II GRAVITY DAM

A concrete gravity dam is entirely dependent up on its own weight (mass) for stability. The
gravity profile is essentially triangular to ensure stability and to avoid over-stressing of the
dam or its foundation. A gravity dam is mostly straight in plan and thus known as straight
gravity dam. However, in some cases it may be curved in plan (slightly).

In plan the axis of the dam is defined as the horizontal trace of the u/s edge of the top of the
dam and it is also called the BASE LINE OF THE DAM. In the cross section of dam the
vertical line passing through the u/s edge of the top of the dam is considered as the axis of the
dam.

The length of the dam is the length measured along the axis of the dam at the top of the dam
from one abutment to the other abutment.

The maximum base width of the dam is the horizontal distance the outer points of the heel
and the toe of the cross section of the dam.

The maximum height of the dam or structural height of dam is the vertical distance between
the lowest point in the foundation and the top of the dam.

2.1. FORCES ACTING ON GRAVITY DAM

The first consideration in designing a dam is the determination of the forces acting on the
structure. These forces may be considered as consisting of the following:

I. PRIMARY FORCES: These are of major importance to all dams, irrespective of type.
They are:

1. Water pressure
2. Self weight of dam
3. Uplift(seepage) pressure

II. SECONDARY FORCES (or LOADS): are universally applicable although of lesser
magnitude, or alternatively, are of major importance only to certain types of dams (e.g.
thermal effects with in concrete dams). They include:

1. Sediment (or silt) pressure

2. Wave pressure
3. Ice pressure
4. Wind pressure

III. EXCEPTIONAL FORCES (or LOADS): They have limited general applicability or
have a low probability of occurrence. They are:
1. Earthquake(or seismic) forces

Handout-on Dam Engineering (IE-434) by Samuel Dagalo – Arba Minch University

 Fig 1 Schematic of principal forces on gravity dams

WATER PRESSURE: Water pressure is the major external force acting on gravity dam.
When the u/s face is vertical its intensity is zero at the water surface and equal to γ w H at
the base. The resultant force due to this pressure is

1
P= γ w H 2 and acts at H/3 from the base.
2
When the u/s face is partly vertical and partly inclined the resultant water force is
resolved in to horizontal component PH, and vertical component PV.

FH
FH’

Fig 2 Water pressure on gravity dam

Handout-on Dam Engineering (IE-434) by Samuel Dagalo – Arba Minch University

SELF WEIGHT OF DAM: The weight per unit length of the dam is given by the
product of the area of cross section of the dam and the unit weight of the construction
material, i.e., concrete or stone masonry, and it acts vertically downwards at the centeroid
of the cross sectional area, Ap, of the dam profile.

Pm = γ c Ap [kN/m]
γ c = Unit weight of concrete, assumed as 23.5 KN/m3

For a gravity dam the weight of the dam is the main stabilizing force, and hence the
construction material should be as heavy as possible. Thus in order to get heavier, the
course aggregate should have greater specific gravity.

UPLIFT (OR SEEPAGE) FORCE: Is the force exerted by the water penetrating
through the pores, cracks and seams with in the body of the dam, at the contact between
the dam and its foundation, and with in the foundation.

It acts vertically upwards at any horizontal section of the dam as well as its foundation
and hence causes a reduction in the effective weight of the portion of the structure lying
above this section.

The computation of uplift pressure involves the consideration of two constituent

elements, viz. (i) the area over which the up lift pressure acts and (ii) the intensity of the
uplift pressure at various points.

The percentage of area on which the uplift pressure acts is defined as the area factor, η.
Several investigations have been made and some of the earlier investigators
recommended, for both concrete and rock, a value of area factor ranging from 1/3 to 2/3,
i.e. only 1/3 to 2/3 of the area may be considered as effective area over which the uplift
pressure acts.
A’h = ηAh ( A’h = effective area)

However, Terzaghi and Leliavsky, have indicated that, for both concrete and rock, the
value of area factor is nearly unity. As such the present practice in dam design is that the
up lift pressure is assumed to act over 100% of the area with in the body of the dam and
its foundation (i.e., η = 1).

Uplift pressure can be reduced by forming drains through the concrete of the dam and by
drilling drainage holes in to the foundation rock. In modern dams internal up lift is
controlled by the provision of vertical relief drains close behind the u/s face. Formed
drains raise the full height of the dam from an inspection gallery located as low as
practicable in relation to the tail water level.

