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Chapter

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

ww
2.1. Pressure of a liquid
2.2. Pressure head of a liquid
2.3. Pascal’s law
2.1. PRESSURE OF A LIQUID
When a fluid is contained in a vessel, it exerts force

w.E
2.4. Absolute and gauge
pressures.
2.5. Measurement of pressure–
at all points on the sides and bottom and top of the
container. The force per unit area is called pressure.
If, P = The force, and
Manometers–Mechanical
gauges
Highlights asy A = Area on which the force acts; then

intensity of pressure, p =
P
A
...(2.1)
Objective Type Questions
Theoretical Questions
En The pressure of a fluid on a surface will always act
normal to the surface.
Unsolved Examples

2.2. PRESSURE HEAD OF A LIQUID gin

ee
A liquid is subjected to pressure due to
its own weight, this pressure increases as
the depth of the liquid increases.
Cylinder

rin
Consider a vessel containing liquid,
as shown in Fig. 2.1. The liquid will exert
pressure on all sides and bottom of the g.n
h

vessel. Now, let cylinder be made to stand

in the liquid, as shown in the figure.
Let, h = Height of liquid in the cylinder,
A = Area of the cylinder base,
Vessel Liquid

Fig. 2.1. Pressure head.

et wh

w = Specific weight of the liquid,

and, p = Intensity of pressure.
Now, Total pressure on the base of the cylinder = Weight of liquid in the cylinder
i.e., p. A. = wAh
wAh
p = = wh i.e., p = wh ...(2.2)
A
As p = wh, the intensity of pressure in a liquid due to its depth will vary directly with depth.
As the pressure at any point in a liquid depends on height of the free surface above that point, it
is sometimes convenient to express a liquid pressure by the height of the free surface which would
cause the pressure, i.e.,
43

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44 Fluid Mechanics

p
h = [from eqn. (2.2)]
w
The height of the free surface above any point is known as the static head at that point. In this
case, static head is h.
Hence, the intensity of pressure of a liquid may be expressed in the following two ways:
1. As a force per unit area (i.e., N/mm2, N/m2), and
2. As an equivalent static head (i.e., metres, mm or cm of liquid).
Alternatively:
Pressure variation in fluid at rest:
In order to determine the pressure at any point in a fluid at rest “hydrostatic law” is used; the
law states as follows:

ww
Free surface
“The rate of increase of pressure in a
vertically downward direction must be equal to Fluid
the specific weight of the fluid at that point.”

w.E
Z p.A
The proof of the law is as follows.
Refer to Fig. 2.2 L M
Let, p = Intensity of pressure on face LM, Fluid element

asy
∆ A = Cross-sectional area of the element,
Z = Distance of the fluid element from
free surface, and


En
∆Z = Height of the fluid element.
The forces acting on the element are:
S
p
T

p + Z A

gin
(i) Pressure force on the face
LM = p × ∆A ...(acting downward)
Z
Fig. 2.2. Forces acting on a fluid element.

( )
(ii) Pressure force on the face ST
ee
= p+
∂p
∂Z
× ∆Z × ∆A

(iii) Weight of the fluid element = Weight density × volume

rin
... (acting upward)

= w × (∆A × ∆Z)
(iv) Pressure forces on surfaces MT and LS ..... are equal and opposite.
For equilibrium of the fluid element, we have:
g.n
or,
p × DA –  p +

∂p
∂Z

p × ∆A – p × ∆A –
× ∆Z  × DA + w × (DA × DZ) = 0

∂p


× ∆Z × ∆A + w × ∆A × ∆Z = 0
et
∂Z
∂p
or, ∆Z × ∆A + w × ∆A × ∆Z = 0
∂Z
∂p
or, = w (cancelling ∆Z × ∆A from both the sides)
∂Z
∂p
or, = ρ × g  ( Q w = ρ × g) ...(2.3)
∂Z
Eqn. (2.3.) states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to weight
density of the fluid at that point. This is “hydrostatic law”.
On integrating the eqn. (2.3), we get:

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Chapter 2 : Pressure Measurement 45

∫ dp = ∫ ρg . dZ
or, p = ρ g. Z (= wZ) ...(2.4)
where, p is the pressure above atmospheric pressure.
From eqn. (2.4), we have:
p  p 
Z = =  ... (2.5)
ρ.g  w 
Here Z is known as pressure head.
Example 2.1. Find the pressure at a depth of 15 m below the free surface of water in a reservoir.
Solution. Depth of water, h = 15 m
Specific weight of water, w = 9.81 kN/m3

wwPressure p:
We know that,
i.e.,
p = wh = 9.81 × 15 = 147.15 kN/m2
p = 147.15 kN/m2 = 147.15 kPa (Ans.)

