
The reaction is catalyzed by a number of metal ions such as Co2+, Cu+, Fe+, and Mn+ The
stoichiometric equation for the oxidation reaction in the presence of copper or cobalt salt is as
follows:
SO32- + 0.502 = SO42-

44
Measurement of the OTR is carried out in the non-accelerated reaction regime when the reaction
in the liquid side boundary layer is slow. This condition is satisfied when
reaction rate
Hatta number (Ha) =
Masstransfer rate
Reaction parameters have to be adjusted for the reaction regime. Catalyst concentration, pH,
temperature, and light irradiation are the main influencing parameters on the kn.(Linek and
Tvrdik, 1971: Reith and Beek, 1973), proposed kinetic equations accounting for the influences
of catalyst concentration, pH, and temperature on the kn. A freshly prepared sodium sulfite
solution, without pH adjustment, has pH >9. During the course of the oxidation, the pH first
decreases slowly and then at the end of the reaction, it drops sharply to about 5. Sulfite is a weak
acid and it also acts as a pH buffer (pKS= 7.2). It is converted to the strong acid sulfate during
the reaction which has no buffering properties. As a result the pH drops during the reaction as
given above. (Ruchti et al.1985: Hermann et al. 2001) have detailed the procedure for
calculating kLa by the sulfite oxidation method in different regimes and conditions. The sulfite
oxidation method has been used for the determination of the interfacial area between gas and
liquid in various absorption devices like mechanically agitated contactors, packed columns, and
bubble columns.
Dynamic method
Bandyopadhyay et al. (1978), described a dynamic method for estimating kLa. This method is
based on following the dissolved O2 concentration during a brief interruption of the aeration
(non gassing) of the fermentation system. A fast-response, sterilizable, dissolved oxygen probe
(like a Beckman laboratory model) is required to obtain the necessary data by this method. It is a
direct method and is based on utilizing the fermentation system itself. For a typical aerated
fermentation system, the O2 uptake rate under steady-state conditions is given by:
O2uptake = r.X = OTR = KLa (C*o2GL-Co2L) (1)
where r is the specific O2 uptake rate per unit mass of fermenting microorganisms; and X is the
biomass concentration in the fermenter. Since the transfer occurs over an integral volume, a
mean driving force has to be used. However, there is considerable debate on the value of (C*
O2,GL− CO2,L)mean to be used. For the non-gassing situation, the change in dissolved O2
concentration

45
 dc
is given by = -r.X
dt
(2)
Equation (2) is not valid for the immediate period when the air is turned off as it takes some time
for the hold-up air bubbles to escape from the fermenter. Also, at high agitation speeds
measurable surface aeration occurs. This can be minimized by sparging N2 over the surface or
by lowering the agitation speed during the non-gassing period. However, sparging N2 over the
surface may affect the OTR. For the aeration period following non-gassing, the change in
dissolved O2 concentration is given by
dC/dt = kLa(C*O2,GL− CO2,L)mean − r.X (3)
It is possible to estimate kLa by following the CO2,L provided one has determined the proper
value of (C*O2,GL−CO2,L)mean for use and has obtained r.X from the non-gassing period. It
may, however, be noted that r is a constant only as long as CO2,L is above the
critical biological oxygen concentration and the organisms have not been unduly starved of
oxygen. If one assumes that the oxygen probe is measuring a bulk average
CO2,L and that C*O2,GL can be represented by some mean value, then Equation (3) can be
rewritten as follows:
CO2,L= −[1/(kLa)(dC/dt + r.X)] + C*O2,GL (4)
The value of kLa can be determined from a plot of CO2,L versus dC/dt. This means that only the
measurement of dissolved oxygen concentration at various times is necessary. Since only a
single measuring device is used, the results will always be internally consistent, and they do not
depend upon a zero or reference measurement. The dynamic method of Bandyopadhyay et al
(1978), for estimating kLa has been used by several researchers. This method, however, does
not give consistent results when compared with the steady-state method of measurement of
oxygen uptake rate. The most probable cause of the discrepancy between measurements by the
dynamic and steady-state methods is due to the effect of very small gas bubbles in viscous
broths. The existence of a fraction of very small bubbles in viscous gas–liquid systems affects
the measurement of dissolved oxygen concentration and, therefore, the measurement of kLa by
the dynamic method. This requires a correction in the measured value of kLa, depending on the
small bubble hold-up. The drawbacks notwithstanding, this method of estimating kLa is

46
recommended more often than not, even though fast response, sterilizable oxygen probes are
now available.

