02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids

Mechanical Properties
of Fluids
01
Weightage of the Chapter
With option 07 marks
Without option 05 marks
Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 02

INDEX
Sr. No. Subtopic Name Slide No.
2.1 Introduction 04
2.2 Fluid 05
2.3 Pressure 06
2.4 Surface tension 24
2.5 Fluids in motion 66
2.6 Critical velocity and Reynold’s number 68
2.7 Stokes’ law 74
2.8 Equation of continuity 77
2.9 Bernoulli equation 80

2.1 Introduction
A substance that can flow is called as fluid.
A fluid has very low to no rigidity.
Liquids and gases can flow therefore, they are collectively

called fluids.

2.2 Fluid
Fluid is a phase of matter that includes liquids, gases and plasma.

A fluid is a substance that deforms continually under the action of an external
force.
Properties of an ideal fluid
It is incompressible i.e., its density is constant.

Its flow is irrotational i.e., its flow is smooth with no turbulences in the flow.
It is non-viscous i.e., there is no internal friction in the flow and hence the
fluid has no viscosity.
Its flow is steady i.e., its velocity at each point is constant in time.
Properties of a fluid
It does not oppose deformation i.e., it gets permanently deformed.
It has the ability to flow.
It has the ability to take the shape of the container.

2.3 Pressure
The normal force (F) exerted by a fluid at rest per unit surface area (A)
of contact is called the pressure (P) of the fluid.
F
P=
A
Pressure is a scalar quantity.

Unit: Nm–2 or Pascal (Pa) in S.I. system
Pressure is also measured in following units:

1 bar = 105 Nm2
1 hectapascal (hPa) = 100 Pa
1 torr = 1 mm of mercury column
Dimensions: [L –1M1T –2].

2.3 Pressure
Expression for pressure exerted by liquid column
Consider a vessel filled with liquid of density ‘ρ’.

A cylinder having area of cross-section ‘A’ and height ‘h’ is imagined to
be inside the vessel as shown in figure. Pressure due to a
liquid column
Weight of liquid exerts a downward force on the bottom of the cylinder,
given as, F = mg .…(1)
Air
The pressure exerted by the liquid column on the bottom of the cylinder,
Liquid
mg
P=
Force  P = .…(2) .…(2)
Area A
h
But m = ρV
A
 m = (Ah)ρ .…(since, V = Ah) .…(3)
On comparing equation (2) and (3), we have,

(Ah)g
P = P=  P = hρg ….(4)
A
Equation (4) represents the value of pressure P due to a liquid of
density ‘ ρ’ and at a depth ‘h’ below the free surface

2.3 Pressure
Atmospheric pressure
The atmospheric pressure at any point is equal to the weight of a vertical

column of air of unit cross-sectional area starting from that point and
extending to the top of the earth’s atmosphere.
The atmospheric pressure is maximum at the surface of the Earth, i.e., at the
sea level, and goes on decreasing as we go above the Earth’s surface.
The atmospheric pressure at sea level is called normal atmospheric pressure.

2.3 Pressure
Expression for Absolute pressure P at a depth h below the surface of the liquid
If the Cylinder is completely immersed in liquid:

Consider a tank filled with liquid (water) of density ‘ρ’. Pressure due to an imaginary
cylinder of fluid
A cylinder having horizontal base area of cross-section ‘A’ and height ‘h’ is
imagined to be inside the tank.
Here, h = h1 – h2 ( where h1 and h2 are the heights measured from a

Air
reference point and h1 > h2) Water 
F1
Let P1 and P2 be the pressures of liquid at the points h 1 and h2 respectively. h1 P1
Force due to the weight of the water column above the cylinder, acting mg– h
vertically downwards on the top surface of the cylinder. h2 A P2
F1 = P 1A .…(1) 
F2
Force due to the water below the cylinder, acting vertically upwards on the
lower surface of the cylinder.
F2 = P 2A .…(2)
Weight of the liquid cylinder acting vertically downwards.

W = mg .…(3)
2.3 Pressure
We have,
F1 = P 1A .…(1)
F2 = P 2A .…
(2)
W = mg
.…(3) Pressure due to an imaginary
But, m = ρV cylinder of fluid
m = ρA (h1 – h2) .…( V = Ah) .…(4)
As the water is in static equilibrium, the forces on the cylinder are balanced.
Air
Water 
The net force on the cylinder is zero. F1
F1 + mg – F2 = 0 h1 P1
F2 = F1 + mg .…(5) mg– h
h2 A P2
Substituting equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) in equation (5),

P2A = P1A + ρAg (h1 – h2) F2
P2 = P1 + ρg (h1 – h2) .…(6)

2.3 Pressure
If the top of the cylinder is shifted to the surface of the liquid:

Taking the equation (6)
P2 = P1 + ρg (h1 – h2)
P1 = P0 i.e., atmospheric pressure at the surface
cylinder of fluid
h1 = 0, h2 = – h = – d (depth below the surface) and P2 = P
Substituting these values in equation (6),

Air
P = P0 + ρdg .…(7) Water 
F1
h1 P1
Equation (7) represents expression for absolute pressure P at a depth d
below the surface of the liquid. mg– h
h2 A P2

F2

2.3 Pressure
If the cylinder is above the liquid surface by a distance d:

Taking the equation (6)
P2 = P1 + ρg (h1 – h2)
P2 = P0 i.e., atmospheric pressure at the surface
cylinder of fluid
P1 = P, h1 = d, h2 = 0 and ρ = ρair
Substituting these values in equation (6)

Air
Water 
P = P0 – dρairg ….(8) F1
h1 P1
Equation (8) represents expression for absolute pressure P at a height d mg– h

above the surface h2 A P2

F2

2.3 Pressure
Gauge pressure
The total pressure P at depth h below the surface of liquid at rest,

which is open to atmosphere, is given as,
P = Pa + hρg ….(1)
Pgauge
The excess of pressure at depth h in liquid is called gauge pressure. Atmospheric
– Pgauge Pressure
P – Pa = hρg ….(2) Patm + Pgauge = P
Patm
Thus, gauge pressure at a point in a liquid is the difference
between the absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure. P = 0 atm

2.3 Pressure
Hydrostatic paradox
Consider the inter-connected vessels A, B, C and D as shown in the figure (a).
A liquid is poured in any one of the vessels, the level of liquids in all the vessels Figure (a)
is the same.
The vessels are of different shapes and hold different amounts of liquid. This is
A B C D
known as ‘hydrostatic paradox’.
The height of the liquid column is the same for all the vessels. Therefore, the
pressure of liquid column in each vessel is the same and the system is in
equilibrium.
Pascal’s law of fluid pressure
Statement: The pressure applied at any point of an enclosed fluid at rest is

transmitted equally and undiminished to every point of the fluid and also on the
walls of the container, provided the effect of gravity is neglected.

