MNRAS 000, 1–9 (0000) Preprint 18 October 2024 Compiled using MNRAS LATEX style file v3.

The Milky Way atlas for linear filaments II. clump rotation versus filament
orientation
Xuefang Xu1,2 , Ke Wang3★ , Qian Gou1,2 †,Tapas Baug4 , Di Li5,6 , Chunguo Duan1 , and Juncheng Lei1
1 School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
2 Chongqing Key Laboratory of Chemical Theory and Mechanism, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
3 Kavli Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Peking University, 5 Yiheyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100871, China
4 S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Block JD, Sector III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700106, India
5 Department of Astronomy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
arXiv:2410.12215v2 [astro-ph.GA] 17 Oct 2024

6 National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100012, China

18 October 2024

ABSTRACT
Dense clumps distributed along filaments are the immediate medium for star formation. Kinematic properties of the clumps,
such as velocity gradient and angular momentum, combined with filament orientation, provide important clues to the formation
mechanism of filament-clump configurations and the role of filaments in star formation. By cross-matching the Milky Way atlas
for linear filaments and the Structure, Excitation and Dynamics of the Inner Galactic Interstellar Medium (SEDIGISM) 13 CO
(2-1) data, we aim to derive the velocity gradient (G) and its direction (𝜃 G ), the specific angular momentum (𝐽/𝑀), and the
ratio (𝛽) between the rotational energy and gravitational energy of clumps, as well as to investigate the alignment between clump
rotation and filament orientation. We found a monotonic increase in 𝐽/𝑀 as a function of clump size (𝑅), following a power-law
relation 𝐽/𝑀 ∝ 𝑅 1.5±0.2 . The ratio 𝛽 ranges from 1.1 × 10−5 to 0.1, with a median value 1.0 × 10−3 , suggesting that clump
rotation provides insignificant support against gravitational collapse. The distribution of the angle between clump rotation (𝜃 G )
and natal filament orientation is random, indicating that the clumps’ rotational axes have no discernible correlation with the
orientation of their hosting filaments. Counting only the most massive clump in each filament also finds no alignment between
clump rotation and filament orientation.
Key words: ISM: clouds — ISM: molecules — ISM: structure — ISM: kinematics and dynamics

1 INTRODUCTION filament orientation in an unbiased sample. In the Necklace config-

uration, filaments can channel gas flows to feed star formation in the
Filamentary structures are ubiquitous in the interstellar medium
clumps, which has been observed in many filaments (e.g. Wang et al.
(ISM) (Molinari et al. 2010; André et al. 2014). They are believed
2014; Ge & Wang 2022; Ge et al. 2023; Xu et al. 2023).
to play an important role in star formation, because dense molecular
clumps and cores (the immediate medium for star formation) are pre- In sufficiently young filaments, such as those identified in Herschel
dominantly observed along the filamentary ridges compared to other far-IR emission of cold dust (Li & Goldsmith 2012; Wang et al. 2015,
parts within a molecular cloud. Clumps along filaments often form 2024), it is believed that the clumps may still retain the kinematic
a Necklace-like geometric configuration, which is a natural conse- signatures inherited from the cylindrical fragmentation (Shimajiri
quence of the so called “sausage” instability in a plasma/magnetized et al. 2019; Sharma et al. 2020). For example, Ren et al. (2023)
gaseous cylinder (Chandrasekhar & Fermi 1953). Wang et al. (2016) reported that the central massive core in massive filament G352.63-
developed a customized minimum spaning tree (MST) algorithm to 1.07 has a spatial extent parallel to the main filament. On the other
identify such filaments by connecting clumps in position-position hand, simulations (Misugi et al. 2019, 2023) found that most of the
velocity (PPV) space into a velocity-coherent linear structure. They cores, formed from filament fragmentation, rotate perpendicular to
have applied the MST method to Galactic surveys (BGPS, ALAS- the filament’s long-axis. This may be due to the fact that gas in
GAL, SEDIGISM, and HiGAL) and revealed a panoramic view of filaments predominantly flows either perpendicular or parallel to the
the filamentary structures in the Galaxy (Wang et al. 2016; Ge & filament axis as also observed by Sharma et al. (2020). Classically, the
Wang 2022; Ge et al. 2023; Wang et al. 2024). Of particular interest angular momentum of a star-forming molecular cloud is anticipated
to this study is the first Milky Way atlas of 42 linear filaments in to be hierarchically transferred to the clumps/cores and eventually to
the full Galactic plane (Wang et al. 2024), providing well-defined the protostar. As the gas flow is believed to occur either parallel or
perpendicular to the long-axis of the filament, the rotation axis (of
the clumps, core or accretion disk) is expected to be preferentially
★ E-mail:[email protected] parallel or perpendicular to the core minor axis and the filament
† E-mail:[email protected] structure. Thus, the orientation of clump angular momentum and their

