Hydraulics I Lecture Note @2019

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1. Fluid statics
1.1 Introduction
Fluid statics or hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies "fluids at rest and the
pressure in a fluid or exerted by a fluid on an immersed body". It deals with problems associated
with fluids at rest. The fluid can be either gaseous or liquid. In fluid statics, there is no relative
motion between adjacent fluid layers, and thus there are no shear (tangential) stresses in the fluid
trying to deform it. The only stress we deal with in fluid statics is the normal stress, which is the
pressure, and the variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the fluid. The design of many
engineering systems such as water dams and liquid storage tanks requires the determination of
the forces acting on the surfaces using fluid statics. For a static fluid, the only stress is the normal
stress since by definition a fluid subjected to shear stress must deform and undergo motion.
Normal stresses are referred to as pressure.
Hydrostatics: When the fluid is a liquid.
Aerostatics: When the fluid is a gas.
A static fluid is subjected to pressure forces. So, fluid statics concerns in the balance of forces in
a fluid at rest or at equilibrium. The principal fluid forces are:

1) Body forces (proportional to the amount of fluid) E.g. Weight or specific weight (  )
2) Surface forces (proportional to the area). Eg. Pressure, Viscous forces, surface tension
3) Reactions from solid boundaries: Forces exerted between the fluid and solid boundary act at the
right angle to the boundary
1.2 Fluid Pressure
 The pressure is a normal stress directed inward to a surface or it is simply force exerted per
unit area.
F
P 
A
 Thus, the force exerted on the base of a container that holds liquid with density is the
weight of the liquid. In a fluid at rest, pressure forces balance the weight.
Weight of liquid  W  mg  Vg
 lwhg
 Ahg
F W Ahg
P     gh
A A A

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1.2.1 Pressure variation with depth

1) Horizontal pressure distribution (equity of pressure at a horizontal level)

The pressure at any two or more points at the same horizontal level or plane (at the same depth)
in a body of fluid at rest is the same.

P1 = P2 = P3
For a static fluid, pressure varies only with elevation within the fluid. This can be shown by
consideration of the equilibrium of forces on a fluid element.

Hydrostatics Paradox (contradiction)

The pressure exerted by a liquid column of height h on the bottom of a container = gh . Thus,

the pressure in a fluid depends only on the vertical height of the liquid column and its density. It
is independent of the shape and size of the container.

The following figures have different base areas and shapes and hold different amounts of the
same fluid at the same level. But, all have the same pressure at the base, so, the container of a
fluid does not matter in fluid hydrostatics. However, the pressure force is different because of the
base area difference.

The following containers have the same base area and hold the same liquid at the same level

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 While the weight of the fluid is obviously different in the four containers, the pressure
force exerted on the bottom of each container is the same, i.e. F  ghA , irrespective
of the shape of the containers if the base areas are the same

 In the first container, the weight of the liquid inside the container is equal to the
hydrostatic force.
 In the remaining containers, they are different.
o For the second and fourth container, the weight of the liquid is less than the
hydrostatic force
o For the third container, the weight of the liquid is greater than the hydrostatic force
 This apparent contradiction in hydrostatic force on the container base and the weight of
the liquid inside the container is known as the hydrostatic paradox

2) Vertical Pressure Distribution

For incompressible fluids, presume varies in the vertical direction through a fluid. Consider the
vertical cylindrical element of fluid of cross-sectional area A within the same fluid of density.
The element is in equilibrium and the vertical forces must add up to zero.

 Downward force due to P1 = P1 A

 Upward force due to P2 = P2 A
 Downward force due to weight of element = volume x density x g = A (z1 - z2)
 P1 A + A g (z1 - z2) = p2 A
 Therefore, P2 - P1 = g (z1 - z2) i.e., in a fluid at rest, the pressure varies linearly with
depth, and pressure increases with depth.
Note: (z1 - z2) = h, the pressure head or the height of liquid column causing the pressure increase.
Hydrostatics Law