2.3 Pressure
Application of Pascal’s law
Hydraulic Lift:
Hydraulic
A hydraulic lift which is used to lift or support heavy A2 tubes
objects such as cars, trucks etc. works on the basis of
Pascal’s law.
Slave Slave
A1 cylinders
cylinders
Hydraulic Brakes:
Brake F1
A small force applied on the brake pedal gets converted fluids Master Brake
into a large force which slows down or stops a moving A2 cylinders pedal
vehicle.
Slave Slave
cylinders cylinders

2.3 Pressure
Barometer
Barometer is an instrument which is used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Mercury barometer
Mercury barometer
Torricelli, devised for the first time a method for measuring atmospheric pressure
by using mercury barometer.
In mercury barometer, a long glass tube of about 1 m length and diameter of Torricelli’s vacuum
about 1 cm is filled with mercury upto its brim and placed inverted in a small
dish of mercury as shown in figure. A h
The level of mercury in the glass tube lowers as some mercury spills in the dish.
C B C
A gap is created between the surface of mercury in the glass tube and the closed
end of the glass tube.
This gap is called Torricelli’s vacuum.
The pressure is zero, at point A, P A = 0. .…(1)
Point B inside the tube at the same horizontal level as that of point C, the
pressure is again equal to the atmospheric pressure.
PB = P 0 .…(2)
2.3 Pressure
We have equation (1) and (2)

PA = 0. .…(1)
PB = P 0
.…(2) Mercury barometer
Since the point B is at a depth h below the point A, then
PB = PA + hρg ….(3)
Substituting equation (1) and (2) in (3) we have,

Torricelli’s vacuum
P0 = hρg
A h
Where, h is height of the mercury column in the tube.
C B C

2.3 Pressure
Open tube manometer
An open tube manometer is a simple device to measure the pressure difference.
It consists of a U-tube partly filled with a low density liquid which helps in Open tube manometer
maintaining a larger level difference between the level of liquid of the two arm of
the manometer.
One arm of the tube is open to the atmosphere and other arm is connected to the D
R
container D i.e. system whose pressure is to be measured.
h
At point R on the surface of the liquid the pressure is equal to atmospheric S T

pressure P0
The pressure at point S is given as,

PS = P0 + hρg .…(1)
Since the points S and T are at the same level, the pressure at both the points is
the same.
PS = P T ….(2)

2.3 Pressure
We have equation (1) and (2)

PS = P0 + hρg .…(1)
PS = P T
….(2)
According to Pascal’s law, the pressure at every point in an incompressible Open tube manometer
liquid in equilibrium is the same i.e., pressure at point T is equal to pressure at
point D.
P = PT .…(3)
R D
Comparing equations (1) and (2) with (3), we get,
P = P0 + hρg h
S T
Manometer measures the gauge pressure of the gas in the container D which is
given as,
P – P0 = hρg.

Check Your Grasp
Q The device given below is a ___
R D
h
S T
A Mercury barometer
B Open tube manometer
Check Your Grasp
Q The normal force (F) exerted by a fluid at rest per unit surface area (A) of contact is called the _______
of the fluid.
pressure
Q In a hydraulic lift, the input piston had surface area 30 cm 2 and the output piston has surface area of
1500 cm2. If a force of 25 N is applied to the input piston,the weight on output piston is
A 2560 N
B 1250 N
F2 F1
Use the Formula: 
A 2 A1

Numerical Section
Q A swimmer jumped into a swimming tank and was swimming 8 m below the surface of the tank. Calculate
i. the pressure on swimmer due to water above him
ii. total pressure on swimmer.
(Density of water = 1000 kg/m3, g = 9.8 m/s2, Atmospheric pressure = 1.013 × 10 5 N/m2)
Ans:
i. 7.84 × 104 N/m2 ii. 1.797 × 105 N/m2
Use the Formulae: i. P = hρg ii. P = P0 +

hρg Note that while calculating the total pressure on the swimmer,
[Tip:
atmospheric pressure acting on the swimmer must be considered.]

Numerical Section
Q A hydraulic brake system of a car of mass 1000 kg having speed of 50 km/h, has a cylindrical piston of
radius of 0.5 cm. The slave cylinder has a radius of 2.5 cm. If a constant force of 100 N is applied on the
brake, what distance the car will travel before coming to stop?
Ans: 38.58 m
Strategy
Given: mass of car (m), initial speed of car (u), radii of cylinders and applied
force.
1. Note that the car is coming to rest which yields final speed (v) as 0.
2. Solution of this question banks upon formula of pressure as well as formula of force and
equations of motion studied in previous standards.
3. Considering pressure generated across both cylinders is same, substitute values in relation
F2 F1
=
A 2 A1
4. Use formula πr2 to obtain area of each circular piston. 5

18
5. Convert initial speed from km/h into m/s by multiplying by a factor of
6. Applying relation F = ma and third equation of motion v2 = u2  2as, determine distance

(s) the car would travel before coming to stop.

2.4 Surface Tension
Intermolecular force
The force acting between any two molecules of a substance is called

intermolecular force.
Force of cohesion
The force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance is

called cohesive force or force of cohesion.
Force of adhesion
The force of attraction between the molecules of different substances is

called adhesive force or force of adhesion.

2.4 Surface Tension
Range of molecular attraction
The maximum distance from molecule upto which the molecular force
is effective is called the range of molecular attraction.
Sphere of influence
An imaginary sphere with a molecule at its centre and radius equal to

the molecular range is called the sphere of influence of the molecule.

2.4 Surface Tension
Molecular theory of Surface Tension
Consider three molecules A, B and C in a liquid in a vessel such that the

molecule A is well inside the liquid, the molecule B within surface film and
molecule C is on the surface of liquid as shown in the figure.
For molecule A, the sphere of influence of the molecule A is entirely inside the
liquid. The net cohesive force acting on molecule A is zero. C
P S
For molecule B, the adhesive force acting on molecule B is weak compared to
the strong downward cohesive force as a result, the molecule B gets attracted Q R
inside the liquid. B
For molecule C, half of the sphere of influence is in air and half is in liquid. The
density of air is much less than that of liquid. A
The adhesive force due to the air molecules acting on molecule C is weak
compared to the cohesive force acting on the molecule. As a result, the molecule
C also gets attracted inside the liquid.
Thus, all molecules in the surface film are acted upon by an unbalanced net
cohesive force directed into the liquid.
The surface film of a liquid behaves like a stretched elastic membrane. This
tension is known as surface tension.
2.4 Surface Tension
Surface Tension
Surface tension is defined as the tangential force acting per unit length
on both sides of an imaginary line drawn on the free surface of liquid.
A
If ‘F’ is the force acting on the imaginary line of length ‘l’ then surface
tension ‘T’ is given by,
F
T= . F l
l
Unit: N/m or J/m2 in SI system.
Dimensions: [L0M1T –2]

B

2.4 Surface Tension
Surface Energy
The extra energy of the molecules on the surface layer of a liquid is called surface energy of the liquid.
A molecule well inside the liquid is acted upon by equal forces in all directions.
The molecule inside the volume of liquid experiences more cohesive force than a molecule in the
surface film of the liquid.
When a molecule is taken from the inside to the surface film, work is done against the cohesive force.
This work is stored in the surface of liquid in the form of potential energy.
Potential energy is greater for molecule at the surface film as compared to a molecule well inside the liquid.
This extra potential energy is called the surface energy.
Unit of surface energy: J in SI system and erg in C.G.S. system.
Dimensions of surface energy: [L2M1T –2]

2.4 Surface Tension
Relation Between Surface Tension And Surface Energy
Let ABCD be a rectangular frame of wire, fitted with a movable arm PQ.
The frame held in horizontal position is dipped into soap solution and
taken out so that a soap film APQB is formed.
P
Due to surface tension a force ‘F’ will act on each arm of the frame. A P
D
F
Under the action of this force, the movable arm PQ moves towards AB. F
l
dx
Magnitude of force due to surface tension is,
F = 2Tl. ....( T = F/l) C
B Q Q
Let the wire PQ be pulled outwards through a small distance ‘dx’ to the
position PʹQʹ, by applying an external force Fʹ isothermally, which is
equal and opposite to F. Work done by this force, dW = Fdx = 2Tldx.
But, 2ldx = dA = increase in area of two surfaces of film.