Optical method
In small-scale bioreactors, pH electrodes immersed in the liquid may act as baffles and affect the
hydrodynamics. This may, therefore, affect the actual value of OTR/kLa as calculated by oxygen
electrodes. Hermann et al.96 used a method that completely avoided the use of pH electrode.
This method is based on the sulfite oxidation reaction which makes a shift in pH when the total
amount of sulfite is converted to sulfate. The shift in pH is observed by a pH sensitive dye
(bromthymol blue). The pH drop from about 7 (which occurred close to the end of the reaction)
to the final value of 3.4 was visualized by a pH indicator. Hermann et al. recorded this color
change by means of a camera. The time from the start of the experiment to the color shift
indicated the time of the oxidation reaction (tox).
OTR is then determined as:
CNa 2 SO3 νO 2
OTR = (1)
tox

where CNa2SO3 and νO2 are molar sodium sulfite concentration and the stoichiometric
coefficient for oxygen, respectively. kLa can then be calculated from the relation:
OTR CNa 2 SO 3 ν O 2
kLa= = (2)
Lo2 pO2 , G toxLo 2 pO 2 ,G
Before and during the preparation of the sodium sulfite solution, the deionized water is gassed
thoroughly with nitrogen gas to avoid any prior oxidation of the sulfite. The evaluation of the
interfacial area from absorption rates measured by the optical sulfite method holds under
moderate reaction rate (zero order in sulfite) regime only.

Gassing-out method
The dynamic gassing out method was first described by (Suijdam et al.1994) The culture vessel
is first filled to working volume with a reference medium. The medium is then purged of oxygen
by bubbling nitrogen through it until the medium is oxygen-free.1 The nitrogen gas is sparged in
water kept at 50 ◦C before entering the shake flask in order to avoid temperature changes in the

47
liquid phase. In this way a constant temperature during the experimental gassing out run is
ensured. The oxygen dissolution rate is determined with the help of an oxygen probe. The
dynamic time constant of the oxygen probe must be less than 1 s so as to ensure that there is no
interference of the time lag in the measurements of dissolved oxygen concentration .kLa is
determined by direct measurement of the rate of increase in dissolved oxygen concentration,
after it was lowered by passing dry nitrogen gas (oxygen free), through the system.
For shake flasks, the dynamic response of the process can be described by the following
equation:
C∗o 2 , GL−C∗O2 L
kLa=−ln ⁡( ) (1)
C∗o 2GL−( CO 2 L ) o
where (CO2,L)o is the oxygen concentration in the liquid phase initially (time (t) = 0). This
method has the advantage that it can be applied to different media (for establishing the effect of
media composition on oxygen mass transfer) and that it does not involve chemical reactions that
could affect the measurement precision and the liquid film resistance. The limitation of the
gassing out method lies in the fact that it involves a non-respiring system which is not the case in
the actual fermentation conditions, kLa can be measured by the method proposed by Kato et al.
(2005). Initially, dissolved oxygen is eliminated by adding sodium sulfite with small amounts of
cobalt sulfate as a catalyst, which does not affect the physical properties of the liquid. The
dissolved oxygen in the liquid is purged with nitrogen gas, so that (CO2,L)o becomes zero.
Therefore, the oxygen concentration changes due to the oxygen transfer from the liquid surface
are measured with a polarographic digital dissolved oxygen meter. The kLa is then obtained
from Equation (1). The change in oxygen concentration in the liquid with time is so slow that the
response delays of the cell can be neglected. The gassing-out method of kLa measurement is
associated with a limitation. This method necessitates the use of membrane-type electrodes, the
response time of which may be inadequate to reflect the true change in the rate of oxygenation
over a short period of time. The probe response time, which is the time needed to record 63% of
a stepwise change, should be much smaller than the mass transfer response time of the system
(1/kLa). Various researchers have used the static gassing out method for determining kLa values.
Respirometer (off-line) method
This method depends on the measurement of decreasing dissolved oxygen concentration with
time after the culture vessel has been aerated and then the aeration was stopped. The OTR can

48
be calculated, using LO2 from the following equation:
DO 2
OTR= LO2
¿ ∆t
where DO2 is the dissolved oxygen concentration in the liquid phase. A respirometer with an
electro-chemical oxygen electrode can also be used to measure the OTR of a complex medium
sample drawn from standard shake flasks with cotton plug, and also of medium samples drawn
from a fermenter. Respirometer can be used for bioreactors of any shape; however, its use is
limited because of its requirement for manual handling.

