Chapter-2. Hydraulic Structure

CHAPTER-2
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF DAMS

2.1 Design of Concrete Gravity Dams
2.1.1 Force Acting on Concrete Dams
2.1.2 Design and Analysis of Gravity Dams
2.1.3 Profile of Gravity Dams
2.2 Design of Embankment Dams
2.2.1 Elements of Embankment Dams
2.2.2 Causes of Failure of Earth Dams
2.2.3 Design Principles
2.3 River Diversion During Construction
ASTU Water Resources Engineering
2.1 Design of Concrete Dams
Force Acting On Concrete Dams

 Water pressure
Self Wight of Structure
Silt pressure
Wind pressure
Wave pressure and wave height
Earthquake forces

Concrete Gravity Dams
Forces acting on gravity dam
1) Primary Forces:- are those loads which are very
important irrespective of dam type and are major importance
to all dams. These are: -
Water pressure
Self weight of dam
Uplift (or seepage) pressure
2) Secondary Forces:- major 3) Exceptional Loads:-
importance only to certain They have limited general
types of dams. applicability or have a low
They include: - probability of occurrence
Sediment (or silt) pressure Example: Earth quake (or
Wave pressure seismic) forces
Ice pressure
Wind pressure
Forces acting on gravity dam
1. Primary Forces
a) Water pressure: is the force exerted by water stored
in the reservoir on the u/s and depth d/s tail water.
Horizontal water pressure: exerted by the weight of the
water stored on the u/s & d/s tail water side of the
dam.
 it is estimated from the rule of hydrostatic pressure
distribution.
F H = ½  w H2
Primary Forces
Vertical water pressure (PV): is equal to the weight
of water stored over the inclined portion of the
dam when the u/s face is inclined
FV =  w A
b) Self weight of dam: is the weight per unit length of

the dam & it is given by the product of the cross-
section of the dam and the unit weight of the
construction material, (concrete or stone masonry)
 It acts vertically down wards at the centroid of the
cross-sectional area of the dam profile.
W =  CA
Primary Forces
c) Uplift (seepage) Load: is Internal water pressure:
 Acts at the base of the dam
 With in the structure itself
 Reduces effective weight of structure
 The intensity of uplift pressure at any point depends
upon the depth of water at that point.
 If the tail water depth is zero, the uplift pressure at d/s
edge will be zero.
 The pressure variation along the base is assumed to be
linear between the u/s and d/s faces.
 It is controlled by the provision of vertical relief drains
(drainage gallery) close behind the u/s face.
3. Uplift (Seepage) Load
2) Secondary Loads
a) Sediment (or Silt) Pressure: is a resultant horizontal
force, Ps against the face of the dam due to gradual
accumulation of sediment or silt
 Its magnitude is a function of sediment depth h, the

submerged unit weight rs' and the active lateral
pressure coefficient, Ka and it is determined
according to Rankine‟s formula.
2) Secondary Loads
b) Wave Pressures and Height
 Wave exerts pressure on the upstream face.
 For high dams the wave pressure is small compared to
other forces.
The magnitude of the wave pressure mainly depends on :
 dimensions of waves which in turn depend on the
extent, and configuration of the water surface
 the velocity of the wind and
 the depth of the water in the reservoir.
 According to Molitor wave height is:
Pw = 2whw2 and it
acts at 3/8hw
(0.375hw) above still
water
2) Secondary Loads
2) Secondary Loads
c) Ice Pressure
 Ice load can be introduced in circumstances where ice
sheets form to appreciable thickness and persist for
lengthy periods.
 In such situations, ice pressures may generate a
considerable horizontal thrust near crest level.
 An acceptable initial provision for ice load, Pice where
considered necessary is given by Pice = 145 kN/m2 for
ice thickness in excess of 0.6m (USBR, 1976).
2) Secondary Loads
d) Wind Pressure
 When the dam is full, wind will act only on the
downstream face, thus contributing to stability and when
the dam is empty, wind can act on the upstream face, but
the pressure is small compared to the hydraulic pressure
of the water.
 Hence for gravity dams wind is not considered.
 For buttress dams and super structure of dams
carrying very large gates wind load on the exposed
faces has to be considered.
 The superstructure of dams carrying very large sluice
gates may be proportioned to resist wind loads of 1 to
1.5 kN/m2.
2) Exceptional Loads
Earth Quake Loads
 In regions where earth quakes are possible or probable,
dams must resist the inertia effects caused by the sudden
movements of the earth's crust.
 It is Dynamic load which produces waves that are capable
of shaking the Earth upon which the dam is resting in every
possible direction.
Effect: imparting an acceleration to the foundation of the
dam in the direction in which the wave is travelling.
 Earthquake wave may move in any direction, & for design
purposes it has to be in vertical (av) & horizontal (ah)
components and their values are expressed as percentage
of the acceleration due to gravity (0.1 – 0.2g)
2) Exceptional Loads
Earth Quake Loads
Under reservoir full conditions the most adverse seismic
loading will then occur when a ground shock is associated
with:
a) horizontal foundation acceleration operating upstream, and
b) vertical foundation acceleration operating downstream.
To produce such motion, forces must be applied to overcome
the inertia of the structure
e) Earth Quake Loads
Effect of Vertical acceleration (av)
 It may either act downward or upward
Acting upward direction:
 the foundation of the dam will be lifted upward
 the effective weight of the dam will increase
 the stress developed will increase
Acting downward direction:
 the foundation will move downward away from the dam body
 reducing the effective weight of the dam and stability of the
dam, and hence is the worst case for designs.
It exerts an inertia force given by:
The net effective weight of the dam is: ;
Kv = fraction of gravity (0.1-0.2)

Therefore, vertical acceleration reduces the unit weight of the
dam material & that of water to (1-Kv) times their original unit
weight
Effect of Horizontal acceleration (ah): this may cause
 Hydrodynamic pressure and
 Horizontal inertia force
a) Hydrodynamic pressure: if there is a horizontal pressure
towards the reservoir, the foundation of the dam will accelerate
towards the reservoir and the water resist the movement owing
to its inertia (this pressure is known as hydrodynamic
pressure)
 According to Von-Karman this pressure is given by:
And it acts at above the base
Moment of this force about the base is

b) Horizontal inertia force: the horizontal acceleration can
also produce an inertia force into the body of the dam.
 The force is generated in order to keep the body & the
foundation of the dam together as one piece
 The direction of the force is opposite to the acceleration
imparted by earthquake(upstream or downstream).
 For reservoir full condition, this force would produce worst
result if the earthquake acceleration moving toward the
reservoir (additive to the hydrostatic water pressure)
 When the reservoir is empty, the force would produce worst
results if the earthquake acceleration moving toward
downstream
Note: for stability analysis, choose the direction that produces
the most unfavorable effects under the considered
conditions
 Under reservoir empty conditions, earthquake forces
produce effects, which may cause slight tension near the
toe; and hence stability analysis for reservoir empty case
may be carried out only on the basis of weight of the dam by
ignoring earthquake forces and keeping the section free
from any tension
 The amount of this horizontal inertial force is equal to the
mass of the dam and the acceleration
This horizontal inertia force is:
 This force acts at the centre of gravity of the mass.
Design and Analysis of Gravity Dams
 Design and Analysis Of Gravity

