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2. CONCRETE DAMS
2.1.1. Forces Acting & Load combination on dams
Loads can be classified in terms of applicability or relative importance as primary loads,
secondary loads, & Exceptional loads.
i)
ii)

iii)

Primary loads: are identified as those of major importance to all dams

irrespective of type. Example self weight, water & related seepage loads.
Secondary loads: are universally applicable although of lesser magnitude (e.g.
Silt load) or alternatively are of major importance only to certain types of dam
(e.g. thermal effects with in concrete dams).
Exceptional loads: are so designed on the basis of limited general applicability
of occurrence (e.g. tectonic effects, or the inertia loads associated with seismic
activity).

Gravity dam Loads

a) Primary Loads
i. Water Load

(Refer fig. 1.8 page 6)

Hydrostatic distribution of pressure with horizontal resultant force P1 (Note also a vertical
component exists in the case of an u/s batter, and equivalent tail water may operate in the
d/s face)

Pwh w

Z12
KN / m
2

acting at

Z1
3

Where w unit weight of water =9.81 KN/m3

Pwv =w (area A1)
KN/ m
Acting through centroid of A1
Pressure of any permanent tail water above the plane considered is:
w Z 22
Pwn1
2
with Pwv1
w (area A2 )
ii. Self weight load:

(Refer fig. 1.8, 3.1 page 6)

Determined w.r.t an appropriate unit weight of the material

Pm=c Ap KN/m
acts through the centroid of x- sectional area AP.
(c 23.5 KN/m3)
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Where crest gates & other ancillary structures of considerable weight exist they must also
be considered in determining Pm & their appropriate position of line of action.
iii. Seepage & uplift load:

(Refer fig. 1.8, 3.2 page 6)

Equilibrium seepage patterns will establish within & under a dam e.g. with resultant
forces identified as P3 & P4.

Pu = Ah (Uw ,avg)
Z Z2
. Ah . w 1
if no drain functioning.
2
is area reduction factor
Ah nominal plane area at a section considered.

If no drains functioning

Pu acts at Y1

T 2 Z 2 1 Z 1
3 Z 2 Z1

In modern dams internal uplift is controlled by the provision of vertical relief drains close
behind the u/s face. Mean effective head @ the line of drains, Zd can be expressed as
Zd = Z2+Kd (Z1-Z2) m
Kd is function of drain geometry (i.e. diameter, special & relative
Location with u/s face.)
Kd = 0.33
(USBR)
Kd = 0.25
Tennessee valley Authority
Kd= 0.25-0.5 appropriate to the site by the U.S crops of Engs
The standard provision of deep grout curtain below the u/s face intended to limit seepage
also serves to inhibit pressure within the foundation. However, less certain than efficient
draw system & its effect is commonly disregarded in uplift reduction.

b. Secondary loads
i. Sediment load: (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.1 page 6)

Accumulated silt etc, generates a horizontal thrust, Ps. Tthe magnitude additional to
Pwh is a function of sediment depth, Z3, submerged unit weight s & active lateral
pressure coefficient. Ka:
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Ps K a

s1.Z32

&
acting @ Z3/3 above plane
2
s = s-w where s is sediment saturated unit weight.
Ka

1 Sin s
1 Ain s

Where s is angle of shearing resistance

For representative values of s 18-20KN/m3
s 300
3 Z 32
Ps
2
ii. Hydrodynamic wave Load (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.1 page 6)
Transient load, Pwave, generated by wave action against the dam. It is not normally
significant & depends on the fetch & wind velocity.

Hs

Pwave =2w Hs2

Where Hs - significant wave height (is the mean height of the highest third of
the wave in train)
Hs range from 0.75 Hs for concrete dams to 1.3Hs for earth dams.
H 0.32 UF 0.76 0.24 4 F
U= in km/hr
F= in km

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iii)

Wind load: when the dam is full, wind acts only on the d/s side thus
contribute to stability. When empty the wind can act on the u/s face but in
significant compared to hydrostatic load. For buttress dams load on the
exposed surface has to be considered.

iv)

Ice load: Not a problem in Ethiopia. It can be significant where ice sheets
form to appreciable thickness & persist for lengthy periods.
Pice =145 KN/m2 for ice > 0.6m thick, other wise neglected

v)

Thermal & dam /foundation interaction effect: Cooling of large pours of

mass concrete following the exothermic hydration of cement & the subsequent
variation in ambient & water temperatures combine to produce complex &
time dependent temp. Gradients within the dam equally. Complex interaction
develops as a result of foundation deformation.