2.14.2 Method for Predicting Oxygen Mass Transfer Rate in Diffused Bubble using
Discrete-Bubble Model.
The model accounts for changes in the volume of individual bubbles due to transfer of oxygen
and nitrogen (and hence changing partial pressure), variation in hydrostatic pressure, and
changes in temperature (Daniel, et al., 2002). The discrete-bubble model, first adopted by Wuest
et al. (1992), is applied to bubbles that rise in plug flow through a tank of well-mixed water. The
initial bubble size distribution and the rate of bubble formation are assumed to be constant.
Bubble coalescence and mass transfer of gases other than nitrogen and oxygen are considered
negligible. The water and air temperatures are assumed to be equal and constant. Mass transfer
through the water surface at the top of the tank is neglected. Finally, it is assumed that a
distribution of bubble sizes maybe represented by the Sauter-meanm diameter. (Daniel, et al.,
2002) conducted an experiment for predicting oxygen mass transfer rate in diffused bubble using
discrete-bubble model using three oxygen transfer test, and from their findings, it can be deduced
that the response of the three oxygen probes (located near the top, middle, and bottom of the
tank) was virtually identical, confirming that the water in the tank can be considered well-mixed.
Wuest et al. (1992), derived a method for determining the mass-transfer flux (for either oxygen
or nitrogen) across the surface of a bubble is and it is presented as follows:

J = Kl (Cs- C) (molm-2 S-1) (1)

where KL is the liquid-side mass-transfer coefficient, Cs is the equilibrium concentration at the
gas/water interface, and C is the bulk aqueous-phase concentration. For both oxygen and

49
nitrogen, gas-side mass-transfer resistance maybe neglected. Henry’s law is used to calculate the
equilibrium concentration, or
Cs = HPi (molm-3) (2)
Where H is Henry’s constant and Pi is the partial pressure of the gas at a given depth.
Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) yields
J = HPi (molm-3) (3)
Substituting the surface area of a bubble of radius gives the rate of mass transfer for a single
bubble as
dm
= -Kl (HPi – C) 4ѱr2 (molS-1) (5)
dt
The vertical location of the bubble is related to the bubble-rise velocity, Vb; and any induced
vertical water velocity, V; by
dz
= V + Vb (mS-1) (6)
dt

where Z is the vertical coordinate of the tank. Although the bulk of the water in the tank is
assumed to be well mixed, it is likely that a weak plume is formed immediately above the
diffuser in the core of the tank. For simplicity, it is assumed that the induced plume velocity is
low relative to the bubble-rise velocity. Combining Eqs. (5) and (6) gives the mass of gaseous
species transferred per bubble per unit height of tank
dm 4 ѱr 2
= -KL (Hpi –C) (molm-1)(7)
dz Vb
The number flux of bubbles entering the tank, N; is calculated from the initial bubble volume,
V0; and the
actual volumetric gas flow rate at the diffuser, Q0; or
Qo
N = (S-1)
Vo
(8)
Multiplying Eq. (8) by N and expressing it in terms of M; the molar flow rate of gas, yields
dm 4 ѱr 2 N
= -KL (Hpi –C) (molm-1)
dz Vb
(9)