Dams
Load combination
Stability Analysis of Gravity
Dams

Load Combinations
 A concrete gravity dam should be designed with regard to
the most rigorous adverse combinations of loads which
have a reasonable probability of simultaneous occurrence.
 The design of gravity dam should be checked for two
cases i.e.
1) When reservoir is full and
2) When reservoir is empty
Case I:- When reservoir full: when reservoir is full, forces
acting are:
Major forces: weight of the dam, external water pressure,
and uplift pressure and earth quake forces in serious
seismic zones.
Minor forces: silt pressure, ice pressure and wave
pressure.
Load Combinations
According to USBR, load combination can be classified as:
a) Normal Load Combinations
I. Water pressure up to normal pool level, normal uplift,
silt pressure and ice pressure (when ice force is
serious).
II. Water pressure up to normal pool level, normal uplift,
earth quake forces and silt pressure.
III. Water pressure up to maximum reservoir level, normal
uplift and silt pressure.
b) Extreme Load Combinations
i. Water pressure due to maximum pool level, extreme
uplift pressure without any reduction due to drainage
and silt pressure.
Load Combinations
Case II:- When reservoir is empty
Empty reservoir without earth quake: has to be analyzed
to determine bending moment diagrams, etc, for
reinforcement design, for grouting studies or other
purposes.
Empty reservoir with a horizontal earth quake: earth

quake force towards the upstream has to be checked for
non-development of tension at toe.
Stability Requirements of Gravity Dam
 The concrete gravity dam must be designed such that
it is safe against all possible modes of failure, with
adequate factor of safety.
 These modes of failure are: -

1) Overturning (rotation) about the toe
2) Sliding (shear failure)
3) Tension development: causing ultimate failure by
crushing
4) Crushing (Or compression failure)
Stability Requirement of Gravity Dam
a) Over Turning Stability (Fo)
If the resultant of all the forces acting on a dam at any
sections, passes outside the toe, the dam shall rotate and
over turn about the toe.
The factor of safety against overturning is defined as the

ratio of the summation of all restoring (i.e. positive moments
to the summation of all over turning moments (negative)
Values of Fo in excess of 1.25 is acceptable and Fo >=1.5

is desirable)
b) Compression or crushing
 is failure of the material (when the compressive stress
produced exceed the allowable stress, the dam material
may get crushed)
 The vertical direct stress distribution at the base is given by
Where; e = eccentricity of the resultant force from the centre of

the base and B = base width
If Pmin/max exceeds the allowable compressive stress of dam material, the
dam may crush and fail by crushing
c) Tension
 As concrete or masonry materials cannot withstand
sustained tensile stresses, tension should not be developed
anywhere when designing masonry & concrete gravity
dams.
 The effect is crack
 If tension crack develops (for instance; at the heel):
 crack width or crack area looses contact with the bottom
foundations.
 as a result the effective width B of the dam base will be
reduced.
 this will increase smax and increase the uplift pressure
 In order to ensure that no tension is developed anywhere,
we must be ensure that smin is at most equal to zero.
c) Tension
 Hence maximum value of eccentricity that can be permitted on

either side of the centre is equal to B/6, which leads to “ the
resultant must lie within the middle third”
 Moreover, the uplift pressure diagram gets modified due to crack
formation as shown above, resulting in an increase in the uplift and
reduce the net effective downward force, the resultant will shift more
towards the toe & further increasing the compressive stress at the toe&
further lengthening the crack due to further tension development
 Hence, a tension crack by itself doesn’t fail the structure, but it leads to
the failure of the structure by producing excessive compressive
stresses
d) Sliding Stability
 Stability factor against sliding, FS, can be:
i) Sliding factor, FS (resistance is purely frictional)
ii) Shear friction factor, FSF (resistance is due to friction and
the shear strength at the joints)
iii) Limit equilibrium factor, FLE.
i) Sliding factor, FS (resistance is purely frictional)

 Sliding or shear failure will occur when the net horizontal
force above any plane in the dam or at the base of the
dam exceeds the frictional and the joint shear
resistances developed at that level
 In low dams, the safety against sliding can be checked
only for friction.
i) Sliding Factor, Fs
 The friction developed between two surfaces is:
µ= the coefficient of friction between the two surfaces = 0.65
to 0.75
 In order that no sliding takes place,
If the plane is inclined at small angle a;

a is +ve if sliding operate uphill sense
ii) Shear friction factor, FSF
 Resistance is due to friction and the shear strength at the
joints
 In high dams (for economical precise designs), in
addition to frictional resistance, the shear strength of the
joint must also be considered
Where; B = width of the dam at the joint

q = average shear strength of the joint (which varies from
1400kN/m2 for poor rocks to 4000kN/m2 for good rocks)
To increase shear strength (q):
Step the foundation at the base
Ensure better bond between the dam base and the rock
foundation
Shear Friction Factor, FSF
 With the normal load combination applicable, the shear
friction factor required in the foundation zone is generally
FSF >= 4.0.
 On planes within the dam and at the base interface,
FSF >= 3.0
Limit Equilibrium Factor, FLE
The limit equilibrium factor, FLE, is the ratio of shear
strength to mean applied shear stress across a plane, i.e.
OVER STRESSING
• A dam may fail if any of its part is overstressed and hence
the stress in the dam should be within the specified limit
(allowable working stresses) for the dam body and in the
foundation.
• The stresses at any point at the base of the dam or within
the dam body can be obtained from the following equation.
Positive sign is used to calculate normal stress at the toe.

Negative sign is used for calculating normal stress at the
heel.
 If dmax exceed the allowable compressive stress of
dam material (for concrete 30kg/cm2) the dam may
crush and fail by crushing.
 For reservoir full condition, max compressive stress

(smax) is produced at the toe.
 Evidently, the maximum compressive stress occurs at

the toe and for safety this should not be greater than
the allowable compressive stress (sall) for the
foundation material. i.e
 Concrete gravity dams are usually designed in such away
that no tension is developed any where, since concrete
cannot withstand sustained tensile stresses.
 In order to ensure that no tension is developed any where,
we must ensure that smin is at most equal to zero.
 Hence, the maximum value of eccentricity that can be

permitted on either side of the center is equal to B/6 ,
which leads to the famous statement:
The resultant must lie within the middle third (Middle
third rule)
Example: Fig. below shows the
section of a gravity dam built of
concrete. The earthquake forces
may be taken as equivalent to
0.1g for horizontal forces and
0.05g for vertical forces. The uplift
may be taken as equal to the
hydrostatic pressure at the either
ends and is considered to act
over 60% of the area of the
section. A tail water depth of 6m is
assumed to be present when the
reservoir is full and there is no
tailwater when the reservoir is
empty.
a) Examine the stability of this section at the base.
b) Also indicate the values of various kinds of stress that are
developed at heel and toe. (Assume the unit weighst of concrete
and water as 24 kN/m3 and 10kN/m3 respectively)
Solution:
a) Load Determination
Solution:
Case (I) Reservoir empty
Solution: Case (II) Reservoir Full
Solution: Case (II) Reservoir Full
Profile of Gravity Dams
 Single Step Method