© 0000 The Authors

2 Xuefang Xu et al.
host filaments may provide important clues about their formation DR1 data set (Schuller et al. 2021), which has a typical 1𝜎 sensitivity
mechanisms and the role of filaments in star formation. of 0.8 − 1.0 K (in T𝑚𝑏 ) per 0.25 km s −1 channel and an FWHM beam
To explore the alignment between clump rotation and the natal size of 28′′ .
environment, the distribution of angles between the rotational axes
of clump and the orientation of natal filament were analyzed. Such
angles could potentially differentiate between various mechanisms 2.2 Orientations of the Target Filaments
of clump formation. For instance, the angular momentum of a clump The filaments were identified from Hi-GAL clumps (Elia et al. 2021)
is oriented perpendicularly to its natal filament’s axis (e.g. Anath- using the Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) algorithm developed
pindika & Whitworth 2008; Wang et al. 2011; Kong et al. 2019), by Wang et al. (2016). The specialized MST algorithm is applied to
providing evidence for the clump-formation mechanism proposed identify filaments in Position-Position-Velocity space, implying that
by Whitworth et al. (1995). Conversely, a near parallel relation can clumps are only clustered as a filament when they are in close prox-
be clarified by another clump formation mechanism, namely Gravo- imity with comparable velocities. In Figure 1, the clumps are marked
turbulent fragmentation (Banerjee et al. 2006; Offner et al. 2008; with circles and linked by minimizing the total length of connecting
Clarke et al. 2017; Aizawa et al. 2020; Anathpindika & Di Francesco edges. The edges represented by blue solid lines are straight lines
2022). Furthermore, Baug et al. (2020) found a random distribution joining the clumps, and the lengths of the edges indicate the distance
between angular momentum and filament orientation. In these cases, between each pair of clumps. The fitted filaments are marked by end-
the direction of angular momentum is traced by outflow or disk axes. to-end lines connecting two clumps at the filament tips, shown as the
Velocity gradients were fitted by Xu et al. (2020a) following Good- black solid lines in Figure 1. Details of the identified linear filaments
man et al. (1993) to trace the rotational direction of cores, revealing can be found in Wang et al. (2024). Orientations (𝜃 𝑓 ) of the target
no preferred trend between cores and their natal filaments specially filaments were determined by using the positions of the clumps at
in the Orion Molecular Cloud (OMC)-2 and OMC-3 filamentary re- the two tips, with measurements taken clockwise from the East.
gions (Li et al. 2003, 2013b; Yue et al. 2021). Additionally, their
defined orientation of gas-flow axis, as per the auto-correlation func-
tion in the N2 H+ integrated density map (similar to Li et al. 2013a), 2.3 Velocity Gradient Fitting
did not show any preferred relation with the embedded cores. For most filaments, the distances between clumps are consistent with
In this work, the alignment between clump rotation and the na- the findings reported by Elia et al. (2021). According to Wang et al.
tal filament in eight linear filaments was investigated. The paper is (2024), there is no evident selection bias in the distance distributions
organized as follows: Section 2.1 outlines the target filaments se- of the target filaments, supporting the assumption that all clumps
lected from an unbiased linear filament sample (Wang et al. 2024) within a target filament are equidistant. Consequently the related
and describes the 13 CO (2-1) data used in this study. Section 2.2 de- parameters of the clumps reported in Elia et al. (2021) are scaled to
tails the definitions of the orientations of the target filaments, while derive the velocity gradient, the specific angular momentum (𝐽/𝑀),
Section 2.3 discusses the velocity gradient measurements of HiGAL and the ratio (𝛽) between the rotational energy and gravitational
clumps (Elia et al. 2021) following the methodology established energy. The scaled properties of clumps in target filaments are listed
by Goodman et al. (1993). Section 3 shows the result of the spe- in Table 1. Clumps, which appear as localized increases in column
cific angular momentum (𝐽/𝑀), the ratio (𝛽) between the rotational density within clouds, are generally assumed to be spherical in shape
energy and gravitational energy, and the angles between filaments with rigid-body rotation, producing a linear gradient, ∇𝑣 LSR . In the
and clump velocity gradients (|𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃 G |). In Section 4, we compare local standard of rest (LSR) velocity field, the linear gradient aligns
𝐽/𝑀 and 𝛽 in this work with that in previous works, and discuss perpendicular to the rotation axis.
the distribution of |𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃 G |. The main results are summarized in The velocity gradients were measured following the method de-
Section 5. scribed in Goodman et al. (1993), which fits the function
𝑣 𝐿𝑆𝑅 = 𝑣 0 + 𝑐 1 Δ𝑙 + 𝑐 2 Δ𝑏. (1)
Here, 𝑣 𝐿𝑆𝑅 represents an intensity weighted average velocity along
2 DATA AND METHODOLOGY
the line of sight and 𝑣 0 is velocities of clumps (see column (8)
2.1 Filament sample and Data in Table 1). Δ𝑙 and Δ𝑏 are the offsets from the center positions
(listed in column (2) and (3) of Table 1) of clumps in the Galactic
The unbiased linear filament sample, the first large-scale linear fila- longitude and Galactic latitude in radians, respectively, while 𝑐 1 and
ments across the full Galactic plane (Wang et al. 2024), was combined 𝑐 2 are the projections of the gradient per radian onto the 𝑙 and 𝑏
with the SEDIGISM survey (Structure, Excitation and Dynamics of axes, respectively. Finally, the magnitude of the velocity gradient is
the Inner Galactic Interstellar Medium), resulting eight target fila- defined by
ments (F2, F3, F34, F35, F36, F39, F40, and F41). The filament
sample includes filaments of varying distances, lengths, masses, lu- (𝑐21 + 𝑐22 ) 1/2
minosities, and linearities (Wang et al. 2024). G = |∇𝑣 LSR | = , (2)
𝐷
Data from the SEDIGISM survey, conducted with the Atacama where 𝐷 is the distance (column (4) in Table 1) of clumps. Its orien-
Pathfinder Experiment 12 m submillimetre telescope (APEX, Güsten tation (i.e., the orientation of the increasing velocity) measured east
et al. 2006) were used. The survey overview papers (Schuller et al. of north is given by
2017, 2021; Duarte-Cabral et al. 2021) provide a comprehensive
𝑐
account of the observations, data reduction, and data-quality checks. 𝜃 G = tan 1 . (3)
In total, the SEDIGISM survey observed 84 deg2 , covering from 𝑐2
-60◦ ≤ 𝑙 ≤ +18◦ , and |𝑏| ≤ 0.5◦ , with a few extensions in 𝑏 towards Based on the spherical shape of clumps, the velocity field of the
some regions, as well as an additional field towards the W43 region HiGAL clumps within the target linear filaments was fitted using a
(+29◦ ≤ 𝑙 ≤ +31◦ ). The 13 CO (2-1) images used here are from the least-squares method as outlined in Equation (1) from the 13 CO (2-1)