\ dW = T dA

2.4 Surface Tension
This work done in stretching the film is stored in the area dA in the form
of potential energy (surface energy).
Surface energy, E = T dA
E
\ =T
dA
P
Thus, surface tension is equal to the mechanical work done per unit A P
D
surface area of the liquid, which is also called as surface energy. F
F
l
dx
C
B Q Q

2.4 Surface Tension
Angle of contact
The angle of contact (θ) between a liquid and a solid surface is defined as the angle between the tangents drawn
to the free surface of the liquid and surface of the solid at the point of contact, measured within the liquid.
i. The angle of contact is constant for a given liquid-solid pair.

ii. The value of angle of contact depends upon nature of liquid and solid in contact.
iii. It depends upon the medium which exists above the free liquid surface.
iv. The angle of contact changes due to impurity or temperature.
v. A small contamination of the surface causes a large change in the angle of contact.

2.4 Surface Tension
Different cases of liquid-solid interaction
Case 1: Concave meniscus (Acute angle of contact)

Acute angle of contact
Net adhesive force between liquid and solid on molecule A > net cohesive
force between liquid molecules.
i.e., > Sphere of
 influence
Resultant force is directed inside solid.
FA
For equilibrium or stability of a liquid surface, the net force acting on the A
molecule A must be normal to the liquid surface at all points. For the P
Air
resultant force to be normal to the tangent, the liquid near the wall should
pile up against the solid boundary so that the tangent AT to the liquid surface   Liquid
FR FC
is perpendicular to . Thus, this makes the meniscus concave. Such liquid
wets that solid surface.  T
Solid
Angle of contact is acute.
Example: Kerosene in a glass bottle.

2.4 Surface Tension
Case 2: Convex meniscus (Obtuse angle of contact)
Net adhesive force between liquid and solid on molecule A < resultant
cohesive force between liquid molecules i.e., < Obtuse angle of contact
Resultant force is directed inside solid.
For equilibrium or stability of a liquid surface, the net force acting on all Sphere of influence
molecules similar to molecule A must be normal to the liquid surface at all
 Air
points. The liquid near the wall should, therefore, creep inside against the T
FA
solid boundary. This makes the meniscus convex so that its tangent AT is
A
normal to . Such liquid does not wet that solid surface. P 
Angle of contact is obtuse. Liquid
Example: Mercury in a glass bottle. Solid 

 FC
FR

2.4 Surface Tension
Zero angle of contact
Consider a liquid which completely wets a solid surface.

Acute angle of contact
Angle of contact is almost zero (θ = 0)
Sphere of
Liquid molecules near the contact region are very less influence
in number such that is negligible i.e. = 0. 
FA
Net adhesive force itself is the resultant force i.e. = A
P
Air
Therefore, tangent AT is along the wall within the liquid.
  Liquid
FR FC
Example: Pure water in clean glass.
 T
Solid

2.4 Surface Tension
90º angle of contact
Consider a hypothetical liquid having angle of contact 90° with a solid container.
Obtuse angle of contact
The molecule experiences both adhesive and cohesive force.
The net cohesive force is exactly at 45º with either of the surfaces and the Sphere of influence
resultant force is exactly vertical (along the solid surface).
 Air

FA T
 FC
For this to occur, FA  where, AR = F R is the magnitude of the net force. A
2
P 
From this, we can conclude that:
 Liquid
 F
1. For acute angle of contact, FA  C
2 Solid 
  FC
 F FR
2. For obtuse angle of contact, FA  C
2

2.4 Surface Tension
Liquid drop on a plane solid surface
Consider a liquid drop at equilibrium on the surface of a glass plate (solid).
Three interfaces are formed:

a. solid-liquid, b. solid-air c. liquid-air
Figure (a)
Let, T1 = surface tension for the solid-liquid interface. T3

T3 sin 
T2 = surface tension for the solid-air interface.
T3 = surface tension for the liquid-air interface.
θ = angle of contact between solid and liquid as shown in
figure Air Liquid
T3 can be resolved into two components:
T3 cos θ along horizontal and T3 sin θ along vertical. 
The drop is in equilibrium. Therefore, the horizontal components T2 Solid T3 cos  T1

must balance each other.
T3 cos θ + T1 = T2  T3 cos θ = T2 – T1
T2  T1
cos θ = ….(1)
T3

2.4 Surface Tension
Condition cos θ Angle of contact (θ) Shape of meniscus

T2 > T1 and (T2 – T1) < T3 Positive Acute Concave
T2 < T1 and (T1 – T2) < T3 Negative Obtuse Convex
T2 – T1 = T3 1 0 Liquid completely wets solid surface
T2 – T1 > T3 or T2 > T1 – T3 Liquid is spread over the solid surface and drop
>1 Impossible case
will not be formed
Figure (a) Figure (b)

T3 Air
T3 sin  T3
Liquid

Air Liquid
T2 T1
 Solid
T2 Solid T3 cos  T1

2.4 Surface Tension
Factors affecting the angle of contact

i. The nature of the liquid and the solid in contact
ii. Presence of impurities
iii. Temperature
Effect of impurities on surface tension of a liquid
Effect of soluble impurities: When soluble substance such as common salt (i.e., sodium chloride) is dissolved in water the
surface tension of water increases.
Effect of partly soluble impurities: When a sparingly soluble substance such as phenol or a detergent is mixed with water,
surface tension of water decreases.
Effect of insoluble impurities: When insoluble impurity is added into water, surface tension of water decreases
Effect of temperature on surface tension
In most of the liquids, surface tension decreases with increase in temperature.

The surface tension of a liquid becomes zero at critical temperature.

2.4 Surface Tension
Excess pressure across a free surface of a liquid
Every molecule on a liquid surface experiences force on both sides due to

surface tension.
The direction of the resultant force of surface tension acting on a molecule Figure (a)
on the liquid surface depends upon the shape of that liquid surface.
A
Plane liquid surface  

fT B fT
If the free surface of liquid is plane as shown in figure (a), the resultant
forcon the molecule at B is zero.
The force itself decides the pressure and the pressure at A and B is the
same.

2.4 Surface Tension
Convex liquid surface
If the free surface of liquid is upper convex as shown in figure (b), The
resultant force due to surface tension,on the molecule at B is vertically
downwards and adds up to the downward force Figure (b)
This develops greater pressure at point B, which is inside the liquid and on the 
concave side of the meniscus. fA
A
Thus, the pressure on the concave side i.e., inside the liquid is greater than B

that on the convex side i.e., outside the liquid. fT
F

2.4 Surface Tension
Concave liquid surface
If the free surface of liquid is concave as shown in figure (c), the force due to
surface tension, on the molecule at B is vertically upwards. The force due to
atmospheric pressure acts downwards. Figure (c)
The forces and thus, act in opposite direction. 
fA
Therefore, the net downward force responsible for the pressure at B is less 
fT
than A
This develops a lesser pressure at point B, which is inside the liquid and on
B
the convex side of the meniscus.
Thus, the pressure on the concave side i.e., outside the liquid, is greater than
that on the convex side, i.e., inside the liquid.