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The rate of increase of pressure vertically downward direction, at a point in a static fluid, must
equal to the local specific weight of the fluid. This change in pressure with depth is given by the
hydrostatic principle (equation). Consider a small vertical cylinder of fluid at equilibrium

o The net pressure force acting upwards: F = ( P  dP)  a  P  a  dP  a

o The gravity force acting on the elementary prism equals the weight of the prism and
acts downward: Weight = gdV  g (dZ  a)

o For the equilibrium of the prism

dP a + g (dZ  a ) = 0
dP a = - g (dZ  a )
dP
dP   gdZ    g  
dZ
 Therefore, the hydrostatic pressure increases linearly with depth at the rate of the specific
weight ( g   ) of the fluid

 for incompressible fluid density (  ) constant and integrating the above equation
P2 Z2
P1
dp   g 
Z1
dz

P2  P1   g (Z 2  Z1 )
P2  P1  g (Z1  Z 2 )
P2  P1  gZ1  gZ 2 )
P2  gZ 2  P1  gZ1 )  cons tan t , with reference to the datum
P2  gh2  P1  gh1 )  cons tan t , with reference to the free surface
P  gZ is called piezometer pressure. It represents the combined effect of pressure and
weight
 If the height (z) is measured from the datum, pressure increases as height decreases and
vice versa.

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 If the height (h) is measured from the free surface it is positive downwards. Thus,
pressure increase as depth increases.
 The linear variation of presuming in a liquid below the free surface is known as
hydrostatic pressure distribution and it has triangular shape

Figure 2. Triangular pressure distribution

 From the above figure, what is the pressure and force acting at the top, middle and
bottom of the surface body?
Pascal’s law

 The pressure acting at any point in a fluid at rest has the same magnitude in all directions.
Pressure has magnitude but has not a specific direction, and thus it is a scalar quantity.

 The pressure of a fluid at rest increases with depth (because as a result of added weight).
In a fluid contained by boundaries, pressure acts perpendicular to the surface (Figure b).

Figure (a) pressure distribution w.r.t direction Figure (b) pressure variation with depth

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Consider a molecule at point (X, y) in fluid at rest, for mathematical analysis, let us consider a
fluid element of size dx, dz and unit length as shown in the figure below, let element o with the
coordinate (x, z), the influence of forces:

Figure 4. 3 Force on an arbitrary wedge-shaped element of fluid

 
F  ma xyz
,Y   ay
 Fy  p yxz  Psxs sin 2
xyz xyz
F z  p zxy  p zxs cos  
2
az ,Z  
2
az

However, y  s cos ; z  s sin 

y
y : p y  p s  a y
2
z
z : p z  p s  ( a z   )
2

As, x, y, z  0

p y  ps
p z  ps  p y  p z  ps
Therefore, this equation indicated that, the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion is
independent of direction as long as there are no shear stresses present.
1.3 Pressure measurement
Pressure is an important variable in fluid mechanics and many instruments have been devised for
its measurement. Many devices are based on hydrostatics such as barometers and manometers,
i.e., determine pressure through measurement of a column of a liquid using the pressure variation
with elevation equation for an incompressible fluid.

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1.3.1 Absolute and gauge pressure

The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces with which it is in contact is
known as atmospheric pressure.

Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured relative to absolute
vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).

Gauge pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric
pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so
they indicate gage pressure.

Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Example: 2: The diagram below shows the pressure relations for a gauge pressure of 50 kPa and
for a vacuum pressure (or negative or suction pressure) of 35 kPa.

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2-1

Exercise 2.1: Calculate pressure at a point 5m below the free surface in liquid that has a variable
density given by the relation  =135+Ay kg/m3, where A=8 kg/m3 and y is distance in m
measured from the free surface.
The pressure of a fluid may be measured by the following devices:

1. Manometer
2. Mechanical
However, the atmospheric pressure is measured by a mercury barometer

1. Manometer
Are those pressure measuring devices, which are based on the principle of balancing the column
of liquid by the same or other columns of fluid. It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil. A known pressure (which may be atmospheric) is applied to one end of the
manometer tube and the unknown pressure (to be determined) is applied to the other end.
Manometers are accurate and often used as calibration standards.

Classification of Manometer

The manometer is classified into two categories:

a) Simple manometer
b) Differential manometer
a. Simple manometer: It is a device, which measures pressure at point in fluid contained in a
pipe or a vessel. Some of the column types of simple manometer are:
I. Piezometer tubs
II. Single column manometer
III. U-tube manometer

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I. Piezometer

Piezometer is one of the simplest forms of manometers. It can be used for measuring the
moderate pressures of liquids. The setup of piezometer consists of a glass tube, inserted in the
wall of a vessel or of a pipe. The tube extends vertically upward to such a height that liquid can
freely rise in it without overflowing. The pressure at any point in the liquid is indicated by the
height of the liquid in the tube above that point.