 Multiple step method

Elementary Profile of Gravity Dam
 The elementary profile of a dam subjected only to the external
water pressure on the u/s side will be a right-angled triangle
having zero width at the water level and a base width, B at
bottom (where the maximum hydrostatic water pressure acts.
 Is the theoretical shape

 Major forces considered are weight of the dam the hydrostatic
water pressure
Where:
H = depth of water and
s = specific gravity of
concrete
 The shape of the
profile is similar to the
shape of the hydrostatic
pressure distribution
 When the reservoir is empty, the only single force
acting on it is the self-weight (W) of the dam and it
acts at the a distance B/3 from the heel
 This is the maximum possible innermost position of

the resultant for no tension to develop, which is the
most ideal.
 So, the elementary profile provides the maximum

stabilizing force without causing any tension at any
point in the base during the reservoir empty conditions
when the only force acting is the self weight.
 The vertical stress distribution at the base, when the
reservoir is empty, is given as:
 Hence, the maximum vertical stress 2W/B will act near

the heel and the vertical stress at the toe will be zero.
 When the reservoir is full, the base width is governed by :
a) The resultant of all forces: P, W and U passes through
the outer most middle third point (i.e lower middle third
point)
b) The dam is safe in sliding
practical profile of gravity dam
Practical requirements: -
 Top width, for a road construction over the top
 free board above water surface so that water may not spill over
the top due to wave action etc.
 The addition of the above two provisions will cause the

resultant force to shift towards the heel for reservoir was
Free Board:
empty; this will create tension in the toe
o Free board is generally provided equal to 3/2hw where hw is
wave height.
o However modern practice is to provide a maximum free board
equal to 3 to 4% of the height, though free board equal to 5% or
more high prove economical.
o Without considering earth quake forces, the most economical
top width, has been found by Creager to be equal to 14% of the
dam height 64
For Reservoir full case
 If B is taken equal to or greater than no tension will
be developed at the heel with full reservoir.
 Due to the additional concrete ABC, the resultant force will
intersect to the left of the outer middle third points of all
horizontal section PKQ.
 Although in this case the tension will not develop on the u/s
edge, the section will not be economical b/c the maximum
compressive stress will be less than the permissible value.
 To effect economy, the d/s slope of the dam may be shifted
from QE to QE‘
 It has been further observed that with in limits the concrete
added for providing the top width decrease rather than
increases the total concrete volume in the dam.
For Reservoir full case
 This is b/c the increased volume of concrete in the
upper portion of the dam is compensated by
reduction in the lower levels.
 Without considering earth quake forces, the most
economical top width, has been found by Creager to
be equal to 14% of the dam height
Design of Gravity Dam
 The section of gravity should be chosen in such a way
that it is the most economical section and satisfies
all the conditions & requirements of stability.
i.e., after the section of the dam has been fixed, the stability
analysis for the dam must be carried out.
Method of Gravity dam design
 Commonly used methods
1) Multiple step method (zone method)
2) Single step method
1) Multiple step method (zone method)
 the section of the dam is considered to be divided into a
number of zones.
 Design commences from crest level, and descends
through profile stages corresponding to predetermined
elevations.
Each
. zone is designed in such away that all requirements of
stability are satisfied (i.e. stress levels are maintained with in
acceptable limits e.g. no tension under any condition of
loading)
 Applicable for low dams
2) Single step method
 For high dams, going beyond zone IV, it is found that the
shape of u/s and d/s slopes is sometimes unusual shape.
The u/s face has a relatively flat slope while the d/s
face has outward convex shape.
 In this method of design a section of the dam is suitably
assumed and the entire dam is considered as a single
zone.
 Applicable for high gravity dams
 High dams beyond zone IV are designed by single step
method so that convex curvature of d/s face is avoided.
General Conclusions:
 Dams of lesser heights can be designed economically
only by multiple-step design method.
 It may be economical to increase the concrete or

masonry strength through the use of expensive
materials, thus keeping out of zones V and VI by dividing
into four zones (for high dams)
 High dams beyond zone IV are designed by single step

method so that convex curvature of d/s face is avoided.
Question
1. For a given elementary profile of gravity dam for reservoir
full condition, determine:
a) Its Eccentricity
b) The maximum vertical stress and its location
c) The minimum vertical stress and its location
(Take: Upstream depth of water = 60m and density of concrete
= 2400kg/m3, C = 1 and m=0.7)
Concrete Arch and Concrete Buttress Dams
Concrete Arch Dams
Concrete Arch Dams
 Characteristics of Arch Dams
 Constant radius arch dam
 Constant Angle Arch dam
 Variable radius arch dam
 Loads on arch dam
 Methods of design of massive arch
dams
• The thin cylinder theory
• Elastic arch theory (Arch dam
analysis)

Program
Concrete Arch Dam
Arch Dam is a solid wall; made of cement concrete, curved in
plan, standing across the entire width of the river valley, in a
single span
 are restricted to relatively narrow valley/gorge sections
with strong abutments
Structural Behavior:
 partly as a cantilever retaining wall standing up from its base
 partly the load will be transferred to the two ends of the arch
span by horizontal arch action and cantilever action.
 Hence the side walls of the canyon must be strong, stable and
rocky.
 The load distribution to the side wall reduces the load on the
cantilever wall, thereby reducing its thickness as compared to
the ordinary gravity dam. This is the benefit of arch dam
 The greater wall curvature is the greater load transfer and the
greater the economy of the dam thickness.
 The design and construction is very complex. 74
 Transmit the major portion of
• The water load to the abutments or valley sides
• The weight of structure to the floor of the valley,
 Require large horizontal reactions by the abutments.
Valley Shapes for Arch Dam
 To determine the site suitability for an arch dam the
canyon shape factor (CSF) equation of may be used
B  H (sec 1  sec 2 )
CSF 
H
75
Valley Shapes for Arch Dam
• The ratio of crest length to dam height is recommended to
be ≤ 5.
• Usual values of CSF are from 2 to 5.
• The lower the CSF value the thinner the section.
Valley type Bottom width B 1 2 CSF
U shaped <H < 150 < 150 < 3.1
Narrow V shaped 0 < 350 < 350 < 2.4
Wide V-shaped 0 > 350 > 350 > 2.4
Composite U-V shaped < 2H > 150 > 150  4.1
Wide and flat shapes > 2H 1 2 > 4.0
Unclassified Highly irregular valley shape
76
Types of Arch Dam:
i) Depending on the number of arches:
a) Single arch dam: when a single arch cover the whole span
of the dam
b) Multiple arch dam:- series of arches cover the whole span
of the dam, usually inclined and supported on piers or
buttresses. They are usually considered as a type of
buttress dam.
77
Concrete Arch Dam
78
b) Constant Angle Arch Dam
 is a special type of variable radius arch dam, in which the central