At the line of drains, in the body of the dam as well as the contact plane between the dam,
and its foundation and with in the foundation, uplift pressure is assumed to have an
intensity, Pdu, equal to

Handout-on Dam Engineering (IE-434) by Samuel Dagalo – Arba Minch University

 1
Pdu = γH '+ [H − H ']
3

Fig 3 Internal up lift and assumed pressure envelopes

The uplift pressure at the contact of the dam with the foundation may also be reduced by
constructing a cut off wall or grout curtain close to the u/s face of the dam and extending
it for considerable depth in the foundation. The reduction in the up lift pressure intensity
due to the provision of the cut off wall is expressed in terms of intensity factor. The
intensity factor is the ratio of the actual intensity of uplift pressure developed when cut
off wall is provided to the intensity of up lift pressure, which would be developed with
out cut off wall. The values of intensity factor ( ϕ ) given in table 1 may be used with
judgment. However, in designs of dams theses reduction factor are generally disregarded
or are considered to be unity. This is because:

Pu when cutoff wall is provided

ϕ=
Pu when cutoff wall is not provided

a) It is not possible to determine quantitatively by the effectiveness of the cutoff

wall in the reduction of the uplift pressure (by reducing under flow of water
through foundation).
b) A cutoff wall is considered to be an additional factor of safety.

Table 1 Uplift intensity factor ( ϕ ) Ref. Creager, et al

Height of Dam** Type of rock foundation Grouting and ϕ

Drainage
Moderate Horizontally stratified None 1.00
-Do- Fair, Horizontally stratified Yes 0.67
High - Do- -Do- 0.75

Handout-on Dam Engineering (IE-434) by Samuel Dagalo – Arba Minch University

 Moderate Good, Horizontally stratified -Do- 0.5
High -Do- -Do- 0.67
Moderate Fair, massive None 0.67
-Do- -Do- Yes 0.50
High -Do- -Do- 0.67
Moderate Good, massive None 0.50
-Do- -Do- Yes 0.50*
High -Do- -Do- 0.50

**Moderate represents dams up to about 60m

High represents dams above about 60m
* A minimum limit

SEDIMENT (or SILT) PRESSURE: The gradual accumulation of significant deposits

of fine sediment notably silts, against the face of the dam generates a resultant horizontal
force, Ps. The magnitude of Ps, which is additional to water load P, is a function of the
sediment depth h, the submerged unit weight γ ' s and the active lateral pressure
coefficient, Ka.

1
Ps = K aγ 's h 2
2

and acts at h/3 from the bottom of deposit. γ ' s = γ s - γ w where γ s is the sediment
1 − sin φ s
saturated unit wt, and Ka = where φs is the angle of shearing resistance
1 + sin φ s
of the sediment 9 angle of internal friction).

Values of γ s 18-20 Kn/m3 and φs 30o. Accurate prediction of h is inhibited by major

uncertainties 9 function of sediment concentration, reservoir characteristics, river
hydrograph etc…), but sediment load is seldom critical in design other than for smaller
flood control dams and its introduction is not universal.

WAVE PRESSURE AND HEIGHTS: The upper portions of dams are subject to the
impact of waves. The magnitude of the wave pressure mainly depends on the dimensions
of waves, which in turn depend on the extent, configuration of the water surface, the
velocity of wind and the depth of water in the reservoir. Knowledge of wave height is
important if overtopping wave splash is to be avoided. The most significant dimension of
wave is the height of the wave in terms of which the wave pressure exerted on the dam
can be expressed.

Wave height may be determined (Moliter) by the following formula:

hw = 0.032 VF + 0.763 − 0.2714 F for F < 32km

and hw = 0.032 VF for F > 32km

Handout-on Dam Engineering (IE-434) by Samuel Dagalo – Arba Minch University

Where, hw = Height of the wave from trough to crest, m.
F = the fetch or straight length of water expanse normal the dam axis subject to
wind action, km
V = velocity of wind on the water surface, km/h
The maximum pressure intensity occurs at about 1/8 hw above the still water level and is
approximately:

Pw = 2.4 γ w hw
= 23.544 hw [kN/m2]

The wave pressure diagram is of a curvilinear form which for present purposes may be
approximately represented by the triangle 1-2-3 in fig 4.

The total pressure Pw per unit length of the dam is given by the area of the triangle 1-2-3
and given by
1 5
Pw = × 2 .4 × γ w hw × hw
2 3
[kN/m]
Pw = 2γ w h w = 19 .62 h 2 w
2

Its center of application is above the still water surface at height 3/8 hw (or 0.375 hw )

Fig 4 Wave configuration and wave pressure on gravity dam

ICE PRESSURE: Ice load can be introduced in circumstances where ice sheets form to
appreciable thickness and persist for lengthy periods. In such situations, ice pressure may
generate a considerable horizontal thrust near crest level.