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 The Milky Way atlas for linear filaments 3
K*km/s K*km/s

F2 F3 1.7 km s-1pc-1

0.3 km s-1pc-1
0.3 km s-1pc-1
1.2 km s-1pc-1
0.1 km s-1pc-1

0.9 km s-1pc-1

0.5 km s-1pc-1 0.3 km s-1pc-1

0.2 km s-1pc-1

1.8 km s-1pc-1

K*km/s K*km/s

F34
0.9 km s-1pc-1
F35

0.3 km s-1pc-1 3.0 km s-1pc-1

3.7 km s-1pc-1 4.8 km s-1pc-1

0.3 km s-1pc-1
1.4 km s-1pc-1

0.4 km s-1pc-1

0.1 km s-1pc-1

K*km/s K*km/s

F36 F39

1.3 km s-1pc-1

0.1 km s-1pc-1
0.1 km s-1pc-1 0.3 km s-1pc-1
0.8 km s-1pc-1
0.8 km s-1pc-1 0.3 km s-1pc-1
1.6 km s-1pc-1
0.5 km s pc
-1 -1
0.9 km s pc
-1 -1
0.3 km s pc-1 -1

0.6 km s-1pc-1
1.6 km s-1pc-1

1.6 km s-1pc-1 1.6 km s-1pc-1

2.7 km s-1pc-1

K*km/s
K*km/s

F40
F41
-0.24

0.7 km s-1pc-1

3.0 km s-1pc-1 -0.26

0.07 km s-1pc-1
Galactic latitude

0.3 km s-1pc-1 0.6 km s-1pc-1

0.6 km s-1pc-1
-0.28

0.2 km s-1pc-1
0.6 km s-1pc-1

0.8 km s-1pc-1
-0.30

1.1 km s-1pc-1

-0.32

348.78 348.74 348.70 348.66 348.62

Galactic longitude

Figure 1. Clumps plotted on the integrated intensity map of 13 CO (2-1). The circles show the size and location of the clumps. The red arrows with varying
length represent the velocity gradients. The lengths of red arrows reflect the values of the measured velocity gradients. The blue solid lines are the the fitted
filaments, whose orientations are represent by the black solid lines (see Section 2.2). The black solid circles are the most massive clumps in each target filament.

images. The magnitude of the gradient (G), its direction (𝜃 G ), and the 13 CO (2-1) images. One clump in each of the two filaments (F35
their errors were then calculated based on the resulted 𝑐 1 and 𝑐 2 of the and F39) was not well fitted. The derived G values distribute between
least-squares fit. According to the confidence-level simulation results 7.0 × 10 −2 km s −1 pc −1 and 4.8 km s −1 pc −1 , listed in column (4) of
in Goodman et al. (1993), the velocity gradient of the target clumps Table 2. Its direction, 𝜃 G , are presented in column (5) of Table 2.
can be reliably fitted when they contain at least nine spatial pixels in Figure 2 shows the distribution of the obtained G values compared

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4 Xuefang Xu et al.

Table 1. The information of clumps in filaments.