w.E
Example 2.2. Find the height of water column corresponding to a pressure of 54 kN/m2.
Solution. Intensity of pressure, p = 54 kN/m2
Specific weight of water, w = 9.81 kN/m3

asy
Height of water column, h:
p
Using the relation:

2.3. PASCAL’S LAW En p = wh; h = =

54
w 9.81
= 5.5 m (Ans.)

gin
The Pascal’s law states as follows :
“The intensity of pressure at any point in a liquid L

ee
at rest, is the same in all directions”.
Proof. Let us consider a very small wedge shaped
element LMN of a liquid, as shown in Fig. 2.3.
pz


rin px

Let, px = Intensity of horizontal pressure on

the element of liquid,
py = Intensity of vertical pressure on the
M

g.n
et
N
element of liquid,
py
pz = Intensity of pressure on the diagonal
of the right angled triangular element, Fig. 2.3. Pressure on a fluid element at rest.
α = Angle of the element of the liquid,
Px = Total pressure on the vertical side LN of the liquid,
Py = Total pressure on the horizontal side MN of the liquid, and
Pz = Total pressure on the diagonal LM of the liquid.
Now, Px = px × LN ...(i)
and, Py = py × MN ...(ii)
and, Pz = pz × LM ...(iii)
As the element of the liquid is at rest, therefore the sum of horizontal and vertical components
of the liquid pressures must be equal to zero.
Resolving the forces horizontally:
Pz sin α = Px

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46 Fluid Mechanics

pz . LM. sin α = px . LN     ( Q Pz = pz. LM)

But, LM . sin α = LN ... From Fig 2.3
∴ pz = px ...(iv)
Resolving the forces vertically:
Pz .cos α = Py – W
(where, W = weight of the liquid element)
Since the element is very small, neglecting its weight, we have:
Pz cos α = Py or pz . LM cos α = py .MN
But, LM cos α = MN ...From Fig 2.3
∴ pz = py ...(v)
From (iv) and (v), we get: px = py = pz,

ww which is independent of α.
Hence, at any point in a fluid at rest the intensity of pressure is exerted equally in all directions,

w.E
which is called Pascal’s law.
Example 2.3. The diameters of ram and plunger of an hydraulic press are 200 mm and 30 mm
respectively. Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the force applied at the plunger is
400 N.

asy
Solution. Diameter of the ram, D = 200 mm = 0.2 m
Diameter of the plunger, d = 30 mm = 0.03 m

En
Force on the plunger, F = 400 N
F = 400 N

gin
ee
Plunger

W Ram
rin
p
g.n
p
et
Hydraulic press

Fig. 2.4

Load lifted, W:
π 2 π
Area of ram, A = D = × 0.22 = 0.0314 m2
4 4
π 2 π
Area of plunger, a = d = × 0.032 = 7.068 × 10–4 m2
4 4

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Chapter 2 : Pressure Measurement 47

Intensity of pressure due to plunger,
F 400
p = = = 5.66 × 105 N/m2
a 7.068 × 10 – 4
Since the intensity of pressure will be equally transmitted (due to Pascal’s law), therefore the
intensity of pressure at the ram is also
= p = 5.66 × 105 N/m2
Weight W W
But intensity of pressure at the ram = = = N/m 2
Area of ram A 0.0314
W
∴ = 5.66 × 105 or W = 0.0314 × 5.66 × 105 N = 17.77 × 103 N or 17.77 kN (Ans.)
0.0314
Example 2.4. For the hydraulic jack shown in Fig. 2.5 find the load lifted by the large piston

ww
when a force of 400 N is applied on the small piston. Assume the specific weight of the liquid in the
jack is 9810 N/m3.
Solution. Diameter of small piston, d = 30 mm = 0.03 m

w.E F = 400 N

asy Small piston

100 mm
dia.

30 mm En
dia.

L L gin
300 mm
W Large piston

ee rin
Liquid

Fig. 2.5
g.n

Area of small piston, a =
π 2 π
4
d = × 0.032 = 7.068 × 10–4 m2
4
Diameter of the large piston, D = 100 mm = 0.1 m
π 2 π
et
Area of large piston, A = D = × 0.12 = 7.854 × 10–3 m2
4 4
Force on small piston, F = 400 N
Load lifted, W:
F 400
Pressure intensity on small piston, p = = = 5.66 × 105 N/m2
a 7.068 × 10 – 4
Pressure intensity at section LL,
F
pLL = + Pressure intensity due to height of 300 mm of liquid
a
F 300
= + wh = 5.66 × 105 + 9810 ×
a 1000
= 5.66 × 105 + 2943 = 5.689 × 105 N/m2

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48 Fluid Mechanics
Pressure intensity transmitted to the large piston = 5.689 × 105 N/m2
Force on the large piston = Pressure intensity × area of large piston
                 = 5.689 × 105 × 7. 854 × 10–3 = 4468 N
Hence, load lifted by the large piston = 4468 N (Ans.)