Handout-on Dam Engineering (IE-434) by Samuel Dagalo – Arba Minch University

An acceptable initial provision for ice load, Pice, where considered necessary is given by
Pice = 145kN/m2 for ice thickness in excess of 0.6m (USBR, 1976). Where ice thicknesses
are unlikely to exceed 0.4m and/or will be subject to little restraint, as on sloping face ,
ice load may be neglected.(Contraction and expansion due to change in temperature
causes ice pressure).

WIND PRESSURE: Wind pressure is seldom a factor on the design of dams. Such
structures are usually in sheltered locations. Even in exposed locations, the wind has
access to only the d/s face of a loaded dam. The maximum possible pressures are small
when compared to the loads for which the dam is designed, and it acts against the water
load. The superstructure of dams carrying very large sluice gets may need to be
proportioned to resist wind loads of 1 kN/m2 to 1.5 kN/m2.

EARTHQUAKE (or SEISMIC) FORCES: Dynamic loads generated by seismic

disturbances must be considered in the design of concrete dams situated in recognized
seismic ‘high risk’ regions. The possibility of seismic activity should also be considered
for dams located outside those regions, particularly where sited in close proximity to
potentially active geological faults.

Seismicity is accessed through a specialist review of regional and local geology in

conjunction with historical evidence when a risk of seismic activity is confirmed;
estimates of probable maximum intensity provide the bases for selecting seismic design
parameters.

Seismic activity is associated with complex oscillating patterns of accelerations and

ground motions, which generate transient loads due to the inertia of the dam and the
retained body of water. Horizontal and vertical accelerations are not equal, the former
being of greater intensity. For design purposes both should be considered operative in the
sense least favorable to stability of the dam. Horizontal accelerations are therefore
assumed to operate normal to the axis of the dam.

Effect of Horizontal Earthquake Acceleration

Due to the horizontal acceleration imparted to the foundation and dam the following two
forces act on the dam.
i. Inertia force
ii. Hydrodynamic pressure

(i) Inertia force:

Under reservoir full conditions the most adverse seismic loading will occur when the
ground shock is associated with foundation acceleration operating upstream, i.e. form d/s
to u/s. This will cause the inertia force to act on the dam in the direction from u/s to d/s.
However, for reservoir empty conditions the acceleration in the direction from u/s to d/s
would produce the worst combination. In general, the inertia force is equal to the product
of weight of the dam and seismic coefficient.

Handout-on Dam Engineering (IE-434) by Samuel Dagalo – Arba Minch University

 Pem = ±α h gm = ±α hW [kN/m]
And the inertial force is considered to operate through the centeroid of the dam section.

(ii) Hydrodynamic Pressure (Water Reaction)

Due to horizontal acceleration the foundation and dam are accelerated either towards the
reservoir or away from it depending on the direction of the acceleration being from u/s to
d/s or vice versa. However, this movement of the dam is restricted by the water in the
reservoir owing to its inertia, on account of which there is an instantaneous
hydrodynamic pressure (or suction) exerted on the dam. The direction of hydrodynamic
pressure is opposite to the direction of earthquake acceleration.

For dams with vertical or sloping u/s faces, the hydrodynamic pressure, pe, in kN/m2, at
any elevation y below the water surface is given by the following equation. (Ref Fig 5)

p e = Cα h γ w h [Zangar ,1952]
earthquake acceleration a
Where α h = horizontal seismic coefficient = =
acceleration due to gravity g
Where
γ w = unit weight of water, kN/m3
h = Total depth of reservoir at section of dam considered
C = a dimensionless coefficient which depends on the shape of the dam and
depth of reservoir.

Fig 5 Hydrodynamic pressure and inertia forces

The value of the coefficient C may be obtained for dams with u/s face either vertical or
having constant slope for the entire height by the following expression:

Handout-on Dam Engineering (IE-434) by Samuel Dagalo – Arba Minch University

 Cm ⎡y⎛ y⎞ y⎛ y ⎞⎤
C= ⎢ ⎜2 − ⎟ + ⎜2 − ⎟⎥
2 ⎣⎢ h ⎝ h⎠ h⎝ h ⎠ ⎦⎥
Where Cm = maximum value of C for a given constant slope of the face of the dam
y = depth of horizontal section under consideration below the water surface
in the reservoir, m
Value of Cm may be obtained from a plot of Cm Vs φ , where φ is the angle (o) that the
face of the dam makes with the vertical. However, approximate value of Cm may be
calculated from:
⎛ φ ⎞
C m = 0.735 ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ 90 ⎠
For dams with u/s face partly vertical and partly sloping the value of C may be obtained
as follows: (Ref Fig 6).
a) If the height of the vertical portion of the u/s face of the dam is equal to or greater
than half of the total height of the dam, then the entire face is considered as
vertical.
b) If the height of the vertical portion of the u/s face of the dam is less than half of
the total height of the dam, then the slope of the u/s face is considered to be equal
to the slope of the line joining the point of intersection of the u/s face of the dam
and the water surface in the reservoir; and the point of intersection of the u/s face
of the dam and foundation (i.e. the heel of the dam).