2.4 Surface Tension
Expression for excess pressure inside a Liquid drop (Laplace’s Law)
Let, Pi = inside pressure of a drop or air bubble

Po = outside pressure of bubble
r = radius of drop or bubble. Expression for excess
pressure inside a drop
As drop is spherical, Pi > Po, excess pressure inside drop = Pi – Po
Let the radius of drop increases from r to r + Δr so that inside

pressure remains constant.
Pi
Initial area of drop A1 = 4πr2,
Final surface area of drop A2 = 4π (r + Δr)2 r
r
Increase in surface area,
A = A2 – A1 = 4π [(r + Δr)2 – r2] = 4π [r2 + 2rΔr + Δr2 – r2]
= 8πrΔr + 4πΔr2
As Δr is very small, the term containing Δr 2 can be neglected.

\ dA = 8πrΔr

2.4 Surface Tension
Work done by force of surface tension,

dW = TdA = (8πrΔr)T ….(1)
This work done is also equal to the product of the force F which
causes increase in the area of the bubble and the displacement Δr
\ dW = FΔr Expression for excess
The excess force is given by, (Excess pressure) × (Surface area) pressure inside a drop
\ F = (Pi – Po) 4πr2
dF = (Pi – Po)A
dW = FΔr = (Pi – Po) AΔr Pi
From equation (1), r

(Pi – Po) AΔr = (8πrΔr) T r
8πrrT
Pi – P o = ....( A = 4r2)
4πr 2 r
2T
Pi – P o = ....(2)
r
Equation (2) represents excess pressure inside a drop or air

bubble. It is also called Laplace’s law of spherical membrane.
2.4 Surface Tension
In case of soap bubble, there are two free surfaces in contact with air.
For a bubble, total increase in the surface area of a soap bubble,

while increasing its radius by Δr, is 2(8πrΔr)
The work done by this excess pressure is

Expression for excess
dW = (Pi – Po) 4πr2Δr = T(16πrΔr)
pressure inside a drop
Excess pressure,
4T
Pi – P o =
r
Pi
r
r

2.4 Surface Tension
Capillary action or capillarity
The phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid level inside a

capillary tube when it is dipped in the liquid is called
capillary action or capillarity.
Applications of capillarity
i. Oil rises up the wick of a lamp.

ii. Cloth rag sucks water.
iii. Water rises up the crevices in rocks.

2.4 Surface Tension
Fall of liquid level in case of mercury in glass capillary
Consider a capillary tube dipped in a liquid which does not wet

the surface (mercury).
The shape of mercury meniscus in the capillary is upper convex. Capillary in mercury
Consider four points as shown in the figure. before drop in level
Point A is just above the convex surface inside the capillary.
Point B is just below the convex surface inside the capillary. C A
Point C is just above the plane surface outside the capillary.

D B
Point D is just below the plane surface outside the capillary
and is at the same horizontal level as that of B.
Let PA, PB, PC, and PD be the values of the pressures at the
points A, B, C, and D respectively

2.4 Surface Tension
The pressure on the concave side is always greater than that on the convex side.
\ PB > P A
As the points A and C are at the same level, the pressure at both these points is
the same,
\ PA = PC .…(1)
Capillary in mercury
Between the points C and D, the surface is plane. before drop in level
\ PC = P D = P A .…(2)
\ PB > P D
But the points B and D are at the same horizontal level. C A
Thus, in order to maintain the same pressure, the mercury in the capillary
rushes out of the capillary. Because of this, there is a drop in the level of
D B
mercury inside the capillary.

2.4 Surface Tension
Rise of liquid in the capillary
Consider a capillary tube dipped in a liquid which wets the surface (water).
Capillary just immersed
The shape of meniscus of water in the capillary is concave.
in water
Consider four points as shown in the figure.
Point A is just above the concave surface inside the capillary. C A

Point B is just below the concave surface inside the capillary.
Point C is just above the plane surface outside the capillary.
Point D is just below the plane surface outside the capillary and is at the D B
same horizontal level as that of B.
Let PA, PB, PC and PD be the pressures at points A, B, C and D respectively.

2.4 Surface Tension
Since pressure on concave side of liquid surface is greater than that on the convex side.
PA > P B
As the pressure is same on both sides of a plane surface,

PC = PD Capillary
Capillary just
in water
immersed
after
rise
in in
water
level
The points A and C are at the same level, the pressure at both these points is the same.
PA = PC = PD = atmospheric pressure
\ PD > PB C A
C A h
But points B and D are at same horizontal level in the liquid.
Therefore, the liquid out of the capillary flows into the capillary tube and rises above
the point B, till the pressure at B becomes the same as that at D. D
D B
B
Thus, there is a rise in the level of liquid inside the capillary tube.

2.4 Surface Tension
Expression for rise or fall of liquid in a capillary tube
When glass capillary tube is dipped into a liquid, then the liquid rises in
the capillary against gravity.
Rise of liquid in capillary tube
The weight of the liquid column must be equal and opposite to the
component of force due to surface tension at the point of contact. fT cos 
fT fT
 
The length of liquid in contact inside the capillary is the circumference 2πr. r T cos   2r
fT sin  r fT sin 
Let, r = radius of capillary tube   h
h = height of liquid level in the tube
T = surface tension of liquid
ρ = density of liquid
g = acceleration due to gravity
Water
The force of magnitude fT acts tangentially on unit length of liquid

surface which is in contact with wall of capillary tube and is given as,
fT = T × 2πr

2.4 Surface Tension
This force fT can be resolved into two components:

fT cosθ - vertically upward and fT sinθ - along horizontal
Vertical component is effective. Horizontal component is

not responsible for capillary rise. Rise of liquid in capillary tube
Vertical component of force acting on liquid column
(fT)v = force per unit length × circumference = T cosθ × 2πr
fT fT cos  fT
Upward force balances weight of liquid in the capillary.  
fT sin  r
r
fT sin  T cos   2r
W = mg = Vρg = πr2hρg
  h
This must be equal and opposite to the vertical component
of the force due to surface tension.
If liquid in meniscus is neglected, then for equilibrium,
2πr T cosθ = πr2 hρg Water
2T cos 
h= ….(1)
rg
This is the required expression for rise or fall of liquid in

capillary tube.

Check Your Grasp
Q The force acting between any two molecules of a substance is called ________
intermolecular force
Q The force of attraction between the molecules of different substances is called ______
adhesive force
Q If the meniscus of a liquid in contact with a solid is concave, then the angle of contact is ________.
A Obtuse B Zero
C Acute D 90°

Check Your Grasp
Q The expression for rise or fall of liquid in a capillary is

2Tcos
A h = h=
rg
2gcos
B h = h=
Tg
Q The surface tension of water is 0.072 N/m. Find the vertical force required to detach a floating pin of length
2.5 cm from the surface of water.
A 4.8 × 10–3 N
B 3.6 × 10–3 N
Use the Formula: F = T(2l)

Numerical Section
Q A U-shaped wire is dipped in a soap solution and removed. The thin soap film formed between the wire and
the light slider supports a weight of 1.5 × 10 –2 N (which includes the small weight of the slider). The length
of the slider is 30 cm. What is the surface tension of the film?
Ans: 2.5 × 10–2 N/m
F
Use the Formula: T =
l
[Tip: In U-shaped wire, there are two sides of slider acted upon by the force F. Hence, the formula
changes to T = (F/2l).]