50
If the bulk aqueous-phase concentration does not change significantly during the time a bubble
takes to rise through the tank, the pseudo-steady-state assumption maybe invoked. Eq. (9) is
integrated numerically, for both oxygen and nitrogen, to obtain the change in the molar flow rate
while the gas bubble is in contact with the water. H is a function of water temperature, while V b
and KL are functions of r; the radius of the bubble. The bubble radius changes in response to
decreasing hydrostatic pressure as well as the amount of oxygen and nitrogen transferred
between the bubble and the water. This results in a change in the partial pressure of oxygen and
nitrogen within the bubble, which is recalculated as the bubble rises through the tank.Wuest et al.
(1992) based on experimental data for bubble-rise velocity (Onken,. and Leton, 1991), and the
mass-transfer coefficient (Calvo, and Leton,1991). Using these relationships and the changing
bubble radius, both the bubble-rise velocity and the mass-transfer coefficient are recalculated as
the bubble travels up the tank. Once the bubble reaches the top of the tank, the overall change in
the molar flow rate of gas (both oxygen and nitrogen) is used to incrementally calculate the
evolving bulk aqueous-phase concentration as a function of time. The initial DO concentration,
water temperature, and depth are known, as well as the initial Sauter-mean diameter of the
bubble swarm formed at the diffuser. The initial dissolved nitrogen concentration is assumed to
be at equilibrium with the atmosphere. The initial molar flow rate of gaseous oxygen or nitrogen
is
YoPstadQstad
Mo = (10)
RTstad
Where Y0 is the initial mole fraction of the gas, P std is the standard pressure, Qstd is the gas flow
rate at standard temperature and pressure (01C and 1 bar), R is the ideal gas constant, and T std is
the standard temperature.

51
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

3.1.1 SAMPLE PREPARATIONS: Tap water was collected from a portable source of water
supply from a household at Phase-II Estate, Government house Awka using a new (10L) water
container. The container was rinsed three times with the tap water before filling it with the water.
It was transported to the laboratory immediately after collection. The waste water was prepared
in the laboratory as outlined below.

3.1.2 PREPARATION OF SYNTHETIC WASTE WATER

The waste water as prepared according to the method describe by Francis et al. (2016) with
slight modification.

It contained the following components

Component Concentration (g/L)

Sodium chloride 1.0

Potassium Phosphate 1.0

52
Urea 8

Iron Sulphate 1

Magnesium Sulfate 1

Vegetable oil 35

Glucose 5

Ammonium Chloride 1

Mud water 50ml/L

These where compounded in 10L of water and was used for the experiment.

Plate 3.1 (Synthetic wastewater and tapwater)

3.2 MATERIAL USED FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE LOW-COST AERATION

SYSTEM:

 Tube

 Air pumper

53
  Rubber solution

 Tube patch

 Sand paper

 T-shaped Valve

 Aeration hose

 Controller valve

 Nail

 Glue

3.3 REAGENTS USED FOR THE ANALYSIS OF THE RATE OF OXYGEN MASS
TRANSFER

 Alkaline Potassium Iodide (KI)

 Manganese Sulphate (MnSo4)

 Concentrated Sulphuric acid (H2So4)

 Starch solution

3.4 MEASUREMENT OF RATE OXYGEN MASS TRANSFER

The diffused bubble was created using a low-cost aeration system constructed according to the
procedure describes by Blue Aqua, India. A portable pond containing about 5litres of water was
used. One pond contains tap water while the other contains synthetic wastewater prepare in the
laboratory. Each pond was outfitted with a diffused bubble aerator and the dissolved oxygen was
measured using Winkler method. In the experiment oxygen was initially stripped out of solution
by boiling the water. Once the dissolved oxygen was virtually eliminated from the water and the
heat source was switched off and diffused bubble was infused into the pond.

54
3.5 CONSTRUCTION OF THE AERATION SYSTEM

A tricycle tube was purchased from New tire spare parts Onitsha. It was perforated at one point
using sharp nail. A T-shaped valve was inserted into the hole by putting the two legs inside the
tube while the third leg protrudes out just like normal valve of a tube. The area around the hole
was scrapped with sandpaper and rubber solution was applied. A hole was made at the centre of
a tube patch and the protruding leg was made to pass through the hole and the patch was stick to
the area already covered with rubber solution. Then is pressed hard and allow to cure for one
hour. Super glue was used to seal the contact point of the t-shaped valve and the tube. An
aeration hose was fixed on the protruding leg of the T-shaped valve at one end while the other
end of the hose was fixed with the controller valve. Another tube was fixed at the other end of
the controller valve which enters the pond. The tube was inflated using the air pumper and air
bubbles were released into the aquarium by controlling the controller valve.