As the tube is open to the atmosphere, the pressure measured is relative to the atmosphere. That
is, it is gauge pressure. This type of manometer is used only for liquids and only when the liquid
height is convenient to measure (not too small or not too large). That means pressure change
must be detectable.

The pressure at point A can be computed by measuring the height to which the liquid rises in the
glass tube. The pressure at point A is given by p = wh, where w is the specific weight of the
liquid. The hydrostatic pressure at point A (PA) in the pipe can be determined as:

PA  gh  h
Limitations of Piezometer

 Piezometers can measure gauge pressures only. It is not suitable for measuring negative
pressures.
 Piezometers cannot be employed when large pressures in the lighter liquids are to be
measured since this would require very long tubes, which cannot be handled conveniently.
 Gas pressures cannot be measured with piezometers, because of a gas forms

As the tube is open to the atmosphere, the pressure measured is relative to the atmosphere. That
is, it is gauge pressure. This type of manometer is used only for liquids and only when the liquid
height is convenient to measure (not too small or not too large). That means pressure change
must be detectable. Higher pressure requires a longer tub.

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II. Single column manometer (micro manometer)

The U-tube manometer described above usually requires the reading of fluid levels at two or
more points since a change in pressure causes a rise of the liquid in one limb of the manometer
and a drop in the other. This difficulty is however overcome by using single column
manometers. A single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube manometer in which a
shallow reservoir having a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as compared to the area
of the tube is connected to one limb of the manometer. It is used for measuring small pressure,
where accuracy is major important.

Figure 2.3 Vertical single column manometer

The volume that moves from x-x to z-z datum = the volume that rise in right tube above x-x datum

III. U-Tube manometer

The piezometer cannot be employed when large pressures in the lighter liquids are to be
measured, since this would require very long tubes, which cannot be handled conveniently.
Furthermore, gas pressures cannot be measured by the piezometers because a gas forms no free
atmospheric surface. These limitations can be overcome by the use of U-tube manometers. A U-
tube manometer consists of a glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected to a

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point at which pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere.Using a
“U’ Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured with the same
instrument. The “U” is filled with a fluid called the monomeric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is
being measured should have a mass density less than that of the monomeric fluid.

h1
h2

The bottom of this device contains a second liquid of higher specific gravity known as a
manometer or gauge fluid. The manometer fluid should be immiscible with the fluid whose
pressure is to be measured (working fluid)
 The typical manometer fluid to measure large pressures is mercury because of its high
density, this reduces the length of the tube
 Low density fluids such as water are used as manometer fluids for small pressures
 To find the pressure at A, start from one end of the manometer, use the expression P  gh
for pressure exerted by fluid height, add or deduct as the case may be, and work to the other
end.
Let us start at A (left side of the manometer)

Pressure at 1,
P1  PA

Pressure at 2,
P2  P1  1gh1  PA  1gh1
P3   2 gh2
Pressure at 3,
P2 and P3 are at the same elevation in the same fluid, thus P2  P3 (manometer rule 1)

 PA  1gh1 =
 2 gh2
 PA =  2 gh2 - 1 gh1

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Characteristics of liquid used in U-tube Manometer:

 Viscosity should be low.

 Low surface tension is required.
 The liquid should stick on the walls.
 Should not get vaporized.
 The two fluids should not be able to mix readily that is, they must be immiscible.

Advantages of U-tube Manometer:

 Simple in construction
 Low cost hence easy to buy.
 Very accurate and sensitive
 It can be used to measure other process variables.

Disadvantage

 Fragile in construction.
 Very sensitive to temperature changes

Applications of U-tube manometer:

 It is used for low range pressure measurements.