2.4. ABSOLUTE AND GAUGE PRESSURES

Atmospheric pressure:
The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces with which it is in contact,
and it is known as atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure is also known as ‘Barometric
pressure’.
The atmospheric pressure at sea level (above absolute zero) is called ‘Standard atmospheric
pressure’.

ww
Note. The local atmospheric pressure may be a little lower than these values if the place under question is
higher than sea level, and higher values if the place is lower than sea level, due to the corresponding
decrease or increase of the column of air standing, respectively.

w.E
Gauge pressure:
It is the pressure, measured with the help of pressure measuring instrument, in which the
atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.

asy
Gauges record pressure above or below the local atmospheric pressure, since they measure
the difference in pressure of the liquid to which they are connected and that of surrounding air. If
the pressure of the liquid is below the local atmospheric pressure, then the gauge is designated as

En
‘vacuum gauge’ and the recorded value indicates the amount by which the pressure of the liquid is
below local atmospheric pressure, i.e. negative pressure.

gin
(Vacuum pressure is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure).
Absolute pressure:

ee
It is necessary to establish an absolute pressure scale which is independent of the changes in
atmospheric pressure. A pressure of absolute zero can exist only in complete vacuum.

rin
Any pressure measured above the absolute zero of pressure is termed as an ‘absolute pressure’.
A schematic diagram showing the gauge pressure, vacuum pressure and the absolute pressure
is given in Fig. 2.6.
g.n
Positive gauge
pressure
Atmospheric
pressure
et
Pressure

Negative gauge
pressure or vacuum

Absolute
pressure

Zero absolute pressure

Fig. 2.6. Relationship between pressures.

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Chapter 2 : Pressure Measurement 49

Mathematically:
1. Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
i.e., pabs = patm + pgauge
2. Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure – absolute pressure
Units for pressure:
The fundamental S.I. unit of pressure is newton per square metre (N/m2). This is also known as
Pascal.
Low pressures are often expressed in terms of mm of water or mm of mercury. This is an
abbreviated way of saying that the pressure is such that will support a liquid column of stated height.
Note. When the local atmospheric pressure is not given in a problem, it is taken as 100 kN/m2 or 10 m of
water for simplicity of calculations.
Standard atmospheric pressure has the following equivalent values:

ww 101.3 kN/m2 or 101.3 kPa; 10.3 m of water; 760 mm of mercury; 1013 mb (millibar) ; 1 bar
;100 kPa = 105 N/m2.
Example 2.5. Given that:

w.E
Barometer reading = 740 mm of mercury;
Specific gravity of mercury = 13.6; Intensity of pressure = 40 kPa.

asy
Express the intensity of pressure in S.I. units, both gauge and absolute.
Solution. Intensity of pressure, p = 40 kPa
Gauge pressure:

En
(i) p = 40 kPa = 40 kN/m2 = 0.4 × 105 N/m2 = 0.4 bar (Ans.)
(1 bar = 105 N/m2)

(ii) h =
p 0.4 × 10 5
=
w 9.81 × 10 3 gin
= 4.077 m of water (Ans.)

(iii) h =
p
=
0.4 × 10 5
w 9.81 × 10 3 × 13.6 ee
= 0.299 m of mercury (Ans.)

rin
 Where, w = specific weight; 


 For mercury =
g.n
 For water : w = 9.81 kN/m
3 

3
: w 9.81 × 13.6 kN/m 
Absolute pressure:
Barometer reading (atmospheric pressure)
= 740 mm of mercury = 740 × 13.6 mm of water
et
740 × 13.6
= = 10.6 m of water
1000
Absolute pressure (pabs.) = Atmospheric pressure (patm.) + gauge pressure (pgauge).
∴ pabs = 10.06 + 4.077 = 14.137 m of water (Ans.)
= 14.137 × ( 9.81 × 103 ) = 1.38 × 105 N/m2 (Ans.) (p = wh)
= 1.38 bar (Ans.) (1 bar = 105 N/m2)
14.137
  = = 1.039 m of mercury. (Ans.)
13.6
Example 2.6. Calculate the pressure at a point 5 m below the free water surface in a liquid that
has a variable density given by relation:

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50 Fluid Mechanics

ρ = (350 + Ay) kg/m3

4
where, A = 8 kg/m and y is the distance in metres measured from the free surface.
Solution. As per hydrostatic equation
dp = ρ.g.dy= g (350 + Ay)dy
Integrating both sides, we get:
5 5
∫ dp = ∫
0
g (350 + =
Ay) dy ∫
g (350 + 8 y) dy
0