Filaments ℓ b Distance FWHM250 Diameter Mass 𝑣0

(degree) (degree) (kpc) ′′ (pc) (M ⊙ ) (km s −1 )
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
11.89 -0.40 12.0 15.8 0.9 1.9E+3(4.8) 47.2
11.91 -0.40 12.0 34.5 2.0 4.7E+2(0.1) 46.4
F2 11.95 -0.40 12.0 29.7 1.7 1.1E+3(2.0) 45.9
12.0 -0.42 12.0 20.9 1.2 3.0E+2(0.6) 44.2
12.05 -0.42 12.0 41.3 2.4 2.3E+3(3.9E+1) 42.9
14.65 0.26 2.7 17.4 0.2 1.7E+1(1.7E+1) 26.9
14.64 0.30 2.7 15.9 0.2 3.8E+1(1.3) 26.4
F3 14.63 0.31 2.7 16.1 0.2 4.0E+2(1.5E+2) 25.6
14.62 0.33 2.7 20.4 0.3 2.5E+2(6.7) 27.0
14.61 0.38 2.7 33.7 0.4 5.2E+1(1.5) 27.0
328.84 0.04 12.1 28.5 1.7 5.5E+2(2.7) -33.8
328.83 0.05 12.1 12.5 0.7 5.7E+2(5.0E+2) -33.8
F34 328.82 0.06 12.1 12.7 0.7 4.8E+2(4.1E+2) -33.0
328.81 0.07 12.1 14.2 0.8 1.8E+3(1.9E+2) -32.5
328.81 0.07 12.1 13.3 0.8 2.7E+3(5.8E+2) -31.2
338.47 0.21 2.8 12.8 0.2 9.0E+1(2.7E+1) -35.6
338.50 0.21 2.8 10.8 0.1 2.3E+2(2.8) -36.6
F35 338.53 0.21 2.8 28.4 0.4 2.8E+2(8.4E+2) -38.2
338.56 0.22 2.8 8.6 0.1 1.9E+2(7.9) -35.5
338.58 0.21 2.8 29.8 0.4 1.3E+1(1.1E+1) -36.8
338.52 -0.43 2.9 30.2 0.4 1.8E+2(8.3E+2) -38.8
338.55 -0.42 2.9 22.7 0.3 3.2E+2(1.1E+2) -38.3
338.60 -0.44 2.9 10.9 0.2 7.6E+1(1.8E+1) -38.4
338.65 -0.45 2.9 15.3 0.2 3.1E+2(8.4E+1) -39.3
338.66 -0.45 2.9 14.8 0.2 5.0E+1(7.3) -38.6
F36 338.69 -0.48 2.9 28.0 0.4 1.9E+2(4.0E+1) -39.1
338.72 -0.46 2.9 12.5 0.2 5.8E+1(1.5E+1) -39.5
338.77 -0.46 2.9 27.5 0.4 1.6E+3(3.7E+3) -38.8
338.82 -0.45 2.9 22.0 0.3 2.0E+2(7.9E+2) -40.7
338.82 -0.47 2.9 22.2 0.3 1.9E+2(1.9E+3) -37.9
338.87 -0.48 2.9 14.1 0.2 3.7E+2(1.0E+1) -37.2
346.02 -0.02 10.8 14.2 0.7 3.2E+2(5.0E+2) -80.9
345.88 -0.01 10.8 19.9 1.0 1.1E+3(2.4E+3) -78.8
345.92 0. 10.8 15.2 0.8 1.3E+3(3.1E+2) -79.6
F39 345.93 0. 10.8 27.2 1.4 2.4E+3(1.4E+2) -79.8
345.98 -0.02 10.8 10.2 0.5 1.6E+3(1.6E+2) -80.9
346.06 -0.03 10.8 25.0 1.3 4.9E+3(2.6E+3) -81.6
347.97 -0.43 6.0 21.9 0.6 4.7E+3(8.6E+2) -94.9
347.99 -0.43 6.0 16.7 0.5 2.9E+2(2.3E+2) -94.2
F40 348.02 -0.44 6.0 37.0 1.1 5.0E+2(1.5E+3) -93.5
348.04 -0.44 6.0 13.6 0.4 2.7E+1(2.7E+1) -95.6
348.05 -0.43 6.0 29.6 0.9 8.0E+2(3.9E+2) -95.2
348.62 -0.32 2.2 10.4 0.1 2.6E+1(3.0) -19.1
348.64 -0.31 2.2 14.7 0.2 5.4E+1(2.3E+2) -19.1
F41 348.69 -0.31 2.2 41.5 0.4 1.0E+2(3.1E+3) -19.2
348.73 -0.29 2.2 25.1 0.3 7.0E+1(2.1E+3) -19.4
348.77 -0.26 2.2 25.5 0.3 4.5E+1(9.1E+1) -19.8
Columns are (1) filament name, (2) galactic longitude, (3) galactic latitude, (4) distance of the clump, adopted from Wang et al. (2024),
(5) the scaled size of the clump as estimated by ‘CuTEx’ (Elia et al. 2017) in the 250 𝜇m band,
(6) the scaled linear diameter of the clump, obtained combining FWHM250 and distance,
(7) the scaled mass and its uncertainty of the clump, (8) velocity of the clump, assigned by Mège et al. (2021).

with the clump radius (𝑅) and mass (𝑀). One could note that G tends angular momentum (𝐽/𝑀), which represents angular momentum
to decrease as 𝑅 and 𝑀 increase. per unit mass, is commonly used to compare angular momenta in
different parts with comparable masses. For a spherical clump with
a power-law density distribution, 𝜌 ∝ 𝑟 − A , 𝐽/𝑀 is computed as
3 RESULTS in Xu et al. (2020b):

3.1 Specific Angular Momentum and Energy 𝐽 2(3 − A)

= G𝑅 2 . (4)
𝑀 3(5 − A)
If molecular clouds are rotating, their current angular momentum
could provide insights into their evolution processes. The specific When the density of a clump is uniform, A is set to 0. Here, A

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 The Milky Way atlas for linear filaments 5

0.5 0.5

Log[Gradients (km/s/pc)]
Log[Gradients (km/s/pc)]

0. 0.

-0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 -1.2 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2
Log[M (M )] Log[R (pc)]
(a) (b)

Figure 2. Velocity gradients plotted with (a) clump mass and (b) clump radius.