C. Exceptional Loads (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.2 page 6)

Seismic load: Horizontal & vertical inertia loads, are generated with respect to the dam
& the retained water by seismic disturbance. Horizontal & vertical accelerations are not
equal, the former being of grater in density. For design purposes both should be
considered operative in the sense last favorable to stability of the dam, under reservoir
full conditions the most adverse seismic loading will then occur when the ground shock is
associated with.
1) Horizontal foundation acceleration operating u/s, and
2) Vertical foundation acceleration operating downwards and vice-verse for
reservoir empty condition
Seismic coefficient analysis
Seismic acceleration coefficient.

h
for horizontal
v = 0.5h for vertical

Representative seismic coefficient applied in design

Modified mercali scale
General damage level
Coff. h
0.0
Nil
0.25
VI
Minor
0.10
VII
Moderate
0.15
VIII-IX
Major
0.20
great

U.S seismic zone

0
1
2
3
4

For more extreme circumstances eg. h=0.4 has been employed for dams in high risk
region in Japan, h =0.5 & h =0.6-0.8 damaged Koyna gravity dam, India ( 1967) &
Pacima arch dam USA (1971) respectively.
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Inertia forces: Mass of dam

Horizontal

Pemh = h Pm

Vertical

Pemv = v Pm

operating through centroid of the dam

Hydrodynamic forces: water action

Relative to any elevation @ depth Z1 below the water surface, the pressure pewh
Pewh = Ceh.w Z1. KN/m
Z1= Max. Water depth
Z = the depth @ section considered
Ce= dimensionless pressure factor
= f (Z/Z1 , u ) where u -inclination of u/s face to vertical
Total hydrodynamic load is given by.
Pewh = 0.66 Ce h Z1 w

Ratio z/z1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0

Z1 Z max . & acts @ 0.4 Z above section

pressure factor Ce.
u =00
u = 1500
0.35
0.29
0.53
0.45
0.64
0.55
0.71
0.61
0.73
0.63

The vertical hydrodynamic load, Pewv ,is

Pewv = v Pwv
Uplift load is assumed unaltered.
Resonance: results when period vibrations of the structure & earth quake period are
equal. For a concrete gravity dam of triangular X- section base thickness T

Eeff
600T
HZ
or

HZ ( Eeff 14GN / m2 )
hh
0.012h
As an example, the natural frequency of vibration of monolithic gravity profiles with
nominal height of 20m & 50m are 15-25 & 6-9 HZ respectively ( if major seismic
Fn

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shock frequency of 1-10 HZ). Thus it is only of concern for large dams & vulnerable
portion of the dam.

Load combinations
Different design authorities have differing load combinations. A concrete dam should
be designed with regard to the most rigorous groupings or combination of loads
which have a reasonable probability of simultaneous occurrence.
Three nominated load combinations are sufficient for almost all circumstances. In
ascending order of severity we can have normal, unusual & extreme load combination
(NLC, ULC, ELE respectively) (see table)
With probability of simultaneous occurrence of load combination decreases, factor of
safety should also decrease.
Load Source
PRIMARY
Water
Tail water
Self weight
Uplift
SECONDARY
Silt
Ice
Concrete
Temperature
EXCEPTIONAL
Seismic

Qualification

DFL
NML
TWL
Minimum
------Drains functioning
Drains inoperative

Discretionary
Minimum normal
Min. @ time of event
CME (control max.
EQ)

Load Combination
NLC
ULC
ELC

1. DFL: Design flood level

NML: Normal maximum level
CME: Control maximum earth quake
2. ULC should also be investigated for the drains inoperative condition
3. studies and investigations may be appropriate with respect to:
a. Nominated load combinations in relation to foundation stability
b. Any other loading combination which is considered appropriate to analyze
for the dam considered.

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2.2 GRAVITY DAM DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

Criteria & Principles
The conditions essential to structural equilibrium & so to stability can be summarized as

H V o &
M o
Assessed in relation to all probable conditions of loading, including reservoir empty
conditions the profile must have sufficient safety factor w.r.t:
a) Rotation & overturning.
b) Translation & sliding and
c) Overstress & material failure.

Over turning
Sliding
X

Stres
s

a) Overturning stability
Factor of safety against overturning, Fo, in terms of moment about the d/s toe of the dam

Fo

M
M

ve
ve

ve

inclusive of moment generated by uplift )

Fo > 1.25 may be acceptable, but Fo > 1.5 is desirable.