2 5
y
p = g 350 y + 8 ×
2 0

52

ww
= 9.81 (350 × 5 + 8 ×
2
) = 18148 N/m2 ; 18.15 kN/m2

(Ans.)

w.E
Example 2.7. On the suction side of a pump a gauge shows a negative pressure of 0.35 bar.
Express this pressure in terms of:
(i) Intensity of pressure, kPa,
(ii) N/m2 absolute,

asy
(iii) Metres of water gauge,
(iv) Metres of oil (specific gravity 0.82) absolute, and

En
(v) Centimetres of mercury gauge,
Take atmospheric pressure as 76 cm of Hg and relative density of mercury as 13.6.

gin
Solution. Given: Reading of the vacuum gauge = 0.35 bar
(i) Intensity of pressure, kPa:

= 0.35 × 105 Pa = 35 kPa (Ans.)
(ii) N/m2 absolute:
ee
Gauge reading = 0.35 bar = 0.35 × 105 N/m2

Atmospheric pressure, patm. = 76 cm of Hg rin

= (13.6 × 9810) ×
76
100
= 101396 N/m 2
g.n



Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure – Vacuum pressure

(iii) Metres of water gauge:

pabs. = patm – pvac.
= 101396 – 35000 = 66396 N/m2 absolute (Ans.)
et
p = ρgh = wh
p 0.35 × 10 5
∴ hwater (gauge)
= = = 3.567m (gauge) (Ans.)
w 9810
(iv) Metres of oil (sp. gr. = 0.82) absolute:
66396
hoil (absolute) = = 8.254 m of water (absolute) (Ans.)
0.82 × 9810
(v) Centimetres of mercury gauge:
0.35 × 10 5
hmercury(gauge) = = 0.2623 m of mercury
13.6 × 9810
= 26.236 cm of mercury (Ans.)

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Chapter 2 : Pressure Measurement 51

Example 2.8. The inlet to pump is 10.5 m above the bottom of sump from which it draws water
through a suction pipe. If the pressure at the pump inlet is not to fall below 28 kN/m2 absolute, work
out the minimum depth of water in the tank.
Assume atmospheric pressure as 100 kPa.
Solution. Given: patm. = 100 kPa = 100 kN/m2; pabs.= 28 kN/m2.
Minimum depth of water in the tank:
Let, pvac. = The vacuum (suction) pressure at the pump inlet.
Then, pvac. = patm. – pabs.
= (100 – 28) = 72 kN/m2 or 72000 N/m2
Further, let h be the distance between the pump inlet and free water surface in the sump.
Invoking hydrostatic equation, we have:
p = wh

ww


or,
72000 = 9810 × h
h =
72000
= 7.339 m

w.E
∴ Minimum depth of water in the tank
= 10.5 – 7.339 = 3.161 m (Ans.)
9810

asy
Example 2.9. A cylindrical tank of cross-sectional area 600 mm2 and 2.6 m height is filled with
water upto a height of 1.5 m and remaining with oil of specific gravity 0.78. The vessel is open to

En
atmospheric pressure. Calculate:
(i) Intensity of pressure at the interface.

N/m2.
gin
(ii) Absolute and gauge pressures on the base of the tank in terms of water head, oil head and

(iii) The net force experienced by the base of the tank.

patm.

ee
Assume atmospheric pressure as 1.0132 bar.
Solution. Given: Area of cross-section of the tank, A = 600
mm2 = 600 × 10-6; Sp.gr. of oil =0.78; patm.= 1.0132 bar.
rin
Cylindrical
tank

(i) Intensity of pressure at the interface:

The pressure intensity at the interface between the oil
and water is due to 1.1 m of oil and is given by:
1.1 m

g.n Oil
(Sp. gr. = 0.78)

= (0.78 × 9810) × 1.1
= 8417 N/m2 (Ans.)
pinterface = wh
et Interface
between the oil
and water
(ii) Absolute and gauge pressures on the base of the tank:
Pressure at the base of the tank 1.5 m Water
= Pressure at the interface (due to 1.1 m of oil) + pressure
due to 1.5 m of water,
i.e., pbase (gauge) = 8417 + (9810 × 1.5)
= 23132 N/m2 (gauge) (Ans.)
23132
= = 2.358 m of water (gauge) (Ans.)
9810
23132 patm.
= = 3.023 m of oil (gauge) (Ans.)
0.78 × 9810 Fig. 2.7

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52 Fluid Mechanics
Atmospheric pressure, patm. = 1.0132 bar

= 1.0132 × 105 N/m2
1.0132 × 10 5
= = 10.328 m of water
9810
1.0132 × 10 5
= = 13.241 m of oil
0.78 × 9810
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
pbase (absolute) = 10.328 + 2.358 = 12.686 m of water (Ans.)
= 13.241 + 3.023 = 16.264 m of oil (Ans.)
= 101320 + 23132 = 124452 N/m2 (Ans.)
(iii) The net force experienced by the base of the tank:

ww
F (= P) = pbase(gauge) × cross-sectional area
= 23132 × 600 × 10–6 = 13.879 N (Ans.)