Numerical Section
Q A drop of mercury of radius 0.2 cm is broken into 8 droplets of the same size. Find the work done if the
surface tension of mercury is 435.5 dyne/cm.
Ans: 2.189 × 10–5 J
4 3 4 3
Solution: Volume of a single drop = R and Volume of a single droplet = r
3 3
4 3 4 R
We have, R = n × r 3 ⇒ r= = 10–3 m
3 3 3
n
Now, W = TdA = T  n  4r  4R 

2 2
= 4 × 3.142 × 0.4355 ×[8 × (10–3)2 – (2 × 10–3)2]

= 2.189 × 10–5 J

Numerical Section
Q What is the pressure inside the drop of mercury of radius 3 mm at room temperature? Surface tension of
mercury at temperature 20 °C is 4.65 × 10 –1 N m–1.
(1 atm = 1.01 × 105 Pa)
Ans: 1.0131 × 105 Pa
2T
Use the Formula: Pi = Po +
r
Q A capillary tube of radius 0.5 mm is dipped vertically in a liquid of surface tension 0.04 N/m and relative
density 0.8 g/cc. Calculate the height of capillary rise, if the angle of contact is 10°. [g = 9.8 m/s 2]
Ans: 2 cm
2T cos 
Use the Formula: h =
rg

Previously Asked Board Questions
Q Derive an expression of excess pressure inside a liquid drop. [3 Marks] [Mar 15]
OR
Derive Laplace’s law for spherical membrane of bubble due to surface tension. [3 Marks] [Mar 16]
OR
Derive Laplace’s law for a spherical membrane. [3 Marks] [Mar 18]
Refer slide no. 42 to 44
Q What is capillarity? Give any two applications of capillarity. [2 Marks] [July 18,
Feb 20]
The phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid level inside a capillary tube
when it is dipped in the liquid is called capillary action or
capillarity.
i. Oil rises up the wick of a lamp.
ii. Cloth rag sucks water.

Q Explain the rise of liquid in the capillary on the basis of pressure difference. [3 Marks][Mar 14]
Refer slide no. 48 and 49
Q Define surface tension and surface energy. [1

Mark Each] [July 17]
Surface tension is defined as the tangential force acting per unit length on both sides of an imaginary
line drawn on the free surface of liquid.
The extra energy of the molecules on the surface layer of a liquid is called surface energy of the liquid.
Q Draw a neat, labelled diagram for a liquid surface in contact with a solid, when the angle of contact is acute.
[2 Marks] [Mar 17]
Refer slide no. 32

Q Draw a neat labelled diagram showing forces acting on the meniscus of water in a capillary tube.
[2 Marks] [Oct 15]
OR
Draw a neat labelled diagram of rise of liquid in capillary tube showing different components of tension
(force).
[2 Marks] [July 16]
Refer slide no. 50
Q A horizontal circular loop of a wire of radius 0.02 m is lowered into crude oil and a film is formed. The force
due to the surface tension of the liquid is 0.0113 N. Calculate the surface tension of the crude oil. ( π = 3.142)
[3Ans:
Marks] [JulyN/m
0.04495 18]
Use the formula: F = Tl

Q Calculate the work done in blowing a soap bubble of radius 0.1 m.

(Surface tension of soap solution = 30 dyne/cm) [2 Marks]
[Feb 20]
Ans: 7.542 × 10–3 J
Use the formula: Work done = T × dA
[Tip: A soap bubble has two surfaces, outer surface and inner surface.
Hence, the final surface area of soap bubble is, A = 2 × (4πr 2) = 8πr2]
Q Two soap bubbles have radii in the ratio 4:3. What is the ratio of work done to blow these bubbles?
[2 Marks] [July 17] Ans: 16 : 9

Use the formula: W = 2TdA

Q Water rises to a height 3.2 cm in a glass capillary tube. Find the height to which the same water will rise in
another glass capillary having half area of cross section. [2 Marks]
[Oct 14]
Ans: 4.525 cm
1
Use the formula: h hr
r1
[Tip: As area of cross section is half, the radius of the second capillary (r 2) = .]
2

Q A rectangular film of a liquid is 5 cm long and 4 cm wide. If the work done in increasing its area to
7 cm × 5 cm is 0.06 J, the surface tension of the solution is: [1 Mark]
[July 18]
A 0.02 J/ m2 B 0.2 J/ m2
C 2 J/ m2 D 20 J/ m2
–2 –2 –4 2
Solution: A1 = 5  10  4  10 = 20  10 m
A2 = 7  10–2  5  10–2 = 35  10–4 m2
 W = T  2A
W 0.06 0.06 2
 T=   J/m
4 = 20 J/ m2
2A 2 35  10  20  10  2  15  10
4 4

Q Angle of contact for the pair of pure water with clean glass is _______. [1
Mark] [Oct 15]
A acute B obtuse
C 90º D 0º
Q Two droplets coalesce in a single drop. In this process _______. [1 Mark]

[Feb 20]
A energy is liberated
B energy is absorbed
C energy does not change
D some mass is converted into energy

Q A big drop of radius R is formed from 1000 droplets of water. The radius of a droplet will be
[1 Mark] [Oct 13]
R
A 10 R B
10
R R
C D
100 1000
Q 1000 tiny mercury droplets coalesce to form a bigger drop. In this process, temperature of the drop
_______ .
[1 Mark] [July 17]
A increases B may increase or decrease
C decreases D does not change

Q In which of the following substances, surface tension increases with increase in temperature?
[1 Mark] [Oct 14]
A Copper B Molten copper

C Iron D Molten iron

2.5 Fluids in motion
Hydrodynamics
The branch of Physics which deals with the study of properties of fluids in motion is called hydrodynamics.
Steady flow
Flow in which measurable property, such as pressure or velocity of the fluid at a given point is constant over
time is called steady flow.
Flow line
Path of an individual particle in a moving fluid is called as flow line.
Flow tube
An imaginary bundle of flow lines bound by an imaginary wall is called a flow tube. For a steady flow, the
fluid cannot cross the walls of a flow tube. Fluids in adjacent flow tubes cannot mix.

2.5 Fluids in motion
Streamline or laminar flow
The curve whose tangent at any point in the flow is in the direction of the
velocity of the flow at that point is called streamlines. Streamlines and
flow lines are identical for a steady flow. 62
Turbulent flow
The irregular and unsteady flow of a fluid when its velocity increases
beyond critical velocity is called turbulent flow.

2.6 Critical velocity and Reynold’s number
Critical velocity
The velocity beyond which a streamline flow becomes turbulent is called critical velocity.
According to Osborne Reynolds, critical velocity is given by,

R
vc= n ,
d
where, vc = critical velocity of the fluid, Rn = Reynolds number
η = coefficient of viscosity, ρ = density of fluid, d = diameter
of tube

Reynold’s number
Reynold’s number is given as,

v d
Rn= c

It has no unit and dimensions.
If value of Rn is less than 1000, the flow of liquid is streamline or laminar.
If value of Rn is greater than 2000, the flow of liquid is turbulent.
When Rn lies between 1000 and 2000, then flow becomes unsteady, i.e.,
it changes from a streamline flow to turbulent flow.