= 1.6 (Bonnor 1956) is adopted, resulting in 𝐽/𝑀 being reduced in this work were analyzed alongside those from previous woks, as
by about 30% compared to a uniform density. The assumption of illustrated in Figure 3(c). This discussion can be found in Section 4.1.
spherical geometry introduces a systematic difference of 20% in the
results of specific angular momentum for elongated clumps when the
rotation axis is considered parallel to the clump axis. The gradient
3.2 Angles Between Filaments and Velocity Gradients
direction, which in our assumption is a direction of clump rotation,
is not always parallel to either of the clump axes. In fact, the angles To quantify the alignment between the velocity gradients of clumps
appear to be random, suggesting that a spherical geometry is the most and their natal filaments, the relative difference between the angles,
reasonable assumption for our analysis. The derived 𝐽/𝑀 values are |𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃 G |, is derived through
listed in column (6) of Table 2 and are plotted in Figure 3(a). The de-
rived 𝐽/𝑀 values range from 8.0 × 10 −4 pc kms −1 to 0.1 pc kms −1 . |𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃 G | = 𝑀 𝐼 𝑁 {|𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃 G |, |180 − |𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃 G ||}, (6)
We found a monotonic increase of 𝐽/𝑀 as a function of clump size
(𝑅), following a power-law relation 𝐽/𝑀 ∝ 𝑅 1.5±0.2 , which is where ‘MIN’ refers to the minimum angular difference between 𝜃 𝑓
consistent with Goodman et al. (1993). and 𝜃 G . The derived |𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃 G | values range from 3.9 to 89.3, as
The ratio (𝛽) between rotational energy (E𝑟 ) and gravitational presented in column (8) of Table 2.
energy (E𝑔 ) is used to quantify the dynamical role of rotation, defined To investigate the distribution of |𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃 G |, Monte Carlo simula-
by Xu et al. (2020b) as tions in three-dimensional (3D) space were conducted, following the
approach described by Stephens et al. (2017). In this method, two
𝐸𝑟 25G 2 𝑅 3 random unit vectors are generated within a unit sphere in 3D, and
𝛽= = (5)
𝐸 𝑔 3(5 − A) (5 − 2A)𝐺 𝑀 the angle (𝜃 3𝐷 ) between these two vectors is measured. A total of
106 pairs of unit vectors are generated to produce 106 angles of 𝜃 3𝐷 ,
In this equation, constrained to a range of 0◦ – 90◦ . If 𝜃 3𝐷 exceeds 90◦ , the values of
3−A 3 − A 𝐺 𝑀2 180◦ - 𝜃 3𝐷 values are adopted (Equation 6). Angles within 0◦ – 20◦
𝐸𝑟 = 𝑀 𝑅2 G 2 , 𝐸 𝑔 = − . are defined as parallel, 20◦ – 70◦ as random, and 70◦ – 90◦ as perpen-
3(5 − A) 5 − 2A 𝑅
dicular. The angles of 𝜃 3𝐷 are then projected onto a two-dimensional
The assumption of A = 1.6 (Bonnor 1956) leads to a 70% reduction (2D) space. Figure 4 plots the cumulative distribution function of our
in E𝑟 and a 31% increase in E𝑔 , which cumulatively results in 𝛽 |𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃 G | and the projected 𝜃 3𝐷 (the three blue dashed lines), which
being two times lower than that of a uniform sphere. The derived were applied to illustrate what our sample might look like. The con-
𝛽 values range from 1.0 × 10 −5 to 0.1, as given in column (7) sistency between the two distributions is assessed using the p-values
of Table 2 and plotted in Figure 3(b). The lack of variation in 𝛽 of the Anderson–Darling (AD) test. A p-value close to 1 suggests a
implies that it may remain constant regardless of 𝑅, a conclusion likely consistency between the distributions, whereas a p-value close
consistent with the results from Goodman et al. (1993). As explored to 0 indicates their inconsistency. For our dataset, the AD test yields
in previous studies (e.g. Goodman et al. 1993; Curtis & Richer a p-value of 0.98, indicating that the observed distribution of angles
2011; Xu et al. 2020b), the small values of 𝛽 signifies that rotation bears more resemblance to a random distribution. This finding sug-
alone provides insignificant support against gravitational collapse. gests a non-correlation between the gradient direction of a clump and
To facilitate clear comparison, the obtained values of 𝐽/𝑀 and 𝛽 the orientation of its natal filament. Furthermore, it indicates that the

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Table 2. Derived clump properties