w.E
Example 2.10. (a) What is hydrostatic paradox?
(b) A cylinder of 0.25 m diameter and 1.2 m height is fixed centrally on the top of a large
cylinder of 0.9 m diameter and 0.8 m height. Both the cylinders are filled with water. Cal-
culate:
asy
(i) Total pressure at the bottom of the bigger cylinder, and

En
(ii) Weight of total volume of water.
What is hydrostatic paradox between the two results and how this difference can be
reconciled?
gin
Solution. (a) Hydrostatic paradox:

a liquid upto the same height h.

Free surface
ee
Fig. 2.8 shows three vessels 1, 2 and 3 having the same area A at the bottom and each filled with

rin
g.n
h Liquid 1 h
2
h
et 3

A (area) A A = Area of the

bottom
Fig. 2.8. Hydrostatic paradox.
According to the hydrostatic equation, p = wh; the intensity of pressure (p) depends only on the
height of the column and not at all upon the size of the column. Thus, in all these vessels of different
shapes and sizes, the same intensity of pressure would be exerted on the bottom of each of these
vessels. Since each of the vessels has the same area A at the bottom, the pressure force P = p × A on
the base of each vessel would be same. This is independent of the fact that the weight of liquid in
each vessel is different. This situation is referred to as hydrostatic paradox.

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Chapter 2 : Pressure Measurement 53

(b) Area at the bottom: 0.25 m
π dia.
A = × (0.9)2 = 0.6362 m2
4
Intensity of pressure at the bottom
p = wh = 9810 × (1.2 + 0.8)
= 19620 N/m2 1.2 m
Total pressure force at the bottom
P = p × A = 19620 × 0.6362 = 12482 N Cylinders
Weight of total volume of water contained in the
cylinders,
W = w × volume of water

ww

π
4
= 5571 N
π
= 9810  × 0.9 2 × 0.8 + × 0.25 2 × 1.2  0.8 m
4  Water

w.E
From the above calculations it may be observed that the
total pressure force at the bottom of the cylinder is greater
than the weight of total volume of water (W) contained in the
0.9 m dia.
Fig. 2.9

asy
cylinders. This is hydrostatic paradox.
The following is the explanation of the hydrostatic paradox: Refer to Fig. 2.9.
Total pressure force on the bottom of bigger tank = 12482 N (downward). A reaction at the roof

En
of the lower tank is caused by the upward force which equals,
π
wAh = 9810 × (0.92 – 0.252) × 1.2 = 6911 N (upward)

gin 4
The distance h corresponding to depth of water in the cylinder fixed centrally on the top of
larger cylinder.

water in the two cylinder.

2.5. MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

ee
Net downward force exerted by water = 12482 – 6911 = 5571 N and it equals the weight of

rin
The pressure of a fluid may be measured by the following devices:
g.n
1. Manometers:

et
Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid
by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of liquid. These are classified as
follows:
(a) Simple manometers:
(i) Piezometer, (ii) U-tube manometer, and (iii) Single column manometer.
(b) Differential manometers.
2. Mechanical gauges:
These are the devices in which the pressure is measured by balancing the fluid column by spring
( elastic element) or dead weight. Generally these gauges are used for measuring high pressure and
where high precision is not required. Some commonly used mechanical gauges are:
(i) Bourdon tube pressure gauge, (ii) Diaphragm pressure gauge,
(iii) Bellow pressure gauge, and (iv) Dead-weight pressure gauge.

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54 Fluid Mechanics

2.5.1 Manometers
2.5.1.1. Simple manometers
A “simple manometer” is one which consists of a glass tube whose one end is connected to a
point where pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open to atmosphere.
Common types of simple manometers are discussed below:
1. Piezometer:
A piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which can be used for measuring moderate
pressures of liquids. It consists of a glass tube (Fig 2.10) inserted in the wall of a vessel or of a pipe,
containing liquid whose pressure is to be measured. The tube extends vertically upward to such a
height that liquid can freely rise in it without overflowing. The pressure at any point in the liquid
is indicated by the height of the liquid in the tube above that point, which can be read on the scale

ww
attached to it. Thus if w is the specific weight of the liquid, then the pressure at point A(p) is given
by:
p = wh

w.E
asy
Open Piezometer
vessel tube

En h

gin
ee
Fig. 2.10. (a) Piezometer tube fitted to open vessel.
Piezometers measure gauge pressure only (at the rin
surface of the liquid), since the surface of the liquid in the
tube is subjected to atmospheric pressure. A piezometer
Piezometer
tube g.n
tube is not suitable for measuring negative pressure; as in
such a case the air will enter in pipe through the tube.
2. U-tube manometer:
Piezometers cannot be employed when large pressures Pipe
et h
in the lighter liquids are to be measured, since this
would require very long tubes, which cannot be handled
conveniently. Furthermore gas pressures cannot be
measured by the piezometers because a gas forms no free A
atmospheric surface. These limitations can be overcome by
the use of U-tube manometers.
A U-tube manometer consists of a glass tube bent in Fig. 2.10. (b) Piezometer tube
U-shape, one end of which is connected to a point at which fitted to a closed pipe.
pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to
the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2.11.