angle of the horizontal arch rings are of the same magnitude at all
elevations (same central angle 2 from top to bottom).
 in practice 2 = 1000 to 1500 is used
 is the most economical out of the three types (uses about 70% of
concrete used by a constant radius arch dam) but require stronger
foundations (due to large central angle greater arch action will be developed)
best suited to narrow & steep-sided V-shaped valleys
79
c) Variable Radius Arch Dam
 the radii of the extrodos curves and of introdos curves vary at

various elevations, being maximum at the top and minimum at its
bottom (central angle usually ranges from 800 to 1500).
 the central angle as large as possible, so that the maximum arch
efficiency may be obtained at all elevations
 is the 2nd economical (uses 80% of concrete used by constant
radius arch dam) and are preferred for V & U-V shaped valley 80
d) Double curvature or shell- arch dams
 are curved both in plan and in section (it is non- vertical dam)
 as their sections can be quite thin, they are the most economical
 are designed as shell-structures
 as they have complex geometry and profile, with constantly
varying horizontal and vertical radii to either face, their design
and construction are quite complex 81
Design & Analysis of Arch Dams
 The basic assumptions usually made in designing arch dams are:
 The foundation and abutment rock is homogeneous, isotropic,
and uniformly elastic,
 The concrete is homogeneous, isotropic, and uniformly elastic,
 Stresses are well within the elastic limit, and that stresses will be
proportional to strain,
 Stresses vary linearly between the u/s and d/s faces of the dam in
both arch and cantilever elements,
 Plane surfaces in the unloaded structure remain plane after the
load is applied,
 Temperature strains and stresses are proportional to temperature
changes,
 Tension stresses are relieved by cracking, so that all loads are
carried by compressive and shearing stresses in the uncracked
portions of the dam,
82
Loads
 The loads are the same as that of gravity dams.
 Uplift forces are less important (not significant).
 Internal stresses caused by temperature changes and
yielding of abutments are very important.
 Foundation stresses are generally small.
Design methods for Massive Arch Dam
1. Thin cylinder theory
2. Elastic theory
3. Trial load method
83
Thin Cylinder Theory
 The weight of concrete and water in the dam is carried
directly to the foundation.
 The horizontal water load is carried entirely by arch action.
Limitation of thin cylinder method
 The arch sections are not cylinder. They are also not free at
abutments as assumed in this theory.
 The theory does not consider shear and bending stresses
in the arch
 The analysis is based on only the hydrostatic water
pressure. Temperature stresses and ice pressures, which
are quite important in arch dams, gets ignored in this theory
 Stresses due to yielding of abutments and those due to rib
shortening have not been accounted.
 Plastic flow of concrete and shrinkage in concrete have not
been accounted.
84
Thin Cylinder Theory
B/2 = re sin(θ/2)
85
Thin Cylinder Model
Note: the hydrostatic pressure
wh may be increased by earth
quake and other pressure forces
where applicable: since
re = rc + 0.5t and re = ri + t
 w hrc
t or V  (t * 1)r
 all  0.5 w h
 w hri  hr
t w  kr
t 
 all   w h 2
 B 
V  kr 2  k 
Condition for least volume of arch.  2 sin  / 2 
 Differentiating V with respect to  and setting to zero,

 = 133.5o which is the most economical angle for arch with
minimum volume.
For  = 133.50 r = 0.544B
86
Design Example: Design a 100m height constant radius arch
dam, by the thin cylinder theory for a valley 100m wide at the
base and 150m wide at a height of 100m. Use all = 4MPa.
Solution: The top arch is taken to be 140o

B
r = 75/sin70 = 79.8 Take r = 80m
2 sin  / 2
The extrados radius re of all arches is kept as 80m.
87
Tabular Design Calculations
h B re P t ri 
0 150 80 0 0 1.5m 80 139.27
10 145 80 100 2 78 129.98
20 140 80 200 4 76 122.09
30 135 80 300 6 74 115.08
40 130 80 400 8 72 108.68
50 125 80 500 10 70 102.75
60 120 80 600 12 68 97.18
70 115 80 700 14 66 91.90
80 110 80 800 16 64 86.87
90 105 80 900 18 62 82.03
100 100 80 1000 20 60 77.36
Note: Provide a nominal thickness of 1.5 m when necessary.

88
Elastic theory
 Considering the arch is subjected to additional forces:
Temperature stresses, due to temperature change
Shrinkage stresses, due to setting of concrete
Stresses due to yielding of abutments
Stresses due to rib shortening
89
Procedure of laying out
i. Draw excavated rock contours.
ii.Draw & locate the arch center
iii.
Draw the intrados & extrados cures for the top arch.
iv.Starting at the point of intersection of the ¢ & the extrados
curve, lay the arch thickness, T, at successive contour
intervals towards the point of intersection of the ¢ & the
intrados curve of the last arch.
v. With center at O draw arcs through these pts. To the
respective contours. This completes the plan of the dam.
90
Concrete Buttress dams
Concrete Buttress Dams

 Characteristics of Buttress Dams
 Classification of buttress dams
 Forces on buttress dams
 Design Principle for Buttress Da
ms

Program
Concrete Buttress Dam
Buttresses: are solid walls of specified thickness and
sections that are constructed parallel to the flow at
some suitable intervals.
 Buttress dams consist of sloping upstream
membrane and a series of supporting buttresses
 The load transfer is similar to that of gravity dams,
the upstream membrane transmitting the water load to
a series of buttresses at right angles to the axis of the
dam.
92
Advantages of Buttress dams
 less concrete used compared to a gravity dam of the same
height
 More safety against overturning and sliding b/c of the larger
vertical component of hydrostatic force exerted on the dam.
 More equal distribution of stresses at foundation
 Less massive than gravity dam hence may be used on weak
foundations that are not suitable for gravity dam
 Decreased uplift pressure ( if no spread footing joining the
buttresses is used)
Disadvantages
 Needs reinforcement and expensive shuttering
 Additional skilled labor is required to create form work
 Threat of deformation of concrete from impounded water is
more likely than from a thick gravity section
 More susceptible to damage by sabotage. 93
Types of Buttress Dam
1. Flat Slab or Deck Buttress Dam
 Extensively used for low dams (20-50m) due to
economy.
 The layout problems involve fixation of suitable buttress
spacing and the shape of buttress head for providing
support to the slabs.
 The main disadvantage of this type: construction is
complete dependence on reinforcement in the deck,
which spans across the buttresses.
 Also high stress concentrations occur at the slab supports.
94
2. Multiple-Arch Buttress dam
 Arch slabs are to be supported on buttresses