Filaments ℓ b G 𝜃G J/M 𝛽 | 𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃G |
(degree) (degree) (km s −1 pc −1 ) (degree E of N) (pc km s −1 ) (degree)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
11.89 -0.40 0.3 ± 0.1 56.5 ± 25.8 1.5 × 10 −2 ± 8.9 × 10 −3 1.1 × 10 −3 ± 3.9 × 10 −4 43.5 ± 25.8
11.91 -0.40 0.3 ± 0.03 90.7 ± 6.1 7.2 × 10 −2 ± 9.1 × 10 −3 4.5 × 10 −2 ± 7.4 × 10 −4 10.3 ± 6.1
F2 11.95 -0.40 0.1 ± 0.04 155.6 ± 12.9 2.0 × 10 −2 ± 7.2 × 10 −3 1.8 × 10 −3 ± 2.3 × 10 −4 55.7 ± 12.9
12.0 -0.42 0.5 ± 0.06 -100.0 ± 5.5 4.7 × 10 −2 ± 6.2 × 10 −3 4.8 × 10 −2 ± 8.5 × 10 −4 20.9 ± 5.5
12.05 -0.42 0.2 ± 0.03 -15.2 ± 8.1 3.4 × 10 −2 ± 3.6 × 10 −3 4.3 × 10 −2 ± 4.8 × 10 −4 64.8 ± 8.1
14.65 0.26 1.8 ± 0.6 138.3 ± 4.7 3.2 × 10 −2 ± 7.5 × 10 −3 1.8 × 10 −2 ± 1.4 × 10 −3 13.6 ± 4.7
14.63 0.30 0.3 ± 0.02 -16.2 ± 6.0 7.8 × 10 −4 ± 4.2 × 10 −5 7.0 × 10 −4 ± 9.9 × 10 −5 11.9 ± 6.0
F3 14.63 0.31 0.9 ± 0.3 23.1 ± 30.4 2.6 × 10 −2 ± 7.7 × 10 −4 7.4 × 10 −4 ± 6.6 × 10 −5 47.3 ± 30.4
14.62 0.33 1.2 ± 0.3 -56.7 ± 11.0 5.8 × 10 −3 ± 3.1 × 10 −4 4.2 × 10 −3 ± 2.1 × 10 −4 30.6 ± 11.0
14.61 0.38 1.7 ± 0.5 123.0 ± 11.3 −3
2.2 × 10 ± 6.4 × 10 −4 1.3 × 10 −1 ± 1.5 × 10 −2 30.9 ± 11.3
328.84 0.04 0.1 ± 0.04 147.3 ± 16.1 2.0 × 10 −3 ± 7.7 × 10 −4 3.8 × 10 −3 ± 5.4 × 10 −4 4.5 ± 16.1
328.83 0.05 0.4 ± 0.1 28.3 ± 14.1 1.4 × 10 −3 ± 5.4 × 10 −4 3.9 × 10 −3 ± 6.0 × 10 −4 65.5 ± 14.1
F34 328.82 0.06 0.3 ± 0.2 162.3 ± 2.9 1.2 × 10 −3 ± 7.8 × 10 −4 3.2 × 10 −3 ± 1.4 × 10 −4 21.5 ± 2.9
328.81 0.07 0.3 ± 0.2 126.4 ± 30.4 1.4 × 10 −3 ± 1.1 × 10 −3 1.1 × 10 −3 ± 6.2 × 10 −4 16.3 ± 30.4
328.81 0.07 0.9 ± 0.04 47.5 ± 7.6 3.7 × 10 −3 ± 1.4 × 10 −3 5.4 × 10 −3 ± 7.5 × 10 −4 79.8 ± 7.6
338.47 0.21 − − − − −
338.50 0.21 4.8 ± 0.7 -5.0 ± 23.2 9.7 × 10 −4 ± 6.5 × 10 −4 5.7 × 10 −2 ± 1.9 × 10 −3 79.3 ± 23.2
F35 338.53 0.21 3.7 ± 0.4 -72.4 ± 14.6 4.9 × 10 −3 ± 5.4 × 10 −4 6.6 × 10 −3 ± 8.2 × 10 −5 30.9 ± 14.6
338.56 0.22 3.0 ± 0.2 -153.6 ± 43.5 6.8 × 10 −3 ± 7.3 × 10 −4 3.5 × 10 −3 ± 4.1 × 10 −4 75.3 ± 43.5
338.58 0.21 1.4 ± 0.2 72.8 ± 6.2 2.5 × 10 −3 ± 4.0 × 10 −4 3.1 × 10 −3 ± 6.3 × 10 −5 6.0 ± 6.2
338.52 -0.43 0.8 ± 0.2 6.9 ± 8.4 1.0 × 10 −2 ± 2.1 × 10 −3 1.2 × 10 −2 ± 5.1 × 10 −4 89.3 ± 8.4
338.55 -0.42 1.3 ± 0.3 83.4 ± 7.9 8.5 × 10 −3 ± 1.7 × 10 −3 6.5 × 10 −3 ± 2.6 × 10 −4 14.2 ± 7.9
338.60 -0.44 0.1 ± 0.04 46.9 ± 18.5 −3
1.5 × 10 ± 3.7 × 10 −4 1.7 × 10 −4 ± 1.1 × 10 −6 50.7 ± 18.5
338.65 -0.45 0.9 ± 0.5 101.5 ± 2.8 3.1 × 10 −3 ± 1.7 × 10 −4 1.1 × 10 −3 ± 3.4 × 10 −4 3.9 ± 2.8
338.66 -0.45 0.6 ± 0.06 135.4 ± 42.2 −3
1.8 × 10 ± 1.9 × 10 −4 2.6 × 10 −3 ± 2.9 × 10 −4 41.9 ± 42.2
F36 338.69 -0.48 1.6 ± 0.2 -77.9 ± 5.2 1.7 × 10 −2 ± 2.3 × 10 −3 3.4 × 10 −2 ± 5.9 × 10 −4 4.5 ± 5.2
338.72 -0.46 0.5 ± 0.07 -177.4 ± 30.0 −3
1.1 × 10 ± 1.7 × 10 −4 1.0 × 10 −3 ± 2.2 × 10 −4 80.0 ± 30.0
338.77 -0.46 1.6 ± 0.3 162.8 ± 6.4 1.6 × 10 −2 ± 2.5 × 10 −3 3.4 × 10 −3 ± 8.6 × 10 −5 65.3 ± 6.4
338.82 -0.45 0.8 ± 0.4 61.1 ± 23.4 5.5 × 10 −3 ± 3.1 × 10 −4 3.8 × 10 −3 ± 1.2 × 10 −4 40.4 ± 23.4
338.82 -0.47 2.7 ± 0.4 -168.4 ± 6.2 1.7 × 10 −2 ± 2.7 × 10 −3 4.6 × 10 −2 ± 1.1 × 10 −3 86.0 ± 6.2
338.87 -0.48 1.6 ± 0.5 -53.1 ± 12.1 4.1 × 10 −3 ± 1.2 × 10 −4 2.1 × 10 −3 ± 1.9 × 10 −4 31.4 ± 12.1
345.88 -0.01 0.3 ± 0.1 115.8 ± 17.9 1.0 × 10 −2 ± 2.1 × 10 −3 3.7 × 10 −3 ± 1.5 × 10 −4 20.8 ± 17.9
345.92 0. 0.1 ± 0.02 -114.8 ± 6.2 2.5 × 10 −2 ± 1.0 × 10 −3 4.3 × 10 −3 ± 7.5 × 10 −4 31.9 ± 6.2
F39 345.93 0. 0.3 ± 0.04 -24.4 ± 16.6 5.7 × 10 −3 ± 8.8 × 10 −4 2.6 × 10 −4 ± 6.1 × 10 −5 61.6 ± 16.6
345.98 -0.02 1.6 ± 0.2 2.2 ± 5.4 4.5 × 10 −2 ± 6.3 × 10 −3 5.1 × 10 −3 ± 9.9 × 10 −4 85.2 ± 5.4
346.02 -0.012 0.3 ± 0.06 1.3 ± 7.5 −2
3.1 × 10 ± 3.3 × 10 −3 9.8 × 10 −3 ± 1.1 × 10 −4 79.2 ± 7.5
346.06 -0.03 − − − − −
347.97 -0.43 0.07± 0.008 -73.5 ± 12.8 2.1 × 10 −3 ± 2.2 × 10 −4 1.1 × 10 −5 ± 1.4 × 10 −6 14.4 ± 12.8
347.99 -0.43 0.6 ± 0.1 -114.7 ± 6.8 1.0 × 10 −2 ± 1.7 × 10 −3 6.1 × 10 −3 ± 1.8 × 10 −4 26.8 ± 6.8
F40 348.02 -0.44 0.2 ± 0.03 -98.7 ± 5.8 −2
1.8 × 10 ± 2.4 × 10 −3 4.9 × 10 −3 ± 9.3 × 10 −5 10.8 ± 5.8
348.04 -0.44 3.0 ± 0.4 6.2 ± 13.4 5.6 × 10 −2 ± 2.6 × 10 −3 4.9 × 10 −2 ± 2.2 × 10 −4 85.9 ± 13.4
348.05 -0.43 0.3 ± 0.01 -120.1 ± 12.5 2.5 × 10 −2 ± 7.1 × 10 −3 1.5 × 10 −3 ± 1.2 × 10 −4 32.2 ± 12.5
348.62 -0.32 1.1 ± 0.3 -158.36 ± 2.7 9.4 × 10 −4 ± 2.2 × 10 −5 2.5 × 10 −3 ± 1.4 × 10 −4 52.9 ± 2.7
348.64 -0.31 0.8 ± 0.07 26.7 ± 23.3 1.3 × 10 −3 ± 8.4 × 10 −4 1.7 × 10 −3 ± 6.8 × 10 −4 43.9 ± 23.3
F41 348.69 -0.31 0.6 ± 0.07 -148.8 ± 34.8 7.5 × 10 −3 ± 9.0 × 10 −4 1.1 × 10 −2 ± 1.6 × 10 −4 43.4 ± 34.8
348.73 -0.29 0.6 ± 0.2 63.3 ± 2.2 3.2 × 10 −3 ± 8.3 × 10 −4 4.6 × 10 −3 ± 3.1 × 10 −4 7.3 ± 2.2
348.77 -0.26 0.7 ± 0.2 128.3 ± 14.3 3.4 × 10 −3 ± 1.2 × 10 −3 8.0 × 10 −3 ± 9.8 × 10 −4 60.7 ± 14.3
Columns are (1) filament name, (2) galactic longitude, (3) galactic latitude, (4) fitted velocity gradient, (5) the direction of the fitted velocity gradient,
(6) the specific angular momentum,(7) the ratio between rotational energy and gravitational energy, (8) angles between filaments and velocity gradients.
− represents no fitted.