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b) sliding stability
Factor of safety against sliding, Fs, estimated using one of the three definitions:
1) Sliding factor, FSS;
2) Shear friction factor, FSF or
3) Limit equilibrium factor, FLE.
The resistance to sliding or shearing which can be mobilized across a plane is
expressed through parameters C & tan.
1) Sliding factor, Fss

FSS

H
V

If the foundation plane inclined @ small angle o

Fss

H tan
V

H
tan .
1
V

Fss should not permitted to exceed 0.75, but under ELC up to 0.9 is acceptable.
2) Shear friction factor, FSF.
: is the ratio of total resistance to shear & sliding which can be mobilized on a plane to
the total horizontal load.

Fsf

CAh
V tan( ) KN / m.
cos (1 tan tan )kN / m
forhoriontalplane ( 0)

s cAh V tan .
Fsf

CS h V tan

H.

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In some cases it may be appropriate to include d/s passive wedge resistance, pp, as a
further component of the resistance to sliding which can be mobilized.

Ww =weight of passive wedge.

Rw = sliding resistance in inclined plane.
=CAAB +(Ww cos+H sin) tan
This is affected by modifying the above equation, hence,
Fsf

s pe
H

Where

pp

CAas
Ww tan(
cos (1 tan tan )

In the presence of horizon with low shear resistance it may be advisable to make S=0.

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Recommended shear friction factor, FSF (USBR 1987)

Load combination
Normal
Unusual
3.0
2.0
4.0
2.7

Location of sliding plane

Dam concrete, base interface
Foundation rock

Extreme
>1.0
1.3

C. Limit Equilibrium factor, FLE.

This follows conventional soil mechanics logic in defining FLE, as the ratio of shear
strength to mean applied stress across a plane i.e
FLE =

f is expressed by Mohr coulomb failure criteria, accordingly

c n tan
n . is stress acting normal to plane of sliding

Referring the above figure, for single plane sliding mode.

FLE

FLE

CAh

V cos H sin tan

H cos V sin .

Note for = 0

FLE =FSF.

This equation can be the developed for complicated failure plane

FLE =2.0 normal operation & FLE =1.3 under transmit condition embracing
seismic activity)
C. Stress analysis in gravity method
(Refer Figures 3.7 page 16)
Gravity method is useful to analyses stress in straight dams which are not geometrically
complex. It is founded on 2-D elastic dam on uniformly rigid foundation & linear
variation of stress from u/s to d/s.
The stresses evaluated in a comprehensive analysis are:
1) Vertical normal stress, z, on horizontal planes.
2) Horizontal & vertical shear stress, zy ,& yz
3) Horizontal normal stress, y ,on vertical planes and
4) Principal stress, 1 & 3 (direction & magnitude).
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1. Vertical normal stress z.

Analysis is based on modified beam theory which is by combining axial & bending load.

V M

Ah

* 1

Where, v- resultant vertical load above the plane considered exclusive of uplift.
M* - summation of moments expressed w.r.t the centroid of the plane.
y - distance from the centroid to point of considerations.
I - second moment of area of the plane w.r.t centroid.
For 2-D plane section of unit width Parallel to the dam axis, & with thickness T normal to
the axis:

V
vey1
z
12 3
T
T
v 6e
z 1
T
T

and at y=T/2

For reservoir full condition

v 6e
At the u/s face
zu 1
T T
v 6e
At the d/s face
zd
1
T T
Where e is the eccentricity of the resultant load, R, which must intersect the plane d/s of
its centroid for the reserve full condition
(The sign convention is reversed for reservoir empty condition of loading)

M *
V

Where v - excludes uplift

For e> T/6, at u/s face ve stress is developed, i.e. tensile stress. In design, tensile stress
has to be prohibited, but difficult to totally eliminate low tensile stress in gravity dam.
Total vertical stresses at either face are obtained by the addition of external hydrostatic
pressure.

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2. Horizontal & vertical shear stresses

Numerically equal & complementary horizontal (zy) & vertical (yz) shear stresses are
generated @ any point as a result of variation of vertical normal stress over a horizontal
plane.

or u/s d/s face angle u & d respectively &

Pw hydrostatic pressure @ u/s end

u Pw zu tan u
&

d zd t tan d

The variation b/n u/s & d/s stress is parabolic, & depend on rate of change of variation of
normal stress

3. Horizontal normal stress, y

It can be determine by consideration of the equilibrium of the horizontal shear force
operating above & below a hypothetical horizontal element through the dam. The
difference in shear forces is balanced by the normal stresses on vertical planes.