Viscosity
The property of fluid by virtue of which the relative motion between

different layers of a fluid experience a dragging force is called viscosity.
Viscous drag Change in velocity of layer
The dragging force experienced by the relative motion between different

layers of a fluid is called viscous force or viscous drag. A v + dv
B v
Velocity gradient x + dx
x C v  dv
x  dx
The rate of change of velocity (dv) with distance (dx) measured from a
stationary layer is called the velocity gradient.
If v and v + dv are the velocities of layers of liquid at distances x and

x + dx respectively from the bottom then,
v  dv  v dv
Velocity gradient = velocity gradient = x dx  x = dx

Newton’s law of viscosity
For streamline flow, the viscous force acting on any layer is directly proportional to
a. area of the layer (A)
b. velocity gradient (dv/dx)
F  A ….
(1)
dv
F F .…(2
)
d
….(2)x
Combining equations (1) and (2) we have,
dv dv dv dv
F  AFA  F=A   F = A FA  F=A 
dx dx dx dx
Where  = constant called coefficient of viscosity of the liquid which

depends upon the nature of the liquid.
Coefficient of viscosity
The coefficient of viscosity is defined as the viscous force per unit area per unit
velocity gradient.
Check Your Grasp
Q Identify the correct formula for Reynold’s number

v vd
A Rn =Rn= c B Rn = Rn = c
d 
Q The relative velocity between two layers of fluid, separated by 0.1 mm is 2 cm/s. Calculate the velocity gradient.
A 20 s–1 B 200 s–1
C 100 s–1 D 50 s–1
dv
Use the Formula: vg = 67
dx

Check Your Grasp
Q The flow of water shown in the following diagram is
A Streamline B Turbulent
Q If value of Rn is greater than 2000, the flow of liquid _________
turbulent

2.7 Stokes’ law
Stokes’ law:
The viscous force acting on a small sphere falling through a medium is

directly proportional to the radius (r) of the sphere, its velocity (v)
through fluid and coefficient of viscosity () of the fluid.
Mathematically, F  rv
F = kηrv = 6πηrv
Where k is the constant of proportionality. Numerically, it is equal to 6π.

2.7 Stokes’ law
Terminal velocity
The constant maximum velocity acquired by a body falling through a viscous

liquid is called as terminal velocity.
Consider a sphere of radius (r) and density (ρ) falling under gravity through a
liquid of density (σ) and coefficient of viscosity () as shown in figure.
Forces acting on the sphere during downward motion are,

a. Viscous force = Fv = 6πηrv (directed upwards)
Upthrust (Fu)
b. Weight of the sphere, (Fg)
+
4
mg= r3g(directed downwards) viscous force (Fv)
3
Upward thrust as Buoyant force (Fu) Downward force (Fg)

4
Fu = r3σg(directedupwards)
3 Viscous fluid
As the downward velocity increases, the viscous force increases.
A stage is reached, when sphere attains terminal velocity.

2.7 Stokes’ law
At the terminal velocity, the total downward force acting on the sphere
is balanced by the total upward force acting on the sphere.
Total downward force = Total upward force
Weight of sphere (mg) = Viscous Force + Buoyant force due to medium
\ 4 r3g=6rv + 4 r3σg
3 3
\ 6rv=  4 r3g    4 r3g 

3  3 
Upthrust (Fu)
6rv =  rg3 ( σ)
4
\ +
3 viscous force (Fv)
1
\ v=  r3g (σ)
4
3  6r
Downward force (Fg)
4 1
v=  r3g(σ) 2 rg2 ()
\ 3 6r v= ….(1) ....(1) Viscous fluid
9 
This is the expression for terminal velocity of the sphere.

2.8 Equation of continuity
Equation of continuity
The volume rate of flow of an incompressible fluid for a steady flow Steady flow fluid
is the same throughout the flow.
Q
Av = constant (where A = Area of cross-section, v = Speed of liquid) P
B R
Consider a tube of flow as shown in figure. A2
F S
All the fluid that passes through a tube of flow must pass through any E v2t
cross section that cuts the tube of flow. A
G
Consider section A1 and A2 located at points A and B respectively as A1
H v1t
shown in figure.
The mass of the fluid is constant, if mass m of the fluid enters the
section A1 then equal mass of fluid should leave the section A 2.

2.8 Equation of continuity
Let the speed of the fluid which crosses the section EFGH at point A
in time interval Δt be v1.
The volume of the fluid entering the tube through the cross section
at point A is ρA1v1Δt.
Steady flow fluid
Similarly, let the speed of the fluid be v 2 at point B.
Q
The mass of the fluid leaving the tube through the cross section at B
P
is ρA2v2Δt.
B R
As fluid is incompressible, A2
F S
Mass of the fluid in section EFGH = Mass of fluid in section PQRS E v2t
A
ρA1v1Δt = ρA2v2Δt G
….(1) A1
H
A1v1 = A2v2 or, Av = constant v1t
….(2)
Av is the volume rate of flow of a fluid, i.e.,
dV
Av = Av= .
dt

Check Your Grasp
Q A rain drop of diameter 1 mm is falling with a uniform velocity 2 m/s through air. The
coefficient of viscosity of air is 1.8 × 10 -5 Ns/m2. The viscous force acting on the drop is
A 108π × 10–7 N B 1.08π × 10–7 N
Use the Formula: F = 6πηrv
Q Which of the statement is INCORRECT?

A The volume rate of flow of an incompressible fluid for a steady flow is the same throughout the flow.
B The volume rate of flow of an incompressible fluid for a steady flow is the different throughout the flow.
Q The constant maximum velocity acquired by a body falling through a viscous liquid is called as _______
A Critical velocity B terminal velocity

2.9 Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli’s principle
Flow of fluid through a tube of
varying cross section and
The work done per unit volume of a fluid by the surrounding fluid is equal to the
sum of the changes in kinetic and potential energies per unit volume that occur
height
during the flow.
v2
Consider an ideal fluid flowing through a tube of varying cross section and height. R S
A2 P2A2
Let there be an element of fluid lying between cross sections P and R. d2
Let,
v1, v2 = Speeds of the fluid at the lower end P and the upper end R respectively. v1 Q flow
A1, A2 = Cross section areas of the fluid at the lower end P and upper end R respectively. P A1 h2
P1, P2 = Pressures of the fluid at the lower end P and upper end R respectively. P1A1 d1
d1, d2 = Distances travelled by the fluid at the lower end upper end R during the time h1
interval dt.
ρ = Density of the fluid flowing through the tube
h1, h2 = Mean heights of section P and R from ground or reference level.
P1A1, P2A2 = Forces acting on the fluid at section P and R respectively

The volume dV of the fluid passing through any cross section during time interval
dt is the same i.e., dV = A1d1 = A2d2 .…(1)
The net work W done on the element by the surrounding fluid during the flow Flow of fluid through a tube of
from P to R is, varying cross section and
W = P1A1d1 – P2A2d2 height
.…(2)
The negative sign indicates that the force at R opposes the displacement of the
fluid. v2
R S
A2 P2A2
Substituting equation (1) in equation (2), we get,
W = P1dV – P2dV ⇒ W = (P1 – P2) dV .…(3) d2
At the beginning of the time interval dt, flow

v1 Q
a. Mass of the fluid between P and Q = A1d1,
P A1 h2
1 2
b. Kinetic energy of the fluid between P and Q = (A1d1)v1 P1A1 d1
2 h1
c. Potential energy of the fluid between P and Q = mgh 1 = dVgh1

At the end of the time interval dt,

a. Mass of the fluid between R and S = A2d2
1 2
b. Kinetic energy of the fluid between R and S = = (A2d2) v2 Flow of fluid through a tube of
2
varying cross section and
c. Potential energy of the fluid between R and S = mgh 2 = dVgh2
height
The net change in the kinetic energy K.E, during time interval dt is,
v2
1 21 2
DK.E. =K.E = A2d2 v2  Ad1 1v1 R S
2 2 A2 P2A2
1 1
K.E.= dVv22  dVv12  K.E.= 1 dV v22  v12
  .…(4) ….(4) d2
2 2 2
The net change in the gravitational potential energy during time interval dt is, v1 Q flow
ΔP.E. = ρdVgh2 – ρdVgh1 ⇒ ΔP.E. = ρdVg(h2 – h1) …. P A1 h2
(5) P1A1 d1
As the work done W is due to forces other than the conservative force of h1
gravity, it equals the change in the total mechanical energy
W = ΔK.E. + ΔP.E.