 Extensively used in laboratories.
 It is used in Orifice meter and Venturi meter for flow measurements.
 It is used for calibration of gauges and other instruments.
 It is used for measuring pressure drop in different joints and valves.

b. Differential manometers; Differential manometers measure the difference of pressure

between any two points in a fluid contained in a pipe or vessel. Differential manometer is of
following types;
a) U-tube differential manometer
b) Inverted U- tube differential manometer; this type of manometer is used for measuring
the difference of two pressures (where accuracy is a major consideration).
a. U-tube differential manometer

 Used to measure the difference in pressure between to containers or two points in the
same system.

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 The difference in pressure between two points A and B is proportional to the difference
in the height of the manometer fluid in the two arms.
 In the following figure, the pressure at B is greater than pressure at A, i.e., P B > PA
 The bottom of the U-tube manometer contains manometric fluid.

 To find the pressure difference (PB – PA), start from one end of the manometer, use the
expression P  gh for pressure exerted by fluid height, add or deduct as the case may
be, and work to the other end.
Let us start at B (Right side of the manometer)
Points C and B are at the same level as in the same continuous mass of fluid at rest. Therefore,
PC  PB

Pressure at D, PD  PC  1 g (h  h1 )

 PB  1g (h  h1 )
At the Left side
Pressure at E, PE   m gh   2 g (h1  h2 )  PG
Pressures at A and G must be the same because A and G are at the same level in the same
continuous mass of fluid at rest.
PE  PA   m gh   2 g (h1  h2 )
 Pressure at E & D must be the same as they are at the same level in the same fluid at rest,
PD  PE
 PB  1 g (h  h1 )  PA   m gh   2 g (h1  h2 )

 PB  PA   m gh   2 g (h1  h2 )  1 g (h  h1 )

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 In the common case, A and B are at the same elevation ( h2  0 ) and the fluids in the
pipes are the same ( 1  2 ) P2 = Pm

 PB  PA   m gh  gh

 PB  PA  (  m   ) gh  Differential manometer equation

 m 
 gh
   1
Then, P = 
 
Where,
o  m = density of manometer fluid
o  = density of the fluid in the system (working fluid)
o h = nanometer differential reading
 If the fluids at A & B are gases with the same density which is low enough to be
neglected

 PB  PA   m gh
b. Inverted U-Tube Manometer
Uses a gauge or manometer fluid which is less dense than fluids whose pressure difference is to
be measured. The gauge fluid is gas, usually air.

 To find the pressure difference start at one side, say at B

 Points C and B are at the same level in the same fluid PC = PB

Pressure at D, PD  Pc   2 g (h2  h3 )

PD  PB   2 g (h2  h3 )

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 Points E and D are at the same level in the same fluid PE = PD

PE  PB   2 g (h2  h3 )
PF  PE   m gh3

PF  PB   2 g (h2  h3 )   m gh3
PG  PF  1 g (h1  h2 )
PG  PB   2 g (h2  h3 )  1 g (h1  h2 )   m gh3
 Points G and A are at the same level in the same fluid PG = PA

PA  PB   2 g (h2  h3 )  1 g (h1  h2 )   m gh3

PB  PA   2 g (h2  h3 )   m gh3  1 g (h1  h2 )

Factors affecting manometer

Basic manometer principle of hydrostatic balance is inherently 100% accurate but there are some
factors that can affect the pressure measurement

 Characteristics of indicating fluid; Fluid must have good ‘Wetting’ characteristics and
should be capable of forming a consistent well-shaped meniscus in the indicating tube to
facilitate accurate and repeatable reading.

 Readability; Scales must be clear, sharp, accurate and easy to read.

Advantages of Manometers

 Easy to fabricate and relatively inexpensive;

 Good accuracy; High sensitivity;

 Require little maintenance;

 Not affected by vibrations;

 Especially suitable for low pressure and low differential pressures; and

 It is easy to change the sensitivity by affecting a change in the quantity of monomeric

liquid in the manometer

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Limitations of manometer

 Usually bulky and large in size.

 Being fragile, get broken easily.
 Readings of the manometers are affected by changes in temperature, altitude, and gravity.
 A capillary effect is created due to surface tension of the monomeric fluid, and
 For better accuracy meniscus has to be measured by accurate means.

2-2

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Other Pressure Measurement Devices

Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube bent like a hook whose end is closed and
connected to a dial indicator needle.

Pressure transducers: Use various techniques to convert the pressure effect to an electrical
effect such as a change in voltage, resistance, or capacitance. Pressure transducers are smaller
and faster, and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and precise than their mechanical
counterparts.

Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by having a diaphragm deflect between two chambers
open to the pressure inputs.

Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-state pressure transducers, work on the principle
that an electric potential is generated in a crystalline substance when it is subjected to mechanical
pressure.

Deadweight tester: Another type of mechanical pressure gage. It is used primarily for
calibration and can measure extremely high pressures. A deadweight tester measures pressure
directly through the application of a weight that provides a force per unit area.-the fundamental
definition of pressure. A deadweight tester is able to measure extremely high pressures.

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1.4 Forces on the plane surface

The distributed forces resulting from the action of the fluid on a finite area can be conveniently
replaced by resultant force. The magnitude of resultant force and its line of action (pressure
center) are determined by integration, by formula and by using the concept of the pressure prism.
For a static fluid, the shear stress is zero and the only stress is the normal stress, i.e., pressure p.
Recall that p is a scalar, which when in contact with a solid surface exerts a normal force towards
the surface.

 The knowledge of magnitude, direction, and location of the resultant hydrostatic force on
surfaces submerged under a liquid is essential for the design of gates, locks, and dams.
 The plane surfaces may be submerged under liquids:
o Horizontally
o Vertically
o At an angle (inclined)
1) Horizontal Plane Surfaces
 When the plane surface is horizontal, for example, the bottom of an open water
storage tank, the pressure is uniform over the whole area.

 The pressure at all point lying on it is same and the pressure distributions are rectangular
with P  gh as ordinate

 The hydrostatic force is the product of the pressure and the whole area,
F  P A

F  gh A

 This hydrostatic force is equal to the volume of the pressure prism or diagram
 Due to the uniform pressure distribution over a horizontal surface
o the hydrostatic force acts through the center of an area

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o Thus, the center of pressure coincides with the center of the area.
o The point through which the resultant force acts is known as the center of
pressure.
2) Vertical Plane Surfaces
 The pressure change is the vertical direction, the magnitude of the pressure depends on its
location from the free surface.

 The hydrostatic force is the product of the average pressure and the whole area,

F  Pav  A
1
F  gh A
2

 The hydrostatic force is equal to the volume of the pressure prism or diagram.
2
 The location of the force is h below the free surface and it is below the center area  1 h 
3 2 

2. Plane Surfaces Inclined at an Angle

Suppose a plane surface is submerged in a liquid such that it makes angle θ with the liquid free
surface. An example is an inclined wall of the water storage tank. The pressure acts
perpendicular to the surface.

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 The pressure varies from 0 at the surface to gh at the bottom of the wall

 The resultant force is found by integrating the force due to the hydrostatic pressure on an
elementary area at the depth of h over the whole surface.
Consider an elementary strip of the area dA within the surface at a depth h shown below the
figure, the pressure acting on the elementary strip area is discussed below:

 The pressure acting on the elementary strip area dA = gh

 The hydrostatic force acting on the strip area :

dF  ghdA
But, h  y sin
dF  gydAsin 
 Integrating over the whole surface area

 dF  g sin  
A A
y dA

F  g sin  ydA
A

A
ydA the first moment of area

 A
ydA A y c

F  gyc A sin 
F  gyc A sin 
But, yc sin  hc
F  ghc A
F  Pc A

Where Pc  pressure at the centroid

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Therefore, the resultant hydrostatic force on one side of any submerged plane surface is equal to
the product of the pressure at the centroid of the surface and the total area of the surface. It is
independent of the shape of the plane or the angle θ, which is slanted.
 The location of the center of pressure is:
I c sin 2 
h p  hc 
hc A

I c = Second-moment areas or moment of inertia about an axis through the centroid and parallel
to the axis through zero
 The depth of the center of pressure depends on;
o Shape of surface
o Angle of inclination
 It is always below the depth of the centroid of the plane surface.
The table below presents the areas, location of centroids and second moments of area of some
plane areas.

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1.5 Hydraulic Forces on Curved Surfaces

On a curved submerged surface, the elemental forces are not parallel and vary in direction.
When determining the hydrostatic force, the horizontal and vertical forces should be considered
separately. In other words, the magnitude and direction of the resultant hydrostatic force on the
surface are derived after first computing its horizontal and vertical components.
1) The liquid above Curved Surface
 Suppose it is required to find the force acting on the upper side of the curved surface
below.