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Chapter 2 : Pressure Measurement 55

(i) For positive pressure:
Refer to Fig. 2.11 (a).

h2
A A
h1
h1

ww X X X
h2
X

w.E (a) (b)

asy Fig. 2.11. U-tube manometer.

Let, A be the point at which pressure is to be measured. X–X is the datum line as shown in
Fig. 2.11 (a).

En
Let, h1 = Height of the light liquid in the left limb above the datum line,

gin
h2 = Height of the heavy liquid in the right limb above the datum line,
h = Pressure in pipe, expressed in terms of head,
S1 = Specific gravity of the light liquid, and

ee
S2 = Specific gravity of the heavy liquid.

rin
The pressures in the left limb and right limb above the datum line X–X are equal (as the pressures
at two points at the same level in a continuous homogeneous liquid are equal).
Pressure head above X–X in the left limb = h + h1 S1
Pressure head above X–X in the right limb = h2 S2
Equating these two pressures, we get: g.n
h + h1 S1 = h2 S2 or h = h2 S2 – h1S1
(ii) For negative pressure:
Refer to Fig. 2.11 (b).
et ...(2.6)

Pressure head above X–X in the left limb = h + h1 S1 + h2S2

Pressure head above X–X in the right limb = 0.
Equating these two pressures, we get:
h + h1S1 + h2 S2 = 0 or h = – (h1 S1 + h2S2) ...(2.7)
Example 2.11. In a pipeline water is flowing. A manometer is used to measure the pressure
drop for flow through the pipe. The difference in level was found to be 20 cm. If the manometric fluid
is CCl4, find the pressure drop in S.I units (density of CCl4 = 1.596 g/cm3). If the manometric fluid
is changed to mercury (ρ = 13.6gm/cm3) what will be the difference in level?
(UPTU)
Solution. Given: hCCl = 20 cm = 0.2 m; rCCl = 1.596 g/cm3
4 4

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56 Fluid Mechanics
= 1.596 × 103 kg/m3
ρHg = 13.6 × 103 kg/m3
Pressure drop, Dp = ρCCl ghCCl
4 4

= 1.596 × 10 × 9.81× 0.2 N/m2

3
h
= 3131.3 N/m2 or Pa = 3.131 kPa (Ans.)
The difference in level with mercury,
ρ CCl4 1.596 × 10 3
hHg = hCCl × = 0.20 ×
4 ρ Hg 13.6 × 10 3
= 0.02347 m or 2.347 cm (Ans.)
Fig. 2.12

ww Example 2.12. A U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil of specific gravity
0.85 flowing in a pipe line. Its left end is connected to the pipe and the right-limb is open to the
atmosphere. The centre of the pipe is 100 mm below the level of mercury (specific gravity = 13.6) in

w.E
the right limb. If the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 160 mm, determine the absolute
pressure of the oil in the pipe.
Solution. Specific gravity of oil, S1 = 0.85

asy
Specific gravity of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Height of the oil in the left limb,

En
h1 = 160 – 100 = 60 mm = 0.06 m
Difference of mercury level, Liquid (S1 = 0.85)
100 mm
h2 = 160 mm = 0.16 m.
Absolute pressure of oil:
gin
Let, h1 = Gauge pressure in the pipe in
A
160 mm
h2

p = Gauge pressure in terms of

kN/m2.
ee
terms of head of water, and
Pipe
X
h1

rin X
Equating the pressure heads above the
datum line X–X, we get:
h + h1 S1 = h2S2 g.n

or, h + 0.06 × 0.85 = 0.16 × 13.6 = 2.125 m
The pressure p is given by:
p = wh
Fig. 2.13 et
Mercury (S2 = 13.6)

= 9.81 × 2.125 kN/m2

= 20.84 kPa (Qw = 9.81 kN/m3 in S.I. units)
Absolute pressure of oil in the tube,
pabs. = patm. + pgauge
= 100 + 20.84 = 120.84 kPa (Ans.)
Example 2.13. U-tube manometer containing mercury was used to find the negative pressure
in the pipe, containing water. The right limb was open to the atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure
in the pipe, if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs was 100 mm and height of water in the
left limb from the centre of the pipe was found to be 40 mm below.
Solution. Specific gravity of water, S1 = 1