W = (P1 – P 2) dV
1 .…(3)
K.E.= dVv22  v12 .…(4) ….(4)
2 Flow of fluid through a tube of
ΔP.E. = ρdVg(h2 – h1) …. varying cross section and
(5)
W = ΔK.E. + ΔP.E. height
Substituting equation (3), (4) and (5) in the above equation,
v2
1
(P1  P2) dV = dV  v 2 +dVg(h
v12  2  h1) R S
2
2 A2 P2A2
1 d2
 (P1  P2) =   v 22 +g(h
v12  2  h1) .…(6)
2
v1 Q flow
This is known as Bernoulli’s equation
P A1 h2
P1A1 d1
Bernoulli’s equation can be written as,
h1
1 1
P1 + v12 + gh1 = P2 + v 22 + gh2
2 2
1
P1 + v12 + gh = constant
2

Application of Berniulli’s equation
a) Speed of Efflux:
Consider a liquid of density ‘ρ’ filled in a tank of large cross-sectional area A 1
P A1
having an orifice of cross-sectional area A2 at the bottom as shown in figure.
Such that A2 << A1.

h
The liquid flows out of the tank through the orifice. Let v 1 and v2 be the
speeds of the liquid at A1 and A2 respectively.
Pressure at positions at points A1 and A2 = Atmospheric pressure P0

A2
From Bernoulli’s equation we have,
1 2 1 2
P0 + v1 + gh = P0 + v2 ….(1)
2 2
Using equation of continuity, we have, A 1v1 = A2v2

A
\  v1 = 2 v 2 .…(2) ….(2)
A1

We have,
1 2 1 2
P0 + v1 + gh = P0 + v2 ….(1)
2 2
A
 v1 = 2 v 2 .…(2) ….(2)
A1
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get,

2 P A1
1  A 2  2 1 v 2
   v2 +gh= 2
2  A1  2
2
 A2  2 2 h
  v2 +2gh= v2
 A1 
2
2 A 
2gh= v2   2  v22
 A1 
  A 2  P0
1  2   v22 =2gh A2
  A1  
Since, A2 << A1, the above equation reduces to,
v2 = 2gh .…(3)
The above equation gives the speed of a liquid flowing out (speed of efflux)
through an orifice at a depth ‘h’ below the free surface.

b) Venturi-tube:
The venturi-tube is a device which is used to measure the flow speed

of incompressible fluid.
It has a constriction in the tube, as the fluid passes through the Venturi-tube
constriction, its speed increases, decreasing the pressure.
The fluid of density ρ flows through the Venturi tube.

h
Let,
A1, A2 = areas of cross section at wider part and at constriction v1
respectively. P1 v2
v1, v2 = speeds of the fluids at A1 and A2 respectively. P2
P1, P2 = pressures on the fluid at A1 and A2 respectively.
A1 A2
From Bernoulli’s equation,
1 2 1 2
P1 +  v1 = P2 +  v2 ….(1)
2 2
1
(P1 P2)=  v22 v12  .…(2) ….(2)
2

We have,
1
(P1 P2)=  v22 v12  .…(2) ….(2)
2
Two vertical tubes are connected to the Venturi tube at A 1 and A2.
If the difference in height of the liquid levels in the tubes is h, we Venturi-tube

have,
(P1 – P2) = ρgh .…(3)
h
Substituting equation (3) in Eq. (2) we get,
2hg = 2gh= vv2 1 ….(4)
22
….(4) v1
P1 v2
Using equation of continuity, the rate of flow of liquid passing P2

through a cross section can be calculated by knowing the areas A 1
A1 A2
and A2.

c) Lifting up of an Aeroplane:
When an aeroplane runs on a runway, due to aerodynamic shape of its wings, the
streamlines of air are crowded above the wings compared to those below the
wings.
Airflow along an aerofoil
The air above the wings moves faster than that below the wings.
The streamline flow of air above the air foil follow curved path as the plane moves.
The speed of top against the wind and orientation of the wind relative to flow
direction results in crowding of streamline above the wing more than those below
it as shown in figure.
This results in low pressure above the wings and high pressure below the wings.
This difference of pressure between upper and lower surface of air foil gives rise
to an upward lift or dynamic lift of the wings

d) Working of an Atomizer:
An atomizer or a sprayer has a rubber ball fitted to a tube.

There is a nozzle at the end of the tube.
The lower end of the vertical tube is dipped in the liquid to be sprayed. Atomizer
When the piston P in the cylinder C is pressed a stream of air is sent
through the nozzle creating a low pressure zone at the nozzle.
As a result, the liquid in the vessel which is at atmospheric pressure P C

rises in the vertical tube and emerges out of the aperture at the top.
The liquid is forced out of the nozzle which causes it to break into
small droplets. T

e) Blowing off roofs by Stormy winds:
According to Bernoulli’s principle, a high wind speed results in low

pressure above the roof.
P
When high winds pass over the roof, the pressure above the roof falls
below the pressure of the still air inside the house which is still at v1
atmospheric pressure.
As a result, due to this difference in pressure, the roof is lifted up and is P0

then blown off by the wind.
v2 = 0

Check Your Grasp
Q A device which is used to measure the flow speed of incompressible fluid.
Venturi-tube
Q Bernoulli’s principle is based on the principle of

A Conservation of linear momentum.
B Conservation of energy.
Q The working of venturimeter is based on
A Pascal’s law.
B Bernoulli’s theorem.

Check Your Grasp
Q The instrument shown in the diagram is
P C
A venturimeter
B Atomizer

Numerical Section
Q Doors of a dam are 20 m below the surface of water in the dam. If one door is opened, what will be the
speed of the water that flows out of the door? (g = 9.8 m/s 2)
Ans: 19.796 m/s
Use the v= 2gh

Formula:
Q The pressure of water inside the closed pipe is 5 × 10 5 N/m2. This pressure reduces to 3 × 10 5 N/m2 on
opening the valve of the pipe. Calculate the speed of water flowing through the pipe.
(Density of water = 1000 kg/m3).
Ans: 20 m/s
1
Use the Formula: P1 – P2 =   v 22  v12  + ρg(h2 – h1)
2
[Tip: As the flow is horizontal, there is no difference in heights of the two points
1
considered. Hence, the formula changes to P 1 – P2 =   v 2  v1  ]
2 2
2
22
Important Formulae
F 4T
1 Pressure: P = 8 Excess pressure inside a soap bubble: P =
A r
2 Absolute pressure: P = P0 + hg 2T cos 

9 Rise or fall of liquid in capillary tube: h =
rg
3 Pressure difference in liquid column: P2  P1 = hg
dv
10 Velocity gradient: vg =
dx
F
4 Surface tension: T =
l
dv
11 Viscous force: F = A
dx
5 Force due to surface tension: F = T  l
Fdx
12 Coefficient of viscosity:  =
6 Surface energy: E = dW = T(dA) Adv
2T
7 Excess pressure inside a drop or air bubble: P =
r 13 Stoke’s formula: F = 6rv

Important Formulae
2 r2
14 Terminal velocity: v = (  σ)g
9 
v c D
15 Reynold’s number: Rn =

Rn  
16 Critical velocity: VC =
D
17 Equation of continuity for an incompressible fluid: A1v1 = A2v2
1 2 1
18 Bernoulli’s equation: P1 + v1 + gh1 = P2 + v 22 + gh2= constant
2 2
19 Speed of efflux: v = 2gh ….[For a tank open to atmosphere]