rotation axis of a clump does not depend on the orientation of its stages (e.g. Phillips 1999), ranging from starless and pre-stellar cores
natal large-scale filament. in dark clouds (Goodman et al. 1993; Caselli et al. 2002; Xu et al.
2020b) to dense cores/clumps in high-mass clouds (Pirogov et al.
2003; Li et al. 2012; Tatematsu et al. 2016; Xu et al. 2020b). No-
tably, the 𝐽/𝑀 and 𝛽 values for 30 well-resolved cores reported by Xu
4 DISCUSSION
et al. (2020a) were obtained at the Jeans scale the Orion Molecular
4.1 𝐽/𝑀 and 𝛽 in This Study and Previous Studies Cloud (OMC) 2/3 using high-resolution ALMA (Atacama Large Mil-
limeter/submillimeter Array) N2 H+ images. Additionally, Xu et al.
The derived 𝐽/𝑀 and 𝛽 in this work were compared with those (2020a) reported a random distribution for |𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃 G |, consistent with
form earlier reports, which included clumps at various evolutionary

MNRAS 000, 1–9 (0000)

 The Milky Way atlas for linear filaments 7

-1.0
-1.5
Log[J/M (km/s pc)]

-2.0
-2.0

Log[β]
-3.0
-2.5
.2
±0
1.5 -4.0
-3.0

-3.5 -5.0
-1.2 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 -1.2 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2
Log[R (pc)] Log[R (pc)]
(a) (b)

2.0 -1.0

58
1.0 1. -2.0

-3.0
Log[J/M (pc*km/s)]

0.
-4.0

Log β
-1.0 1.5 -5.0

-2.0 -6.0

-7.0
-3.0 Goodman et.al (1993) Caselli et.al (2002) Pirogov et.al (2003) Li et.al (2012) Tatematus et.al (2016)

Other works Xu et al. (2020b) Xu et al. (2020a) This work Phillips (1999) -8.0
-4.0
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0. 0.5 1.0 1.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0. 0.5 1.0 1.5
Log[R (pc)]
(c)

Figure 3. (a) Specific angular momentum (𝐽/𝑀) and (b) the ratio (𝛽) between rotational energy and gravitational energy plotted with clump radii (𝑅). The best
fitted power-law relation is obtained between 𝐽/𝑀 and 𝑅. (c) The derived 𝐽/𝑀 and 𝛽 in this work together with those previously observed. In the left panel,
the dotted black line shows the best-fit slope, 1.58, for the whole clump sample. The solid black line exhibits the finding, 1.5, of this work.

the findings of this study. When considering the complete sample from high-mass star-formation regions, are often characterized by
(the values of 𝐽/𝑀 and 𝛽 from this study and previous studies), 𝐽/𝑀 different observational methods, primarily using CO tracing lower
and 𝛽 were fitted as functions of clump size 𝑅, as presented in Fig- densities. Although 𝛽 shows significant scatter, its small value sug-
ure 3(c). A power-law relation between 𝐽/𝑀 and 𝑅 persists across all gests that rotational energy constitutes only a minor fraction of the
measurements, yielding a best-fit slope of 1.58, which closely aligns gravitational energy, indicating that observed rotation cannot prevent
with the value of 1.5 found in this study. The values of 𝐽/𝑀 for our the gravitational collapse of clumps in molecular clouds.
clumps, represented by green circles in Figure 3(c), are lower than
those reported in other studies. This is mainly due to a consistently
higher density of our HiGAL clumps , which are distributed along
condensed filaments. Other clumps shown in Figure 3(c), even those