Plate. 3.2 (diffused bubble aeration system)

The temperature of the pond was measured at the beginning and ending of the testing. During
both the deoxygenation and oxygenation tests measure the dissolved oxygen in the pond was
measured on a regular basis. The deoxygenation and oxygenation tests were ran until there was
only small changes in dissolved concentration with time. The saturation concentration of oxygen
in water (Cs) for each experiment was estimated by plotting the measured concentrations versus
time and extrapolating the results to a horizontal line.

3.6 DISSOLVED OXYGEN

55
The dissolved oxygen was measured using the modified Winkler method described by Griffiths
and Jackman (1957).

The water sample (100ml) was mixed with 2ml of alkaline Potassium Iodide (KI) and 2ml of
Manganese Sulphate (MnSO4). The bottle was closed and shook well. The bottle was kept in the
dark for 5mins and concentrated sulphuric acid was added until the brown precipitate dissolves.
This was poured into a conical flask and titrated with 1N Na 2S2O3 until the color changes to light
yellow. Starch solution (3 drops) was added and solution turns blue, this was titrated further until
the blue color disappeared. The process was repeated and the end point was used to calculate the
dissolved oxygen using the equation below:

1000 ml of 1N Na2S2O3=8 gm of O2100 ml of water sample contain=V/5 mg of O 2, Where V =

Volume of Na2S2O3 used after adding starch – Volume of Na2S2O3 before adding starch.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS

In this experiment, oxygen was initially stripped out of the water by boiling at low pressure. The
dissolved oxygen concentration was plotted against the time as presented in fig 4.1. In the graph
below, the dissolve oxygen concentrations in the wastewater and tapwater are decreasing as time
increases which indicates a negative curve. At the time (t0), the oxygen concentration in the
wastewater and tap water is 8.0mg/l and 5.0mg/l respectively. The decrease in the graph
indicates the decrease in the dissolve oxygen concentration in the water samples as the samples
are being heated at low pressure in a heatbath. The dissolve oxygen concentration in wastewater
and tapwater was reduced from a saturation limit of 6.8mg/l and 11mg/l respectively at room
temperature to 0mg/l and 0mg/l at the end of the deoxygenation cycle.

56
 9

8
f(x) = − 0.141122661122661 x + 7.7458212058212
7
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)

5
f(x) = − 0.0820790020790021 x + 5.11448371448371 Tap water
4 Linear (Tap water)
Waste water
Linear (Waste water)
3
Linear (Waste water)
2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Time (Minutes)

Fig.4.1 a horizontal line graphs representing the measured Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations
versus time of tap water and waste water.

After deoxygenating, the water was aerated with the aid of a diffused bubble system. The rate of
oxygen mass transfer was evaluated by monitoring the dissolved oxygen with time. A plot of the
dissolved oxygen concentration against time is presented in fig. 4.2. From the curve below, as
the time increases, the oxygen concentration keeps increasing until it reaches a point where there
is no subsequent increase in the oxygen concentration in the water, which indicates that the water
have reach its saturation point. The saturation concentration of dissolve oxygen in wastewater
was obtained at the time 50minutes and 100minutes for that of the tap water, and the saturation
concentration of wastewater and tap water obtained from the curve is 6.8mg/l and 11mg/l
respectively, which shows that in the reverse process of aeration, dissolve oxygen concentration
was raised from 0mg/l to the saturation limits. From the curve below, It took longer time for
57
dissolve oxygen concentration to reach its saturation point in wastewater than that of the tap
water, because of the contaminants that takes up the oxygen in the wastewater.
12
f(x) = 0.144099895941727 x + 2.48520291363163

10
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)

8 f(x) = 0.0525884732052578 x + 1.01365689248399

6
Tap water
Linear (Tap water)
Waste Water
4 Linear (Waste Water)

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Time (minutes)

Fig.4.2 a horizontal line graphs representing the measured Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations
versus time of tap water and waste water.

Where Cs is the saturation concentration of waste water =6.8mg/l, and Cs of tap water =11mg/l.
Co is the oxygen concentration at time 0(t0) of tap water and waste water =8mg/l and 5.2mg/l
respectively.