Chapter at a Glance
Fluid
Open tube manometer
Manometer measures the gauge Measurement
pressure of the gas in the Pressure Pressure due to liquid column
container D which is given as,
P  P0 = hg The normal force (F) exerted by P = hg
a fluid at rest per unit surface Where P = pressure due to a liquid of
area (A) of contact is called the density ‘’ and at a depth ‘h’ below
Mercury barometer pressure (P) of the fluid. the free surface.
Barometer is an instrument F
which is used to measure P=
A
atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure Hydrostatic paradox Pascal’s Law
Applications
The atmospheric pressure Pressure at a particular point Pressure applied at any point
at any point is equal to the in the fluid depends only on of an enclosed fluid at rest is
Hydraulic lift
weight of a vertical its depth in the fluid. Hence, transmitted equally and
column of air of unit a liquid poured in the vessels undiminished to every point
cross-sectional area of different shapes, attains of the fluid and also on the
starting from that point the same level although the walls of the container, Hydraulic brakes
and extending to the top volume of each vessel is provided the effect of gravity
of the earth’s atmosphere. different. is neglected.

Chapter at a Glance
Study of fluids at rest Hydrostatics
Properties of fluid Surface Tension Surface energy

A fluid has the following properties: Surface tension is defined as the tangential force The extra energy of the
 It does not oppose deformation i.e., it gets acting per unit length on both sides of an imaginary molecules on the surface
permanently deformed. line drawn on the free surface of liquid. layer of a liquid is called
 It has the ability to flow. F surface energy of the liquid.
 It has the ability to take the shape of the container. T=
l
Capillary action/capillarity Excess pressure across the free Angle of contact Factors affecting (θ)
The phenomenon of rise or fall of surface of a liquid The angle of contact (θ)  The nature of the liquid and the
liquid level inside a capillary tube  Plane liquid surface: the resultant force due to between a liquid and a solid solid in contact.
when it is dipped in the liquid is surface tension, on the molecule at B is zero. surface is defined as the  Impurities present in the liquid
called capillary action or capillarity.  Convex liquid surface: the pressure on the angle between the tangents change the angle of contact.
Expression for rise or fall of liquid in concave side i.e., inside the liquid is greater than drawn to the free surface of  Increase in the temperature of
capillary tube. that on the convex side i.e., outside the liquid. the liquid and surface of the a liquid decreases its angle of
 Concave liquid surface: the pressure on the solid at the point of contact, contact.
2T cos  concave side i.e., outside the liquid, is greater
h= measured within the liquid.
rg than that on the convex side, i.e., inside the
liquid.
Zero Acute Obtuse

Meniscus plane. Meniscus concave. Meniscus convex.
Liquid wets solid. Liquid wets solid. Liquid does not wet solid.
Fluid Chapter at a Glance
Study of fluids in motion Bernoulli’s equation
Viscosity
Hydrodynamics The property of fluid by virtue of which the relative motion The work done per unit volume of a fluid
between different layers of a fluid experience a dragging force by the surrounding fluid is equal to the
Streamline flow or Laminar flow is called viscosity. sum of the changes in kinetic and
Smooth flow of fluid with velocity is less than potential energies per unit volume that
a certain limiting value (critical velocity) is occur during the flow.
called the streamline flow or laminar flow. 1 2 1 2
P1 + v1 + gh1 = P2 + v 2 + gh2
2 2
Turbulent flow
Speed of efflux
Irregular and unsteady flow of a fluid when its
velocity increases beyond critical velocity is called Speed of a liquid flowing out through
turbulent flow. an orifice at a depth ‘h’ below the
free surface. It is the same as that of a
Reynold’s number particle falling freely through the
vcD height ‘h’ under gravity and is known
 Rn = as Torricelli’s law.

v2 = 2gh
where, vc = critical velocity of the fluid
 = density of liquid
Venturi-tube
D = diameter of tube
 = coefficient of viscosity Device which is used to measure the
flow speed of incompressible fluid.
 If value of Rn is less than 1000, the flow of
liquid is streamline or laminar. Applications
 If values of Rn is greater than 2000, the
 Lifting up of an aeroplane
flow of liquid is turbulent.  Working of atomizer
 When Rn lies between 1000 and 2000, then  Blowing off of roofs by stormy
laminar flow changes to turbulent flow. winds
Chapter at a Glance
Viscosity
The property of fluid by virtue of which the relative motion
between different layers of a fluid experience a dragging force
is called viscosity.
Coefficient of viscosity Stokes’ Law

Viscous force per unit area per unit velocity gradient. The viscous force acting on a small sphere falling through a medium is
directly proportional to the radius (r) of the sphere, its velocity (v)
F
 = dv through fluid and coefficient of viscosity () of the fluid.
A Mathematically, F  rv
dx  F = krv = 6rv
Velocity gradient Equation of continuity

The rate of change of velocity (dv) with distance The volume rate of flow of an incompressible fluid for a steady
(dx) measured from a stationary layer is called the flow is the same throughout the flow.
velocity gradient. Av = constant
where A = Area of cross-section
Terminal velocity v = Speed of liquid
The constant maximum velocity acquired by a

body falling through a viscous liquid is called as Viscous drag
terminal velocity. The dragging force experienced by the relative motion
between different layers of a fluid is called viscous force or
viscous drag.

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Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 02

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 03

A substance that can flow is called as fluid.

A fluid has very low to no rigidity.

Liquids and gases can flow therefore, they are collectively

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 04

Fluid is a phase of matter that includes liquids, gases and plasma.

Properties of an ideal fluid

It is incompressible i.e., its density is constant.

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 05

Pressure is a scalar quantity.

Pressure is also measured in following units:

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 06

Expression for pressure exerted by liquid column

Consider a vessel filled with liquid of density ‘ρ’.

On comparing equation (2) and (3), we have,

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 07

The atmospheric pressure at any point is equal to the weight of a vertical

The atmospheric pressure at sea level is called normal atmospheric pressure.

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 08

If the Cylinder is completely immersed in liquid:

Here, h = h1 – h2 ( where h1 and h2 are the heights measured from a

Weight of the liquid cylinder acting vertically downwards.

P2 = P1 + ρg (h1 – h2) .…(6)

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 10

If the top of the cylinder is shifted to the surface of the liquid:

Substituting these values in equation (6),

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 11

If the cylinder is above the liquid surface by a distance d:

Substituting these values in equation (6)

Equation (8) represents expression for absolute pressure P at a height d mg– h

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 12

The total pressure P at depth h below the surface of liquid at rest,

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 13

Consider the inter-connected vessels A, B, C and D as shown in the figure (a).

Pascal’s law of fluid pressure

Statement: The pressure applied at any point of an enclosed fluid at rest is

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 14

Application of Pascal’s law

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 15

Barometer is an instrument which is used to measure atmospheric pressure.

We have equation (1) and (2)

Substituting equation (1) and (2) in (3) we have,

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 17

Open tube manometer

An open tube manometer is a simple device to measure the pressure difference.

At point R on the surface of the liquid the pressure is equal to atmospheric S T

The pressure at point S is given as,

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 18

We have equation (1) and (2)

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 19

Q The device given below is a ___

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 21

Use the Formulae: i. P = hρg ii. P = P0 +

Std 12th Physics_02 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 22

4. Use formula πr2 to obtain area of each circular piston. 5

6. Applying relation F = ma and third equation of motion v2 = u2  2as, determine distance