 Used for higher dam (>50m)
95
2. Multiple-Arch Buttress dam
 The stability of any unit of a multiple arch dam depends on
the adjacent units so that any settlement in one would
affect the others.
 Hence such dams require better foundations, as compared
to an ordinary buttress dam
96
Other Types of Buttress Dams
1. Massive Head Buttress Dam
 It does not use slabs or archs for u/s face, but Is made of a
series of buttresses with massive heads placed side by side.
 Is an improvement over all other types of buttress dams
because of the following advantages.
i. Easy of construction
ii. All pressures are normally compressive; bending as well as
diagonal tension are absent
iii. Since the deck is not reinforced, there is no failure by rusting
of steel
iv. For smaller height, they prove to give more economical
buttress spacing
v. Offer more resistance to sliding, because it is considerably
heavier and has a greater sectional area.
97
Other Types of Buttress Dams
1. Massive Head Buttress Dam
 For stability the whole section behaves as one monolith
 Each being an independent structural unit.
It can be further subdivided into: (shown in figure)
i. Round head buttress dam: water pressure is
transmitted to buttress in pure compression
ii. Diamond Head buttress dams
iii. T-head buttress dams: upstream face of massive head
is kept flat as in deck slab
98
Loads on Buttress Dam
 The loads are the same as that of gravity dams.
 Uplift forces are less important.
 Internal stresses caused by temperature changes and
yielding of abutments need to be considered.
 Wind blowing diagonal to the buttress axis is critical.
 Foundation stresses are generally small.
The design of Buttress involves the following steps:-
 Determination of economic buttress spacing & upstream
slope
 Design of deck slab &other details
 Preliminary design of buttress &
 check for overall stability
Economic Buttress Spacing
The most economical spacing depends up on the following
factors
Height of dam
Type of footing
Foundation conditions
Upstream slope of dam
Height of dam:-Economic buttress spacing increases with
the height of the dam. For buttress dams on sound rock
foundations the usual spacing are given below.
Height of dam (m) Economical spacing c/c
15 to 30 5 to 6
30 to 45 9 to 12
Above 45 12 to 15
100
Type of Footing: it is not economical to have very large
spacing of buttresses b/c the quantities of material required
for spread footing (or mat foundation) & for the apron of
spillways, provided b/n the buttresses increase with an
increase in the buttress spacing.
Upstream slope: Varies from 350 to 450 and is governed by

the requirements of sliding factor. i.e. = H/v
Resistance against sliding is achieved from the vertical

component of the water pressure since self weight of the
buttress dam is relatively small.
Vertical component of the water pressure varies with the

upstream slope.
101
2.2 EMBANKMENT DAMS

Classification of Embankment Dams
1) Rock fill dam
2) Earth fill dam
 Homogenous Embankment
 Zoned type Embankment
 Diaphragm type Embankment
1. Homogenous Embankment
 composed of a single kind of earth material except for the
slope protection.
 used when only a single type material is economically and
locally available.
 used only for low to moderately high dams and for dykes.
 Seepage problem downstream (i.e. require internal
drainage arrangement & flat slopes to make stable & safe
against piping)
1. Homogenous Embankment
 Internal drainage system such as a horizontal
drainage layer and a rock toe is added so as to keep
the phreatic line well with in the body of the dam.
2. Zoned embankment
 most common for high dams.
 provided with a central impervious core, covered
by a relatively pervious transition filter which is finally
surrounded by a more pervious outer zones or shells.
 The central core checks the seepage; the transition
filter zone prevents piping through cracks which may
develop in the core.
2. Zoned embankment
 The outer zones (shells) provide stability to the core
and also distribute the load over a larger foundation
area.
 The core is usually a mixture of clay and sand or
gravel or silty clay.
 Pure clay that shrinks and swells excessively is not
suitable
 Freely draining materials such as coarse sands and
gravels are used as the outer shells.
3. Diaphragm embankment
 Has a thin impervious core & surrounded by earth or
rock fill. The bulk of embankment is constructed of
pervious materials (sand, grave, or rock)
 It is made of impervious soils, concrete, steel, timber
 It acts as a water barrier to prevent seepage
3. Diaphragm embankment
 The diaphragm may be placed either at the center as
a central vertical core or at the u/s face as a blanket
 It must be tied to the bed rock or to a very impervious
foundation material
EMBANKMENT DAM ENGINEERING
Elements of Embankment Dams
Foundation
Core or membrane
Shell
Transition filter
Toe drain
Riprap
Sod
Internal drain
1) Foundation: composed of relatively impervious soil

 The foundation of embankment dam provides support
resisting both vertical and horizontal loads.
 It may also resist seepage beneath the embankment
2) Core or membrane: constructed of well selected
fine grained soils such as clays
Purpose: prevent water seeping in to the body of the
dam
depending on the structural requirement, It may be
placed at:
 the center or
upstream from the center, or
on the upstream face (for certain rock fill dams)
 When the foundation is incapable of resisting under
seepage the core is extended down into the foundation
to impervious layer. Such an extension of the core is
termed cut-off.
3) Shell: constructed of semi-pervious heavy materisl
Purpose: to provide structural support for the core and to
distribute the loads over the foundation.
Sometimes the core and shell of a dam are constructed of

the same material (homogenous dam).
4) Transition filter: provided between core and shell to

prevent migration of the core material into the pores of the
shell material.
5) Toe drain: it helps to prevent sloughing of the
downstream face as a result of rain water or seepage
saturation.
6) Riprap: required to cover the upstream/downstream

face.
8) Sod: required on the downstream face to prevent rain

wash.
9) Internal drains: they are essential in large dams

where the d/s shell is not so pervious.
Causes of Failure of Earth Dams
• Three main classes of failure:
1. Hydraulic failures : 40%
2. Seepage failures : 30%
3. Structural failures: 30%
Hydraulic Failures: Hydraulic failures include the
following:
a. Overtopping
b. Erosion of U/S face
c. Erosion of D/S face
d. Cracking due to frost action.
113
Seepage failures: Seepage failures may be due to:
 Piping through the body of the dam
 Piping through the foundation
 Conduit leakage
 Sloughing of downstream toe
114
Structural Failures: this is due to:
a. Upstream and Downstream slope failures due to
pore pressures
b. Upstream slope failure due to sudden draw down
c. Down stream slope failure during full reservoir
condition.
d. Foundation slide: Spontaneous liquefaction
e. Failure by spreading
f. Failure due to Earth quake
g. Slope protection failures
h. Failure due to damage caused by burrowing
animals
i. Damage caused by Water soluble materials
115
116
117
Control of Under Seepage
118
119
Criteria for Safe Design of Earth Dam
 An earth dam must be safe and stable during phases of
construction and operation of the reservoir.
 No overtopping during occurrence of the inflow design
flood.
a. appropriate design flood
b. Adequate spillway
c. Sufficient outlet works
d. Sufficient free board
No seepage failure
a. Phreatic (seepage) line should exit the dam body safely
without sloughing downstream face.
b. Seepage through the body of the dam, foundation and
abutments should be controlled by adapting suitable
measures, 120
Criteria for Safe Design of Earth Dam
 The dam and foundation should be safe against piping
failure.
 There should be no opportunity for free passage of
water from U/S to D/S both through the dam and
foundation.
No Structural failure
a. Safe U/S & D/S slope during construction
b. Safe U/S slope during sudden draw down condition.
c. Safe D/S slope during steady seepage condition
d. Foundation shear stress within the safe limits.
e. Earth quake resistant dam
 Proper slope protection against wind & rain drop erosion.
 Proper drainage
 Economic section
121
Embankment Dam Design Principles
Design includes selection of:
Top width
Height of dam
Free board
Casing or outer shells
Central impervious core
Cut-off trench
Downstream drainage system.
Top Width, b
 Should be sufficient to keep the phreatic line with in
the dam when the reservoir is full
 Should be sufficient to withstand wave action and
earthquake shock
 Has to satisfy secondary requirements such as
minimum roadway width.
Some empirical equations suggest:
 Selection depends on
Nature of the embankment materials
Height of the structure
Importance of the structure
Width of highway on the top of the dam
Practicability of construction
Protection against earthquake forces.
Height of dam: is the vertical distance from the