 AB is the immersed curved surface

Horizontal component
 The horizontal component of the hydrostatic force in any chosen direction is equal to the
projection of the area on a vertical plane normal to the chosen direction.

 By considering the equilibrium of the liquid mass contained in ABC the horizontal
component. FH  The resultant force of liquid acting on a vertically projected area
(AC)
1
FH  gh A (A = projected area)
2
 The horizontal force acts through the center of pressure of the vertical projection.

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Vertical Component

 The vertical component of the hydrostatic force on any surface is equal to the weight of
the volume of liquid extending above the surface of the object to the level of the free
surface (ABEDC);

FV W  mg Vg

 The vertical component force acts through the center of gravity of the volume considered.
2 2
 Resultant force: FR  FH  FV

 The direction of the resultant force is downward making an angle  with the horizontal

 FV 
  tan 1  
F
 H
Liquids below Curved Surface

 Suppose it is required to find the force acting on the underside the curved surface AB,

 The space above the surface ABCD may be empty or contain other fluid

 Imagine that the space (ADCB) vertically above the curved surface is occupied with the
same fluid as that below it (disregard what actually is filling that space).

 Then the surface AB could be removed without disrupting the equilibrium of the fluid.
That means, the force acting on the underside of the surface would be balanced by that
acting on the upper side under this imaginary condition.

 In other words, the upward force can be considered to be equal to the weight of the
imaginary liquid above the surface

 Therefore, the same arguments can be used as in the liquid above the curved surface

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1
FH  gh A (A = projected area)
2
FV W  mg Vg
2 2
FR  FH  FV

 But, the direction of the resultant force upward making angle  with the horizontal.
F 
  tan 1  V 
 FH 
1.6 Buoyancy and stability of floating and submerged bodies
What is the vertical force acting on a body which is partially or completely submerged in a fluid?
Answer to such a question can be very well found in the theory developed by Archimedes.
Archimedes seems to have discovered the laws concerning submerged bodies as well as floating
bodies, is known as Archimedes principle states that:-

 The vertical buoyant force experienced by a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced.
 A floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid.

1.6.1 Buoyant force (Resultant fluid force in a body)

The buoyant force is the upward force a fluid exerts on a body immersed in it. The buoyant force
on a submerged body is the difference between the vertical components of pressure force on its
underside and the vertical component of pressure force on its upper side. The buoyant force
always acts vertically upward. The buoyant force is caused by the increase of pressure with depth
in a fluid. A flat plate of uniform thickness submerged in a liquid parallel to the free surface. The
buoyant force acting on the plate is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the plate. For a
fluid with constant density, the buoyant force is independent of the distance of the body from the
free surface.

The buoyant forces acting on a solid body submerged in a fluid and on a fluid body of the same
shape at the same depth are identical. The buoyant force FB acts upward through the centroid C
of the displaced volume and is equal in magnitude to the weight W of the displaced fluid, but is
opposite in direction. For a solid of uniform density, its weight Ws also acts through the centroid,

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but its magnitude is not necessarily equal to that of the fluid it displaces. (Here Ws >W and thus
Ws>FB; this solid body would sink).

Fluid

Figure 3. 1 Buoyant force on the body

Archimedes’ principle: The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the
displaced volume.

hB PBdA

PDdA
PBdA
hC
O x

PCdA
Figure 3. 2 Buoyant force on a submerged body

Assume a vertical cylindrical element of cross-sectional area dA. As dA is small, the pressure on
the exposed ends of the cylinder may be taken as p1 and p2 .

Since p2> p1, there will be an upward force (p2 –p1) dA acting on the cylindrical element.

 dFB = (p2 – p1 ) dA = (h2-h1) dA = dv

Where dv = volume of the prism

The entire body may be considered to be made up of small cylindrical elements, then integrating
over the complete body gives:
v v

F B
  d F B   dv    dv  V

 = is assumed constant thought the volume and V= Volume of the body

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By applying Archimedes’s principle, volumes of irregular solids can be found by determining the
apparent loss of weight when a body is wholly immersed in a liquid of known specific gravity.
Specific gravities of liquids can be determined by observing the depth of flotation of a
hydrometer. Further applications include problems of general flotation and of naval architectural
design.
To find the line of action of the buoyant force, moments are taken about a convenient axis 0.