C is the dissolved oxygen concentration in mg/l at time (t).

58
 – ∈(Cs−C 1)
Fig. 4.3 represents a plot of ¿ versus (t-t0) for the deoxygenation cycle. The slopes
Cs−Co¿
of these lines are equivalent to the coefficients (KLa).The oxygen mass transfer coefficient is the
mass of oxygen transferred from gas phase to liquid phase in unit volume in unit time. The KLa
(oxygen mass transfer Coefficient is used to indicate the aeration performance of an aerator.

Deoxygenation curve
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-0.2
f(x) = − 0.0221459043659042
0.022912162162162 x x−−0.188020270270273
0.183257532917535
-0.4
tape water
-0.6 Linear (tape
-In(Cs-C/Cs-Co)

water)
Linear (tape
-0.8 water)

-1

-1.2

-1.4

-1.6
Time (minutes)

– ∈(Cs−C 1)
Fig. 4.3 a graph of of ¿ against time of tap water and waste water.
Cs−Co¿

Where KLa (waste water) and KLa (tap water) are gotten from the slope of the curves and they
represent the Mass Transfer Coefficients of oxygen.

KLa (waste water) = -0.022 gotten from the deoxygenation curve of waste water.

KLa (tap water) = -0.022 gotten from the deoxygenation curve of tap water.

α = KLa wastewater/KLa tapwater = -0.022/-0.022

α =1.00, which determines the efficiency of the rate of oxygen transfer of an aerator

59
The presence of contaminants (i.e. salts, surfactants, etc) in a wastewater will impact upon
oxygen mass transfer in two ways. The solubility of oxygen (Cs) in water will often be reduced
and hence the driving force for mass transfer decreases. This is addressed through a correction
factor (β) that is calculated as: β=Cs, wastewater/Cs, tapwater, where: Cs,wastewater = solubility
of O2 in wastewater at saturation, Cs,tapwater = solubility of O2 in tapwater at saturation. These
solubilities should be determined at the same temperature (typically 20oC).The presence of
contaminants in the wastewater will also impact upon KLa. This is addressed through a
correction factor (α) that is calculated as: α = KLa wastewater/KLa tapwater, where: KLa
wastewater = mass transfer coefficient of O2 in wastewater, KLa tapwater = mass transfer
coefficient of O2 in tapwater.

From the graph above (deoxygenation curve),

Cs (waste water) =6.8mg/l, Cs(tap water) =11mg/l

β= Cs (waste water)/ Cs (tap water) = (6.8mg/l)/ (11mg/l)

β = 0.6182

Where Cs is the saturation concentration of waste water =6.8mg/l, and Cs of tap water =11mg/l.

Co is the oxygen concentration at time 0(t0) of tap water and waste water =0mg/l and 0mg/l
respectively.

C is the dissolved oxygen concentration in mg/l.

Dissolve oxygen concentration of tap water attain its saturation points at 50minutes.After 50
minutes, we keep getting the same value of dissolve oxygen which shows that the oxygen
concentration has reached its saturation point, and the dissolve oxygen concentration in waste
water attain its saturation point at 100minutes.

In summary, it takes longer time to attain saturation in wastewater.

60
 – ∈(Cs−C 1)
Fig. 4.4 represents a plot of ¿ versus (t-t0) for the oxygenation cycle. The slopes
Cs−Co¿
of these lines are equivalent to the coefficients (KLa).

4 Oxygenation curve
f(x) = 0.0716947094631987 x − 0.163441228555616
3.5

3
-In(Cs-C)/( Cs-Co)

tap water
2.5 f(x) = 0.0319417916942578 x − 0.190119610254469
Linear (tap water)
waste water
2 Linear (waste water)

1.5

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 Time
40 (minutes)
50 60 70 80 90 100

– ∈(Cs−C 1)
Fig. 4.4 a graph of ¿ against time of tap water and waste water.
Cs−Co¿

Where Kla (waste water) and Kla (tap water) are gotten from the slope of the curves and they
represent the Mass Transfer Coefficients of oxygen.

Kla (waste water) = 0.031 gotten from the oxygenation curve of waste water.

Kla (tap water) = 0.071 gotten from the oxygenation curve of tap water.