yu Pw zu Pw tan 2u
yd zd tan 2 d

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4. Principal stresses
1 & 3 may be determined from knowledge of z & y & construction of Mohrs circle
diagram to represent stress conditions at a point, or by application of the equation given
below.
z y
max
Major Principal Stress 1
2
y
Minor principal stress 3 z
max
2
z y
2
Where max
2
The boundary values, 1 & 3 are determined by:
For upstream face
1u= zu (1+ tan2u)-Pw tan 2u
3u=Pw
For downstream face assuming no tail water
1d=zd (1+tan 2d)
3d=0
Permissible stresses & cracking
The following table gives permissible compression stresses factor of safety for gravity
dam body & rock foundations. (USBR 1976)

load combination

Minimum factor of safety on compressive strength

Fc(concrete)
Fr, (rock)
2
Normal
4.0
3.0 (max & 10 MN/m )
2
Unusual
2.7
2.0 (max &15 MN/m )
Extreme
1.0 maxm allowable stress
1.3
Horizontal cracking assumed to occur if zu min (without uplift) below limit set by
z t1
zu min kd w
Ft 1

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Fig. Combined base pressure & uplift pressure diagram.

When the uplift is introduced & the uplift pressure @ the U/s face is < A1, the final stress
may be computed by the above formula. If the uplift pressure @ the upstream face is
greater than A1. i.e. less than permissible tension stress. Revise as follows.
1. A horizontal crack is assumed to exist & extend from the u/s face toward the d/s face
to a point where the vertical stress of adjusted diagram is equal to the uplift pressure @
the u/s face.
2. Taking moments about center of gravity & check whether the section is adequate for
over turning, sliding & material failure.

M
V A3.T
T

T1 3 e1
2

2V A3.T
B5
A3
T1
e1

Kd= 0.4 if drains are effective

= 1.0 if no drains.
t = tensile bond strength of concrete.
Ft= Factor of Safety [Ft =3 for NLC,
=2 for ULC,&
= 1.0 for ELC
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Design Gravity Dam profile

U/s face flare: the u/s face of a gravity profile is frequently modified by the introduction
of a significant flare.

Design of small dams associated with provision of standard trianngular profile of u/s
vertical face & d/s slope of 0.75 horizontal to 1.0 vertical.
In the case of large dams a unique profile should be determined to match the specific
conditions applicable. Two approaches are possible; the multi stage & single stage.

Single stage: is based on definition on a suitable & uniform d/s slope. The apex of the
triangular profile is set @ or just above DFL & initial base thickness T is determined for
each loading combination in terms of F0. The critical value of T is then checked for
sliding stability & modified if necessary before checking heel & toe stress @ base level.
For no tension @ u/s vertical face

tan d

1
c

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The multistage approach defines a profile where the slopes are altered at suitable
intervals.

Design commences from crest level, & descends downwards through profile stages
corresponding to pre determined elevations. Each stage is proportioned to as to maintain
stress level within acceptable limits. E.g. no tension under any condition of loading. The
resulting profile allows marginal economics on concrete, but more expensive to construct
than the single stage. Multi-stage profiles are now seldom employed, even on large
dams.

Advanced Analytical methods

When interaction b/n adjacent monolith result in loads transfer & complex structural
response, and further differential settlement exist, then alternative analytical approaches
called trial loads twist analysis & finite element analysis exist.

Stabilizing and heightening

(Refer fig. 3:10 & 3:11 page 16)

Remedial action to improve stability can be taken by pre-stressing provides an additional

vertical load with a resultant line of action close to the u/s face.
This improves F0 or Fs by operating adjunct to Pm.
Overturning design pre-stress required; Pps F0

M M KN / m
ve

ve

y2

Where y2 is moment arms of Pps

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FSF H CAh
V
tan
The pre-stressing tendons are typically located @ 3 to 7m centers to centers along the
crest. The pre-stress load required for each, PT (kN) is the appropriate multiple of Pps .
Pre-stressing also useful for heightening of the dam.

Sliding

Pps

Downstream shoulder

(Refer figure 3.11 pages 16)

Contribution by weight of fill & rest pressure Pds

WF =f*A
Pds= Ko..f . ZAB.Z
KN/m
Where, ZAB & Z as shown in the figure 3.11.
f unit weight of the fill
Ko is at rest pressure coefficient
Pds acts ZAB/3 above the base plane

Illustrative values of ko.

Shoulder fill
Compacted rock fill
Compacted sand
Compacted clay
Heavy compacted clay

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Coeff. Ko
0.2 0.3
0.45 0.55
1.0 2.0
> 2.0

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