foundation to the water surface in the reservoir, when
the spillway is discharging at design capacity, plus a
free board allowance.
Free board, F
 Is the vertical distance between the horizontal crest of
the embankment and the reservoir level.
 USBR recommendation of free board
Nature of Height of Free Board
spillway dam
Free Any Min. 2m and max. 3m over the
maximum flood level
Controlled Less than 60 2.5 above the top of gates

Controlled Over 60m 3m above the top gates
Free Board = maximum wave run-up height + allowance for settlement +

allowance for Splash
Maximum wave run-up height = 4hw/3 , Where: hw = effective wave
height
Casing or Outer Shells
 The function of casing or outer shells is to impart
stability and protect the core.
Dam Slope
 The design slopes of the upstream and downstream
embankments may vary widely, depending on the
character of the materials available, foundation
conditions and the height of the dam.
 The slopes also depend up on the type of the dam
(i.e. homogeneous, zoned or diaphragm).
 The upstream slope may vary from 2:1 to as flat as
4:1 for stability.
 The usual downstream slopes are 2:1, where
embankment is impervious
Dam Slope
Shell slopes are based on stability analysis. When
the stability is insufficient, improvements are
possible by adopting
 Flatter slopes;
 Increasing strength through high density;
 Treatment for weak foundation;
 Drainage of the foundation and embankment.
Seepage Analysis
Purpose
 Determine the quantity of water passing through the
body of the dam and foundation.
 Obtain the distribution of pore water pressure.
Assumptions in seepage analysis:
 The rolled embankment and the natural soil
foundation of the earth dam are incompressible
porous media.
 The seeping water flows under a hydraulic gradient
obeys Darcy‟s law
 The hydraulic boundary conditions at entry and exit
are known.
Laplace equation for two dimensional flows
• Consider only two dimensional flows
The quantity of water entering the element is equal
to the quantity of water leaving it Hence, we get
 v   v y 
vx y.1  v y x.1   vx  x x y.1   v y  x.1
 x   y 
v x v y
  0.......... .......... 1 This is the continuity equation
x y
h
v x  K x ix  K x *
• Darcy’s law x
.......... ..... 2
h
VY  kY I Y  K y .......... ....... 3
y
Where, h = hydraulic head under which water flows.
Kx and Ky are coefficient of permeability in x and y direction.
 Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we get  2 K x h  2 ( K y .h)
  0.......... ....... 4
x 2 y 2
For an isotropic soil, Ky = Kx = K
 2h  2h
Hence we get from eq. (4)  0
x 2
y 2
129
• Substituting velocity potential =  = K*h , we get
 2  2
  0.......... ....... 5 This is the Laplace equation of flow in
x 2
y 2
 h
two dimensions.
K  K .i x  v x
x x
 h
Similarly, K  K .i y  v y
y y
The solution of Eq. 5 can be obtained by

analytical methods
graphical method
experimental methods
The solution gives two sets of curves, know as equipotential lines
and stream lines (or flow lines), mutually orthogonal to each other,
as shown in Fig. below
Figure : Flow net 130

Computation of rate of seepage from flow net
 Let: b and L be the width and length of the field.
h = head drop through the field.
q = discharge passing via the flow channel.
h = total head causing flow
= difference between u/s and d/s heads
 Then, from Darcy’s law of flow through soils:
h
q  K . (bx1)
l
If Nd = total number of potential drops in the complete flow net,

h Hence the total discharge through the complete flow
h  net is given by
Nd
h b Nf b
h b q  q  k.  .N f  kh .
 q  K   Nd  l  Nd l
Nd  l 
Where Nf = total number of flow channels in the net 131
The amount of seepage can be easily computed
from the flow net, which consists of two sets of
curves, known as „Equipotential line’ and „stream
lines‟, mutually perpendicular to each other.
For homogeneous embankments dam, discharge

per unit width (q) of the dam passing through a flow
net is described as:
k x  k y  k.
Figure : Flow net 132

Phreatic Line in Earth Dam
Phreatic Line is the upper surface of the seepage flow
at which the pressure is atmospheric.
Figure: Phreatic line in Earth dam
133
Phreatic Line in Earth Dam
Graphical method- Steps:
• Starting point of base parabola is @ A AB = 0.3L
• F is the focal point
• Draw a curve passing through F center @ A
• Draw a vertical line EG which is tangent to the curve
• EG is the directrix of the base parabola
• Plot the various points P on the parabola in such a way
that PF = PR
134
• Analytical method
PF = PR
x 2  y 2  x  yo
From point A (known), x = b and y = h
 yo  b 2  h 2  b
x 2  y 2  x  b 2  h 2  b Equation of parabola
Discharge through the body of Earth dam
v  k *i
From parabola equation,
q  v * A  k *i * A
y 2 xyo  y 0
2
dy
q  k y *1
dx
 2 xyo )
2
d( y0
q k  2 xyo )
2
( yo
dx
yo
q  k(  2 xyo )
2
)( yo
 2 xyo
2
yo
q  kyo 135
Phreatic line for a dam with no filter
General solution by Casagrande
Fig : Dam with no drainage filter.
136
137
138
139
140
Stability analysis of Embankment Dams
The stability of earth dam is that property which
enables it to stay in position.
 A dam is stable if the resultant of all forces acting
on the dam does not result in movement.
 If the forces resisting movement are in exact
balance with those forces tending to produce
movement, the dam would be barely stable and
the factor of safety would be unity. This would be
a dangerous condition because the slightest
increase in the acting forces would result in
failure.
141
Stability analysis of Embankment Dams
On the other hand, if the ratio of the forces
resisting movement to those tending to produce
movement is 1.5, we have a factor of safety of 1.5,
which is generally considered adequate in
structures of earth or rock.
The factor of safety of 1.3 to 1.5 generally
considered acceptable in the design of earth
dams seem very low.
142
1. Stability of earth dam against headwater pressure
 The overall sliding stability of the earth dam is
determined considering it as a solid body.
The factor of safety against sliding is defined as the