MNRAS 000, 1–9 (0000)

 8 Xuefang Xu et al.

1.0 0)
0

-2 00

l (0
lle
Para
0.8
Cumulative Distribution Fuction

00

e
pl
m
Sa
0.6
ur
O
00

om

00
)
-9
nd
Ra

0
(7
0.4

ar
ul
00

ic
nd
r pe
Pe

0.2 00

0.0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 Figure 5. | 𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃G | for the most massive clump in each target filament.
Angles between velocity gardient and filament (degree) According to the definition of Monte Carlo simulation, the green area cor-
responds to the perpendicular direction (70◦ ∼ 90◦ ), whereas the light pink
area corresponds to the parallel direction, i.e. 0◦ ∼ 20◦ . For the F39 filament,
Figure 4. The cumulative distribution function of | 𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃G | and the projected the most massive clump is at the central, but has no reliably fitted 𝜃G .
𝜃3𝐷 . The red step line is the | 𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃G | of our sample. The three blue dashed
lines are results from Monte Carlo simulations, which were used to illustrate
what an actual aligned sample might look like.
tion 2.2). In these works, the identification of filaments was carried
out employing 2D identification schemes like FILFINDER (Koch &
Rosolowsky 2015), DisPerSE (Sousbie 2011), and SExtractor (Bertin
4.2 The Distribution of |𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃 G | & Arnouts 1996), which often have no direct relation with the em-
Modifications in the alignment between a clump and its natal filament bedded cores/clumps. Our experience suggests that these technical
can reveal their dynamical states, such as collapse, and the manner differences are unlikely to explain the observed diversity in the rela-
of gas transfer within filaments. Various angles (e.g., angle among tive orientations between the rotational axes of clumps and filaments.
outflow axes, velocity gradients, magnetic fields, disk axes, and fil- A comprehensive study using high spectral and spatial resolution im-
ament orientation) between clump and its natal filament have been ages of a larger sample is required to understand this inconsistency
statistically analyzed to explore any existing trends of alignment. better.
For example, Planck Collaboration et al. (2016) and Soler (2019)
studied the relative angles between magnetic fields at local clumps
and filament orientations. They found that magnetic fields predomi-
5 SUMMARY
nantly align parallel to low column density filaments, whereas they
tend to be perpendicular to high column density filaments. At smaller The Milky Way atlas for linear filaments (Wang et al. 2024) was
scales, Zhang et al. (2014) found that the magnetic fields at dense core integrated with data from the SEDIGISM survey to study the rela-
scales align either parallel or perpendicular to parsec-scale magnetic tive orientations between the rotational axes of clumps and filament
fields. Furthermore, such bimodal distribution in the angles between orientations. The 13 CO (2-1) images from SEDIGISM were used
the momentum (outflow axes) of clumps and filament orientation to trace the rotational axes of massive molecular clumps along the
has also been detected in previous works (Anathpindika & Whit- filaments. The orientation of the filament was characterized by the
worth 2008; Wang et al. 2011; Kong et al. 2019; Anathpindika & Di positions of the clumps at two tips, measured clockwise from the
Francesco 2022). Conversely, a random distribution of the relative East. Our key finds are summarized as follows:
angles between momentum and filament orientation/magnetic field 1. Velocity Gradients and Specific Angular Momentum (J/M):
has been reported in several recent studies (Stephens et al. 2017; Velocity gradients ranging form 7.0 × 10 −2 km s −1 pc −1 to
Punanova et al. 2018; Xu et al. 2020a; Baug et al. 2020). Our finds 4.8 km s −1 pc −1 were derived, corresponding to 𝐽/𝑀 values be-
are consistent with this random distribution, suggesting that the rel- tween 7.8 × 10 −4 pc kms −1 and 7.2 × 10 −2 pc kms −1 . A monotonic
ative orientation between the rotational axis of clumps and filaments increase in 𝐽/𝑀 as a function of clump size (𝑅) was observed, fol-
might not be as deterministic as previously thought. For the special lowing a power-law relation 𝐽/𝑀 ∝ 𝑅 1.5±0.2 , similar to the value
location, whether located centrally or at one tip, the most massive reported by Goodman et al. (1993).
clump (black solid circles in Figure 1) in each filament also has no 2.Ratio of Rotational to Gravitational Energy (𝛽): The ratio, 𝛽,
obvious preference orientation, shown as Figure 5. was found to range from 1.1 × 10 −5 to 0.1. Such small values of 𝛽
Compared to several previous studies (e.g. Arzoumanian et al. indicate that rotation alone does not provide sufficient support against
2018; Zhang et al. 2020; Guo et al. 2022; Liu et al. 2023; Dewan- the gravitational collapse.
gan et al. 2024), our sample is robust because the orientation of 3.Alignment between Filament Orientation and Velocity Gradient:
the filaments considered here are closely related with the embedded The angle (|𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃 G |) between the orientation of the filaments (𝜃 𝑓 )
clumps, characterized by the positions of the two tip clumps (see Sec- and the direction of velocity gradient of clumps (𝜃 G ) appears to be

MNRAS 000, 1–9 (0000)

 The Milky Way atlas for linear filaments 9
random, as evidenced by comparisons with the distributions gener- Dewangan L. K., Bhadari N. K., Maity A. K., Eswaraiah C., Sharma S.,
ated via Monte Carlo simulations. Additionally, it was observed that Jadhav O. R., 2024, MNRAS, 527, 5895
the most massive clump in each filament, whether located centrally Duarte-Cabral A., et al., 2021, The SEDIGISM survey: molecular clouds in
or at one tip, exhibited no preferred orientation. the inner Galaxy (arXiv:2012.01502), doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2480
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