α = KLa wastewater/KLa tapwater = 0.031/0.071

α =0.4366

From the graph above (oxygenation curve),

Cs(waste water) =6.8mg/l, Cs(tap water) =11mg/l

β= Cs (waste water)/ Cs (tap water) = (6.8mg/l)/ (11mg/l)

β = 0.6182
61
4.2 DISCUSSION

Energy consumption from aeration systems is a big part of the total energy cost in a wastewater
treatment plant. Therefore it is interesting to know how effective the aeration system is in
comparison to the energy consumption. The results of the evaluation of the rate of oxygen mass
transfer in a diffused bubble system shows that aeration can be achieved using a low cost
aeration system. The saturation concentration of oxygen in waste water and tap water is
presented in figure 4.2. When air and water are contacted with each other for a long period of
time and there is no reactions consuming oxygen in the water, the concentration of oxygen in the
water will approach an equilibrium concentration. From the results, the saturation concentration
of oxygen in tap water was 11.0mg/L while that of the waste water was 6.8mg/L. The presence
of contaminants such as salts and surfactants in the wastewater have an impact upon the oxygen
mass transfer (Safta, et al., 2012). The saturation concentration of oxygen was decreased by 38%
in the wastewater. This could be the reason for the disparity in the saturation concentrations of
the waste water and tap water. The rate of mass transfer coefficient of oxygen in waste water K La
was lowered by (0.031) compared to that of the tap water (0.071). The normal α- value ranges
typically from 0.66 to 1.07, which determines the efficiency of the rate of oxygen transfer of an
aerator, and the α- values gotten from the fig.4.3 and fig. 4.4 curves are 1 and 0.4366. The high
KLa, shows that the equipment is cleverly designed so that a high oxygen transfer rate can be
reached.

For waste water, α (correction factor for the oxygen-transfer co-efficient) normally is between
0.80 and 0.95, and β (correction factor for the oxygen concentration at saturation) typically
ranges from 0.95 to 1.00 (Eckenfelder et al.1956, Wheaton 1977), and the β-values were gotten
from fig.4.3 and fig.4.4 is 0.6182.

62
4.3 COST ESTIMATION OF MATERIALS USED FOR THE STUDY

S/N ITEMS MATERIALS QTY UNIT RATE(N) AMOUNT(N)

1 1.01  Tube 1 Nos 1000 1000

2 1.02 Air pumper 1 Nos 2000 2000
3 1.03 Rubber solution 1 Nos 300 300
4 1.04 Tube patch 1 Nos 200 200
5 1.05 Sand Paper 1 Nos 100 100
6 1.06 T-shaped valve 1 Nos 200 200
7 1.07 Aeration hose 1 Nos 500 500
8 1.08 Controller valve 1 Nos 200 200
9 1.09 Nail 1 Nos 100 100
10 1.10 Glue 1 Nos 100 100
11 1.11 Trough 1 Nos 2000 2000

ITEMS MATERIALS - - - Total(6,700)

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

63
5.1 CONCLUSION

This shows that a low cost diffused bubble aerator system can supply adequate oxygen needed to
aerate a particular system such as fish ponds and household wastewater treatment plant.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

I recommended that a low cost diffused bubble aerator system for used to supply oxygen in the
aquarium and also in the household wastewater treatment plant. It can also be employed in
aeration of household drinking water system.

64
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 APPENDIX

Estimation of dissolve oxygen concentrations of tap water and waste water of

deoxygenation cycle experiment.

Time(minute) DO(tap water)mg/l DO(waste water)mg/l

0 8 5.2
2 7.6 5
4 7.2 4.8
6 7 4.6
8 6.4 4.2
10 5.8 4
15 5 3.6
20 5.6 3.4
25 4.6 3.2
30 3.8 3
35 2.5 3.2
40 1.8 1.8
45 1.4 1.6
50 0.8 0.8
55 0 0
Key words: DO (Dissolve Oxygen) in mg/l

Estimation of dissolve oxygen concentrations of tap water and waste water of

oxygenation cycle experiment.