ratio of the force resisting sliding of the dam to the
force tending to cause sliding
The resisting force is taken as the shear resistance

developed at the base of the dam, given by
Resisting Force = W tan Φ
where W = the effective weight of the entire dam
per unit length, and Φ is the angle of internal
friction of the soil of which the dam is composed of.
143
 Considering the soil above the phreatic line as moist
and that below the phreatic line as submerged. Thus,
W = cross-sectional area of dam x average unit weight
 The force tending to cause sliding of the dam is the
horizontal component of the water pressure acting on
the upstream, given by
144
2. Stability of earth dam against horizontal shear
(i.e. stability of d/s portion of the earth dam)
145
2. Stability of earth dam against horizontal shear
(i.e. stability of d/s portion of the earth dam)
.
 A horizontal force acts on the vertical plane AB in the

downstream direction due to earth pressure
(computed by Rankine‟s theory) caused by the left
portion of the dam and due to water pressure.
 Thus, the total horizontal force is given by
146
Where:
 s is the weighted unit weight of the soil mass at the
vertical section AB;
 H is the vertical distance from the top of the dam to
the base of the dam (= dam height),
  is the angle of internal friction of the soil in the dam;
and
 h1 is the vertical distance from the phreatic line to the
base of the dam.
 The weighted unit weight s of the soil mass is given
by
147
where 1 is the submerged unit weight of the soil below
the phreatic line and 2 is the moist unit weight of the
soil above the phreatic line.
 The resisting force against sliding is developed
due to internal friction and cohesion of the soil mass
in the downstream portion of the dam, and is given by
Where
 Wd is the total effective weight of the d/s portion of

the dam above the base,
 c is the unit cohesion and
 bd is the width of the base of the d/s portion
148
 For computing Wd, the submerged unit weight of
the soil is taken below the phreatic line and the
moist weight above the phreatic line.
 The average factor of safety Fs against shear is
given by
149
3. Factor of safety against maximum shear (d/s
slope)
 The downstream slope should also be checked against the
maximum shear, which occurs at a point on the base at a
horizontal distance of 0.4bd from the shoulder.
 According to the theory of elasticity, the maximum shear
(max) is twice the average shear (a). Thus
150
Where:
σ = is the vertical stress,
s = is the weighted unit weight of the soil mass in the
section of the dam along a vertical line at the point
of maximum shear stress, and
h = is the vertical distance from the d/s slope of the
dam down to the point of maximum shear stress
(height of soil column).Thus
 The factor of safety against maximum shear should be

at least 1.5.
 The same procedure should be repeated for other
horizontal sections above the base.
151
4. Stability of upstream slope against horizontal
shear
 The same procedure applies as that used for d/s

slope discussed above.
 From figure c above the u/s slope separated from
the rest of the dam by a vertical plane CD
passing through the u/s shoulder of the dam.
152
4. Stability of upstream slope against horizontal
shear
 As already mentioned, the most critical condition of
u/s slope occurs during sudden drawdown.
 Therefore, the upstream portion of the dam would
remain saturated below the phreatic line.
 The horizontal force acting on the upstream portion of
the dam is given by
where s = the saturated unit weight of the soil in the

upstream portion, H = the vertical distance from the top
of the dam to the base of the dam,
153
h1 = the vertical distance from the phreatic line to the
base of the dam.
If bu is the width of the base of the u/s portion of the
dam, the average shear stress at the base is given by
The maximum shear stress is taken as twice the average

shear stress. Thus
 A resisting force develops against the horizontal shear
force, which is given by
where Wú is the total effective weight of the u/s

portion of the dam above the base
154
 For computing Wú, the submerged unit weight of
the soil should be taken for the soil mass below the
phreatic line and moist unit weight above the
phreatic line.
The average factor of safety Fs against shear is given

by:
155
5. Factor of safety against maximum shear (u/s
portion)
 The maximum shear stress occurs at a point at a
distance of 0.4bu from the vertical line CD through
the u/s shoulder, as in the case of d/s slope. The shear
strength at that point is obtained as
where ´s is the submerged unit weight of soil, h is

the height of the soil column at that point. Thus
The factor of safety against

maximum shear stress
should be at least 1.5. 156
6. Stability of foundation against horizontal shear
 If the foundation of an earth dam consists of a
strong stratum, such as compacted gravel,
coarse sand, consolidated silt or clay, it has a
high shear strength and generally safe against
horizontal shear.
 On the other hand, if the foundation consists of
fine, loose sand, unconsolidated silt or clay, it
has low shear strength. Such foundations should
be checked for stability against horizontal shear.
157
Figure Foundation stability against horizontal shear
Figure above shows the upstream portion of an earth

dam on weak foundation.
The section AB passes through the upstream shoulder of
the dam.
The thickness of the foundation stratum is h2 and the overall
height of the dam measured from the rigid boundary is h1.
158
i) Stability of foundation below upstream slope
 The sudden drawdown condition is the most critical
 A horizontal shear force S acts on the vertical plane AB,
which is given by
 Where m is the mean unit weight of the soil mass of the

dam and foundation, which is weighted in proportion of the
thickness of each. Thus
 in which D is the unit weight of the soil mass in the

dam and m in the foundation. Ф1 is the equivalent
angle of internal friction of purely cohesionless soil, given
by
159
 where Φ and c are, respectively, the angle of
internal friction and cohesion of the foundation soil.
 If bu is the horizontal distance along the base, the
average shear stress is given by
 The point of maximum shear stress (max) occurs at the

rigid boundary at a horizontal distance 0.4bu from the
shoulder and is equal to 1.4 times the average shear
stress.
 The factor of safety against average shear stress is given
by
160
 The average shear strength of the foundation is taken as the
mean of the shear strengths of the foundation at the point C
below the heel of the dam and point B below the shoulder of
the dam.
 The shear strength below the heel is given by
 where ´F is the submerged unit weight of the soil mass of

the foundation. The shear strength below the shoulder is
given by
 where ´m is the mean submerged unit weight of soil mass of
the dam and the foundation, given by
 where ´D is the submerged unit weight of the soil mass of

the dam. Therefore the factor of safety average shear is
The factor of safety against
average shear should at least be 1.50. 161
 The factor of safety against maximum shear is also
necessary.
 The shear strength at point D where the maximum
shear stress occurs is given by
 where ´m is the mean effective unit weight of the soil mass
along a vertical line passing through point D, and is given
by:
 where h is the vertical distance from the u/s slope to the

point D on the rigid boundary.
 The factor of safety against maximum shear is given by
The factor of safety should be greater
than unity.
162
ii) Stability of foundation below downstream slope
 The above analysis is for the stability of foundation
below the u/s slope under sudden drawdown
conditions.
 The same procedure can be used for the stability
analysis of the foundation below the d/s slope for
steady seepage conditions.
 For soil mass lying below the phreatic line, the
submerged unit weight is taken for computing the
shear strength.
 However, the saturated unit weights are used for
computing the shear force S.
163
Examples: 1
Stability of earth dam against headwater pressure
For the dam shown in the figure below:
height 30.5m, the maximum headwater is at an
elevation of 27.5m above the base. The position of the
seepage line results in 65% of the cross section being
saturated and submerged. Determine the safety against
headwater pressure (overall stability).
164
River Diversion
Structures During
Construction
 Cofferdams
 Dykes