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Chapter 2 : Pressure Measurement 57

Specific gravity of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Height of water in the left limb,

h1 = 40 mm
h1 = 40 mm = 0.04 m
Height of mercury in the left limb, Water (S1 = 1.0)

h2 = 100 mm
h2 = 100 mm = 0.1 m
Let, h = Pressure in the pipe in terms of head of
water (below the atmosphere).
A
Equating the pressure heads above the datum line
X–X, we get:
h + h1S1 + h2S2 = 0
or, h = – (h1S1 + h2S2) Pipe X X

ww
= – (0.04 × 1 + 0.1 × 13.6)
= –1.4 m of water
Pressure p is given by:

w.E
Mercury (S2 = 13.6)
p = wh
Fig. 2.14
= 9.81 × (– 1.4) kN/m2

= – 13.73 kPa

asy
= 13.73 kPa (vacuum) (Ans.)
Example 2.14. A simple U-tube manometer is installed across an orificemeter. The manometer

En
is filled with mercury (sp. gravity = 13.6) and the liquid above the mercury is carbon tetrachloride
(sp. gravity = 1.6). The manometer reads 200 mm. What is the pressure difference over the manometer
in newtons per square metre.

gin
Solution. Specific gravity of heavier liquid, Shl = 13.6
Specific gravity of lighter liquid, Sll = 1.6

ee
Reading of the manometer, y = 200 mm
Pressure difference over the manometer : p
Differential head,
rin
S

13.6
h = y  hl – 1 
 S ll


g.n

200 
 1.6
– 1  = 1500 mm of carbon tetrachloride

Pressure difference over manometer,
 1500 
p = wh = (1.6 × 9810) × 
et

 1000 
or p = 23544 N/m2 (Ans.)
Example 2.15. In Fig. 2.15 is shown a conical vessel having its outlet at L to which U-tube
manometer is connected. The reading of the manometer given in figure shows when the vessel is
empty. Find the reading of the manometer when the vessel is completely filled with water.
Solution. When vessel is empty: (Refer to Fig. 2.15)
Let, h1 = Height of water above X–X
Specific gravity of water, S1 = 1.0
Specific gravity of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Equating the pressure heads about the datum line X–X, we get:

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Chapter 2 : Pressure Measurement 59

Equating the pressure heads above X–X , we get:
hL = 0.9 hM ...(i)
When the pressure on the surface in bulb M is increased by 20 mm of water, let the separation
level fall by an amount equal to y. Then Z–Z is the new separation level.
20 mm of
Water pressure
y/40 y/40

Liquid
Water
L (S2 = 0.9)
(S1 = 1.0) M

hM

ww hL
Limbs

Initial level of

w.E
separation
X X
y
Z Z

asy Final level of

separation

En Fig. 2.17

Now, A × fall in separation level in bulb M = a × fall in separation level in the limb (y).

gin a × y 30 × y
Fall in separation level in bulb M = = =
A 1200
y
40

ee
Also, fall in separation level in bulb M = Rise in surface level of L =

Considering pressure heads above Z–Z, we have:

 y 
y
40

rin
Pressure head in the left limb =  + hL + y 

 40

Pressure head in the right limb = (h



+y–
y
)
× 0.9 + 20 g.n
Equating the pressure heads, we get:

 40 L
  M 40 
M

 y + h + y  =  h + y – y  × 0.9 + 20
40

et
y 39 y
or, + 0.9 hM + y = 0.9 hM + × 0.9 + 20 (Q hL = 0.9 hM)
40 40
41y 39 y 41y 39 y
or, = × 0.9 + 20 or – × 0.9 = 20
40 40 40 40
or, 1.025y – 0.877y = 20 or y = 135.1 mm
Hence, displacement of the surface of separation = 135.1 mm (Ans.)
3. Single column manometer (micro-manometer):
The U-tube manometer described above usually requires reading of fluid levels at two or more
points since a change in pressure causes a rise of liquid in one limb of the manometer and a drop in
the other. This difficulty is however overcome by using single column manometers. A single column

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60 Fluid Mechanics
manometer is a modified form of a U-tube manometer in which a shallow reservoir having a large
cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as compared to the area of the tube is connected to one limb
of the manometer, as shown in Fig. 2.18. For any variation in pressure, the change in the liquid level
in the reservoir will be so small that it may be neglected, and the pressure is indicated by the height
of the liquid in the other limb. As such only one reading in the narrow limb of the manometer need
be taken for all pressure measurements. The narrow limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus there are
two types of single column manometer as given below:

Light liquid

ww
w.E X
h1

Reservoir X
h2

Z
asy
h
Z
h

En
gin Heavy liquid

Fig. 2.18. Vertical single column manometer.