Time(minute) DO(tapwater)mg/l DO(wastewater)mg/l

0 0 0
2 0.8 0
4 1.6 0.4
6 2.2 0.4
8 3 0.8
10 3.8 0.13
15 5.6 1.9
20 7.4 2.5
25 9.2 2.96
30 9.8 3.6
40 10.2 4.1
50 11 4.5
60 11 5
70 11 5.6
80 6.1

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 90 6.6
100 6.8
110 6.8
Key words: DO (Dissolve Oxygen) in mg/l

DEOXYGENATION CYCLE EXPERIMENT TABLE

Time(min) C(tap C(waste Cs-C (tap Cs- Cs-Co(tap Cs- -In(Cs- -In(Cs-
water)mg/l water)mg/ water)mg/l C(waste water)mg/l Co(waste C/Cs- C/Cs-
l water)mg/l water)mg/l Co)mg/l Co)mg/l
tap waste
water water
0 8 5.2 3 1.6 3 1.6 0 0
2 7.6 5 3.4 1.8 3 1.6 -0.1252 -0.1178
4 7.2 4.8 3.8 2 3 1.6 -0.2364 -0.2231
6 7 4.6 4 2.2 3 1.6 -0.2877 -0.3185
8 6.4 4.2 4.6 2.6 3 1.6 -0.4274 -0.4855
10 5.8 4 5.2 2.8 3 1.6 -0.5596 -0.5596
15 5 3.6 6 3.2 3 1.6 -0.6931 -0.6931
20 5.6 3.4 5.4 3.4 3 1.6 -0.5878 -0.7538
25 4.6 3.2 6.4 3.6 3 1.6 -0.7577 -0.8109
30 3.8 3 7.2 3.8 3 1.6 -0.8755 -0.8650
35 2.5 3.2 8.5 3.6 3 1.6 -1.0415 -0.8109
40 1.8 1.8 9.2 5 3 1.6 -1.1206 -1.1394
45 1.4 1.6 9.6 5.2 3 1.6 -1.1632 -1.1787
50 0.8 0.8 10.2 6 3 1.6 -1.2238 -1.3218
55 0 0 11 6.8 3 1.6 -1.2993 -1.4469
Keywords: C is the dissolve oxygen concentrations of tap water and waste water in mg/l

Co is the oxygen concentration at time 0(t0)

Where Cs is the saturation concentration of wastewater and tapwater in mg/l,

The Cs of wastewater =6.8mg/l, and Cs of tapwater =11mg/l,

The Co at time 0(t0) of tap water and waste water =8mg/l and 5.2mg/l respectively.

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 OXYGENATION CYCLE EXPERIMENT TABLE

Time C (tap C Cs-C Cs-C Cs-Co Cs-Co -In(Cs-C/Cs- -In(Cs-C/Cs-

(minute water) (waste (tapwater) (wastewater) (tap water ) (wastewater) Co) mg/l tap Co)mg/l waste
s) mg/l water) mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l water water
mg/l
0 0 0 11 6.8 11 6.8 0 0
2 0.8 0 10.2 6.8 11 6.8 0.0755 0
4 1.6 0.4 9.4 6.4 11 6.8 0.1572 0.0606
6 2.2 0.4 8.8 6.4 11 6.8 0.2231 0.0606
8 3 0.8 8 6 11 6.8 0.3185 0.1252
10 3.8 0.13 7.2 6.67 11 6.8 0.4238 0.0193
15 5.6 1.9 5.4 4.9 11 6.8 0.7115 0.3277
20 7.4 2.5 3.6 4.3 11 6.8 1.1170 0.4583
25 9.2 2.96 1.8 3.84 11 6.8 1.8101 0.5715
30 9.8 3.6 1.2 3.2 11 6.8 2.2156 0.7538
40 10.2 4.1 0.8 2.7 11 6.8 2.6210 0.9237
50 11 4.5 0 2.3 11 6.8 1.0840
60 11 5 0 1.8 11 6.8 1.3291
70 11 5.6 0 1.2 11 6.8 1.7346
80 6.1 0.7 11 6.8 2.2736
90 6.6 0.2 11 6.8 3.5264
100 6.8 0 11 6.8
110 6.8 0 11 6.8

Here, Cs is the saturation concentration of waste water =6.8mg/l, and Cs of tap water =11mg/l,

And Co of oxygen concentration at time 0(t0) of tap water and waste water =0mg/l and 0mg/l
respectively.

81