Fig 6

The total hydrodynamic force, Pe, above any elevation y distance below the reservoir
surface, and the resulting total overturning moment, Me, above the elevation are given by:
Pe = 0.726 pe y
M e = 0.299 pe y 2

Handout-on Dam Engineering (IE-434) by Samuel Dagalo – Arba Minch University

The corresponding values of Pe and Me for the dam above its base may be obtained by
substituting h for y as

Pe = 0.726 pe h
M e = 0.299 pe h 2

The hydrodynamic pressure acts normal to the face of dam. As such if the u/s face of the
dam is sloping, then it will have horizontal and vertical components. The horizontal
component is given by equation:
Pe = 0.726 p e y
The vertical component for part of the dam above a horizontal section x-x at a depth y
below the water surface is given by:
Ve = (Pe 2 − Pe1 ) tan φ

Where Ve = Vertical component of total hydrodynamic pressure for a part of dam up to a

horizontal section being considered at depth y below the water surface;
Pe2 = horizontal component of total hydrodynamic pressure for a part of dam up to a
horizontal section being considered at depth y below the water surface;

Pe1 = horizontal component of total hydrodynamic pressure for a part of the dam at a
horizontal section at which the slope of the face commences;
φ = Angle between face of dam and vertical

Effect of Vertical Earthquake acceleration

Under reservoir full condition the most adverse seismic loading will occur when the ground shock
is associated with vertical acceleration operating downwards. Foundation acceleration
downwards will effectively reduce the mass, and hence the stability of the structure. The inertia
force is exerted on the dam as well as the water in the reservoir in the direction opposite to that of
acceleration.

If W is the weight per unit length of the dam and α v is the vertical seismic coefficient then
the inertia force exerted per unit length of the dam is given by:

Pemv = ±α vW

Thus for an upward acceleration the inertia force Pemv would be acting downwards and hence it
would result in an increase in the weight of the dam from W to W (1+ α v ). On the other hand,
if the acceleration is acting downwards, the inertia force Pemv would be acting upwards
which would result in reduction of the weight of the weight of the dam from W to W (1-
α v ). Similar expressions may be obtained for water in the reservoir.

It is commonly assumed that α h = (1.5 – 2.0) α v for the purpose of analysis.

Handout-on Dam Engineering (IE-434) by Samuel Dagalo – Arba Minch University

Representative seismic coefficients, α h , applied in design are listed in table 2.
Table 2 Seismic acceleration coefficients, α h
Coefficient Modified General damage
αh Mercalli Scale Level
0.0 - Nil
0.05 VI Minor
0.10 VII Moderate
0.15 VIII-IX Major
0.20 Great

Note that uplift pressure is normally assumed to be unaltered by seismic shock. This is so
because the duration of the earthquake is too short to permit the building up of pore
pressure in the concrete and rock foundation.

2.2 LOAD COMBINATIONS

A concrete gravity dam should be desired with regard to the most rigorous adverse
groupings or combinations, which include transitory loads of remote probability, and
therefore have a negligible livelihood of occurrence in service, are not considered a valid
basis for design. Such combinations may be investigated when verifying the design of the
most important dams, but are generally discounted in the analysis of lesser structures.

The design of gravity dam should be checked for two cases, i.e.,

i. When reservoir is full, and

ii. When reservoir is empty

Case I. Full Reservoir

USBR has classified the ‘Normal Load Combinations’ and ‘Extreme Load Combinations’
as below.

a) Normal Load Combinations

1. Normal water surface elevation, ice pressure (if applicable), silt pressure and
normal uplift → Taken when ice pressure is serious
2. Normal water surface elevation, earthquake force, silt pressure and normal up lift
3. Maximum water surface elevation, silt pressure and normal uplift pressure

b) Extreme load combination

Maximum flood water elevation, silt pressure, and extreme uplift (with no drains) in
operation to release to uplift.

Handout-on Dam Engineering (IE-434) by Samuel Dagalo – Arba Minch University