ee
(a) Vertical single column manometer, and
(b) Inclined single column manometer.
(a) Vertical single column manometer:
rin
Refer to Fig. 2.18
g.n
Let X–X be the datum line in the reservoir when the single column manometer is not connected
to the pipe. Now consider that the manometer is connected to a pipe containing light liquid under

et
a very high pressure. The pressure in the pipe will force the light liquid to push the heavy liquid
in the reservoir downwards. As the area of the reservoir is very large, the fall of the heavy liquid
level will be very small. This downward movement of the heavy liquid, in the reservoir, will cause
a considerable rise of the heavy liquid in the right limb.
Let, h1 = Height of the centre of the pipe above X–X,
h2 = Rise of heavy liquid (after experiment) in the right limb,
δh = Fall of heavy liquid level in the reservoir,
h = Pressure in the pipe, expressed in terms of head of water,
A = Cross-sectional area of the reservoir,
a = Cross-sectional area of the tube (right limb),
S1 = Specific gravity of light liquid in pipe, and
S2 = Specific gravity of the heavy liquid.
We know that fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid level in the right
limb.

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Chapter 2 : Pressure Measurement 61

a × h2
Thus, A × δh = a × h2 or dh = ...(i)
A
Let us now consider pressure heads above the datum line Z–Z as shown in Fig. 2.18.
Pressure head in the left limb = h + ( h1 + δh)S1
Pressure head in the right limb = (h2 + δh)S2
Equating the pressure heads, we get:
h +(h1 + δh)S1 = (h2 + δh)S2 or h = ( h2 + δh) S2 – (h1 + δh) S1
= δh (S2 – S1) + h2S2 – h1S1
a × h2
But, dh = …[Eqn. (i)]
A
a × h2
h = (S2 – S1) + h2S2 – h1S1 …(2.8)

ww A
a
When the area A is very large as compared to a, then the ratio becomes very small, and thus
A

w.E
is neglected. Then the above equation becomes
h = h2S2 – h1S1
(b) Inclined single column manometer:
...(2.9)

asy
This type of manometer is useful for the measurement of small pressures and is more sensitive
than the vertical tube type. Due to inclination the distance moved by the heavy liquid in the right
limb is more.

h En
gin
ee
l
h1 h2 = l sin 

X
Z
X
Z
rin
g.n

h
Fig. 2.19. Inclined single column manometer.

l =
Let,
α =
h2 =

Inclination of right limb horizontal, and et
Length of the heavy liquid moved in right limb,

Vertical rise of liquid in right limb from X–X = l sin α .

Putting the value of h2 in eqn. 2.9, we get:
h = l sin α × S2 – h1 S1 ...(2.10)
Example. 2.17. Fig. 2.20 shows a single column manometer connected to a pipe containing
liquid of specific gravity 0.8. The ratio of area of the reservoir to that of the limb is 100. Find the
pressure in the pipe.
Take specific gravity of mercury as 13.6.
Solution. Specific gravity of liquid in the pipe, S1 = 0.8.
Specific gravity of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Area of reservoir A
= = 100
Area of right limb a

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62 Fluid Mechanics
Liquid
(S1 = 0.8)

500 mm
300 mm
Mercury

ww (S2 = 13.6)

w.E
Height of the liquid in the left limb,
h1 = 300 mm
Fig. 2.20

Let,
asy
Height of mercury in the right limb,
h2 = 500 mm
h = Pressure head in the pipe.
Using the relation:
En a

or, gin
h =

h =
h (S – S1) + h2S2 – h1S1
A 2 2
1
× 500 (13.6 – 0.8) + 500 × 13.6 – 300 × 0.8 mm of water

Pressure,
= 64.98 kN/m2 or 64.98 kPa
ee 100
= 6624 mm of water or 6.624 m of water
p = wh = 9.81 × 6.624
rin
i.e., p = 64.98 kPa (Ans.)
Example 2.18. A manometer consists of an inclined glass tube which communicates with a g.n
the cylinder and the tube are open to atmosphere. The upper end of the cylinder is then connected to
a gas supply at a pressure p and manometric liquid rises through a distance l in the tube. Establish
the relation:
et
metal cylinder standing upright; liquid fills the apparatus to a fixed zero mark on the tube when both

( ) 
 2
d
h = Sl  sin α +
 D
for the pressure head h of water column in terms of inclination α of the tube, specific gravity S
of the liquid, and ratio of diameter d of the tube to the diameter D of the cylinder.

Also determine the value of

D
d ( )
so that the error due to disregarding the change in level in the
cylinder will not exceed 0.1 percent when α = 25°.
Solution. Vertical rise in the tube = l sin α

( )
2
a d
Fall of liquid level in the cylinder = l × = l×
A D

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