Program
Diversion During Construction
 Before the actual construction of a dam can start in a river
channel, the water of the river channel must be temporarily
diverted
 The design for a dam that is to be constructed across a
stream channel must consider diversion of the stream flow
around or through the dam site during the construction
period.
 The extent of the diversion problem varies with the size and
flood potential of the stream; at some dam sites diversion
may be costly and time-consuming and may affect the
scheduling of construction activities; whereas, at other sites it
may not present any great difficulties.
 The selection of the most appropriate scheme for diversion
during construction is important to the economy of the dam.
 The diversion scheme selected ordinarily represents a
compromise between the cost of the diversion facilities and
the amount of risk involved. 166
The proper diversion scheme will minimize the potential
for serious flood damage to the work in progress at a
minimum of expense.
The following factors should be considered in a study to
determine the best diversion scheme:
1) Stream flow characteristics
2) Size and frequency of diversion flood
3) Methods of diversion
4) Specifications requirements
1) Stream flow characteristics: stream flow records
provide the most reliable information regarding stream
flow characteristics and should be consulted whenever
available.
167
1) Size and frequency of diversion flood
Usually, it is not economically feasible to plan on diverting the
largest flood that has ever occurred or may be expected
to occur at the site.
In selecting the flood to be used in the diversion designs,
consideration should be given to the following:
 The safety of workmen and downstream inhabitants in
case the failure of diversion works results in unnatural
flooding
 The length of time the work will be under construction,
to determine the number of flood seasons that will be
encountered
 The cost of possible damage to work completed or still
under construction if it is flooded
 The cost of delay to the completion of the work,
including the cost of forcing the contractor's equipment to
remain idle while the flood damage is being repaired
168
1) Methods of Diversion
The method, or scheme, of diverting floods during
construction depends on:
 the magnitude of the flood to be diverted
 the physical characteristics of the site
 the type of dam to be constructed
 the nature of the appurtenant works: such as the
spillway, penstocks, or outlet works; and the probable
sequence of construction operations.
The objective is to select the optimum scheme considering
practicability, cost, and the risks involved.
The diversion works should be capable of being incorporated
into the overall construction program with minimal
impact and delay.
169
1) Methods of Diversion
 The common practice for diverting streams during
construction involves one or more of the following
provisions:
 tunnels driven through the abutments
 conduits through or under the dam
 temporary channels through the dam, or multiple stage
diversion over the tops of alternate construction blocks of
a concrete dam.
 Outlet works conduits or tunnels are frequently
constructed large enough to carry the diversion flow.
 On a small stream the flow may be bypassed by the
installation of a temporary flume or pipeline, or the flow
may be impounded behind the dam during its
construction-pumps are used, if necessary, to control
the water surface.
170
171
Cofferdams
 Cofferdams are temporary structures used to divert water
from an area where a permanent structure has to be
constructed.
 They must be as watertight as practicable, relatively cheap
and, if possible, constructed of locally available materials.
 Diversion facilities such as tunnels or canals, provided to
divert the flow from the site area, are sometimes used as
part of the permanent facilities (e.g. penstocks, spillways,
sluices, conveyances to turbines, or discharge channels from
turbines, etc.).
 If the construction work proceeds in two stages, part of the
structure completed in the first stage may be used as a
diversion facility (spillway or sluice) during the second stage
of construction
172
173
Dykes
 The marginal bunds are earthen embankments which
are constructed parallel to the river bank on one or both
the banks.
Purposes:
 It prevents the flood water or storage water from
entering the surrounding area which may be
submerged or may be water logged.
 It retains the flood water or storage water within a
specified section.
 It protects the towns and villages from devastation
during the heavy flood.
 It protects valuable agricultural lands.
174

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CHAPTER-2

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF DAMS

Force Acting On Concrete Dams

ASTU Water Resources Engineering

b) Self weight of dam: is the weight per unit length of

 Its magnitude is a function of sediment depth h, the

The net effective weight of the dam is: ;

Kv = fraction of gravity (0.1-0.2)

Moment of this force about the base is

 Design and Analysis Of Gravity

ASTU Water Resources Engineering

Empty reservoir with a horizontal earth quake: earth

 These modes of failure are: -

The factor of safety against overturning is defined as the

Values of Fo in excess of 1.25 is acceptable and Fo >=1.5

Where; e = eccentricity of the resultant force from the centre of

 Hence maximum value of eccentricity that can be permitted on

i) Sliding factor, FS (resistance is purely frictional)

If the plane is inclined at small angle a;

Where; B = width of the dam at the joint

Positive sign is used to calculate normal stress at the toe.

 For reservoir full condition, max compressive stress

 Evidently, the maximum compressive stress occurs at

 Hence, the maximum value of eccentricity that can be

 Single Step Method

ASTU Water Resources Engineering

 Is the theoretical shape

 This is the maximum possible innermost position of

 So, the elementary profile provides the maximum

 Hence, the maximum vertical stress 2W/B will act near

 The addition of the above two provisions will cause the

 It may be economical to increase the concrete or

 High dams beyond zone IV are designed by single step

ASTU Water Resources Engineering

 is a special type of variable radius arch dam, in which the central

 the radii of the extrodos curves and of introdos curves vary at

 Differentiating V with respect to  and setting to zero,

Solution: The top arch is taken to be 140o

Note: Provide a nominal thickness of 1.5 m when necessary.

Concrete Buttress Dams

ASTU Water Resources Engineering

 Arch slabs are to be supported on buttresses

Upstream slope: Varies from 350 to 450 and is governed by

Resistance against sliding is achieved from the vertical

Vertical component of the water pressure varies with the

ASTU Water Resources Engineering

1) Foundation: composed of relatively impervious soil

Sometimes the core and shell of a dam are constructed of

4) Transition filter: provided between core and shell to

6) Riprap: required to cover the upstream/downstream

8) Sod: required on the downstream face to prevent rain

9) Internal drains: they are essential in large dams

Height of dam: is the vertical distance from the

Controlled Less than 60 2.5 above the top of gates

Free Board = maximum wave run-up height + allowance for settlement +

The solution of Eq. 5 can be obtained by

Figure : Flow net 130

If Nd = total number of potential drops in the complete flow net,

For homogeneous embankments dam, discharge

Figure : Flow net 132