V x    x. dv x  The distance from the axis to the line of action.

1 v
v
Or x  x.dv (centroid of the displaced volume of fluid) i.e. B.

1.6.2 Stability of floating and submerged bodies

Stability becomes an important consideration when floating bodies such as a boat or ship are
designed. It is an obvious requirement that a floating body such as a boat does not topple when
slightly disturbed. When the body is in stable equilibrium if it is able to return to its position
when slightly disturbed. Failure to do so denotes unstable equilibrium. What equilibrium a body
like is decided by the couple formed by the weight of the body and the buoyancy force, consider
the immersed body shown in Fig.3.3. In general, if the center of gravity of the body lies below
the center of buoyancy stable equilibrium prevails. An overturning couple leading to unstable
equilibrium results if the center of gravity is above the center of buoyancy (Fig. 3.4).

Figure 3. 3 Stability of an immersed body Figure 3. 4 Instability of an immersed body

It becomes more complicated when floating bodies are considered, as the body rotates
responding to any disturbance the center of buoyancy can shift. This could render the body stable
even though the center of gravity is above the center of buoyancy. This is particularly true of the
bodies with a broader base such as a barge (Fig. 3.5). A slender body as shown in Fig. 3.6 is very
susceptible to instability.

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Figure 3. 5 Stability of a floating body Figure 3. 6 Instability of a floating body

3.6.2.1 Relative equilibrium of liquids

Figure 3.7 & 3.8 shows a solid body floating in equilibrium (weight acts through G & the
buoyancy through B). Both act in the same straight line. When the body is displaced from its
equilibrium, weight continues to act at G. The volume of liquid displaced remains constant but
the shape of this volume will change & the position of its G & B will move relative to the body.

The point at which the line of action of the buoyant force for the displaced position cuts the
original vertical through the center of gravity of the body G is called metacenter, designated M
stable equilibrium. The metacentric height is the distance GM

a) b)
Figure 3. 7 Stable equilibrium

The displaced fluid is rectangular in section (fig. a) but it is triangular in fig.b and the center of
buoyancy moves to B1. As a result, FB and W are not in the same straight line producing a
turning moment WX that is a righting moment.

a) b)

Figure 3. 8 Unstable equilibrium

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Comparing the above figures, it can be seen that:

1. If M lies above G a righting moment is produced, GM is regarded as positive, and

equilibrium is stable.
2. If M lies below G an overturning moment is produced, GM is regarded as negative, the
floating body is unstable equilibrium.
3. If M and G coincide the body is in neutral equilibrium
Tutorial Problems

1. What is the pressure at a point 10m below the free surface in a fluid that has a variable
density in kg/m3 given by   450  ah , in which a  12Kg / m 4 and h is the distance in
meters measured from the free surface.
2. Express a pressure of 50Kpa in a) mm of mercury b)m of water c)m of acetylene tetra
bromide, S=2.94.
3. The tube in fig.3 is filled with oil. Determine the pressure at A and B in meters of water.
4. Calculate the pressure at A, B, C and D of fig.4 in Pascals.
5. In fig.1 S1 =0.86, S2=1.0, h1=150mm, and h2=90mm.Find PA in mmHg gage. If the
barometric reading is 720mmHg, what is PA in meters of water absolute?

Fig.1 Fig.2
6. Gas is contained in vessel A of the fig.1 with water being the manometer fluid and h1=75mm.
Determine the pressure at A in mm of Hg.
7. In fig.2, S1=1.0, S2=0.95, S3=1.0, h1=h2=280mm and h3=1m. Compute PA-PB in mm of water.
8. In problem 7 find the gage difference h2 for PA-PB= -350 mm of water.
9. A uniform rectangular body 2m long 1m wide and 0.8m deep floats in water, the depth of
immersion being 0.6m.What is the weight of the bod? Find also the position of the
metacenter. Is the equilibrium stable?
10. An object weighs 289.2N in air and 186.9N in oil of S= 0.75. Find its volume and relative
density.
11. A solid cube of wood of specific gravity 0.9 floats in water with a face parallel to the water
line. If the length of one edge is 10cm, find its metacentric height.

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