Dual Nature

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Chapter Eleven

DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION


Quantum theory tells us that both light and matter consists of tiny particles which have wavelike
properties associated with them. Light is composed of particles called photons, and matter is
composed of particles called electrons, protons, neutrons. Various experiments by various
scientists were done to prove it. For example, light behaves both as a wave and as a
particle. If you are observing phenomenon like the interference, diffraction or reflection,
you will find that light behaves as a wave. However, if you are looking at phenomena
like the photoelectric effect, you will find that light behaves as a particle.

Electron Emission :

Q. What are the different methods for the emission of electrons from metal surface?

The different methods for the emission of electrons from metal surface are:

i. Thermionic emission

In this method the metal is heated to sufficient temperature and the free electrons get enough
energy to leave the metal surface. Use: - This method is used in vacuum tubes.

ii. Field emission (cold cathode emission)

In this method, a strong electric field, of the order of 108 V/m, is applied at the metal surface which
pulls the electrons from the metal surface.

iii. Photo electric emission

In this method, When light of suitable frequency illuminates a metal surface,

electrons are emitted from the metal surface.

WORK FUNCTION

The minimum energy required by an electron to escape from the metal surface is called the work
function of the metal. It is generally denoted by φ0 and measured in eV (electron volt).

1 eV = 1.602 ×10 –19 J.

The work function (φ 0 ) depends on

• the properties of the metal and


• the nature of its surface.

The work function of platinum is the highest ---φ0 = 5.65 eV


The work function of caesium is the lowest ---φ 0 = 2.14 ev

NOTE

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Free electrons cannot normally escape out of the metal surface without supplying minimum energy.
Why?

If an electron attempts to come out of the metal, metal surface acquires a positive charge and pull
the electron back to the metal.

Photons : According to quantum theory, an electromagnetic radiation travels in the form of

discrete packets of energy called quanta.

One quantum of light radiation is called a photon.

Properties of Photons :

1. They travel in straight line with speed of light in vacuum.


2. Photon is said to be chargeless and massless particle..
3. Photons has zero rest mass.
4. Frequency of photon does not change when photon travels through different media.
5. The energy of a photon is given by

𝐸 = ℎ𝜗
𝑐
Where 𝜗 =
𝛌

ℎ𝑐
𝐸=
𝛌

Where h – Plank’s constant (6.62x 10 -34Js)

𝜗 – frequency of the photon

λ −wavelength of the photon

c – velocity of light

ℎ𝜗 ℎ
4. Momentum of photon 𝑝 = 𝑐
= 𝛌

5.Photons are not deflected by electric & magnetic fields.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ( by Heinrich Hertz in 1887)

The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metallic surface when metals are exposed to
electromagnetic radiations such as X-rays , 𝛾 rays etc, they absorb the radiations and attains the
sufficient energy required by the free electrons to escape from the surface of the metal is known as
photoelectric effect. ( OR . When electromagnetic radiations of suitable frequency such as X-rays ,
𝜸 rays etc fall on surfaces of certain metals, electrons are emitted from them. This phenomenon is
called photoelectric effect)

The electrons emitted in this process are called photoelectron &

The current produced in the circuit is called as photoelectric current

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a)Hertz’s observations : During the electromagnetic Wave experiment, Hertz found that high
voltage sparks were enhanced when the emitter plate was illuminated by UV light from an arc lamp.

This observation led him to conclude that when lights falls on a metal surface, some electrons near
the surface absorbs enough energy and can escape from the surface of the metal into the
surrounding space.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=92-SI5Uf0rs

Hallwach's & Lenard's observation :

Lenard (1862-1947) observed that when ultraviolet radiations were allowed to fall on the emitter
plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the circuit
.As soon as the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current flow also stopped. These
observations indicate that when ultraviolet radiations fall on the emitter plate C, electrons are
ejected from it which are attracted towards the positive, collector plate A by the electric field. The
electrons flow through the evacuated glass tube, resulting in the current flow. This demonstrates
photoelectric effect

Hallwachs and Lenard studied how this photo current varied with collector plate potential, and with
frequency and intensity of incident light.

Hallwachs, in 1888, undertook the study further and connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an
electroscope. He observed that the zinc plate lost its charge when it was illuminated by ultraviolet
light. Further, the uncharged zinc plate became positively charged when it was irradiated by
ultraviolet light. Positive charge on a positively charged zinc plate was found to be further enhanced
when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light. From these observations he concluded that negatively
charged particles were emitted from the zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light. Thus, the
electric current began to flow in the circuit. However, no electron is emitted when the electrode C
was not exposed to ultra-violet light.

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Experimental study of photoelectric effect :

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=maFUYiQgwUU

The apparatus consists of an evacuated glass of quartz tube which encloses a photosensitive plate C
(called emitter) & another metal plate A (called collector). A transparent window is sealed on to the
glass tube which permits monochromatic radiations to pass through it and all on plate C. The
polarities of the plate C and A can be reversed by a commutator. Thus, the plate A can be
maintained at a desired positive or negative potential with respect to emitter C. When the collector
plate A is positive with respect to the emitter plate C, the electrons are attracted to it. The emission
of electrons causes flow of electric current in the circuit resulting the photoelectric current which is
measured by the micro-ammeter.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ckfMZSpy2-Q

Threshold frequency: For a given material ,there is a minimum frequency of light below which no
photo electric emission will take place, this frequency is called threshold frequency

EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:

(1) Variation of photoelectric current with intensity of radiation absorbed:( At constant


frequency)

Q. Plot a graph showing the Variation of photoelectric current with intensity of light.

o When the values of photoelectric current were plotted against the different values for
intensity of light, it was observed to be a straight line passing through the origin.

o It proved that Photoelectric current, which is number of photoelectrons flowing per unit
time, is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.

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current with intensity of light (𝑣 > 𝑣0) .

Reason: When we increase the intensity of incident light, the number of photons also increases.
Therefore, the no. of photoelectrons emitted increases. Hence the photoelectric current increases

(2)Variation of photoelectric current with frequency at constant intensity

3. Kinetic energy with frequency ( at constant intensity)

4 .Kinetic energy with intensity of light at constant frequency

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(5) Variation of photoelectric current with the potential applied:

Q: Plot a graph showing variation of photoelectric current with collector plate potential at a given
frequency and intensity of radiation . What does the intercept of the graph with potential axis
signify?

Intercept of the graph with potential axis gives the stopping potential.

Photoelectric current increases with increase in accelerating potential of the collector plate and
reaches a maximum value called the saturation current. If the collector plate is negative with respect
to the emitter plate (retarding potential) then the photoelectric current decreases. If we increase
the retarding potential, at a particular retarding potential photoelectric current becomes zero. This
retarding potential is called stopping potential.

Cut –off voltage or stopping potential : The value of the retarding potential at which the photo
electric current becomes zero is called cut-off or stopping potential for the given frequency of the
incident radiation.

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(6) Current with voltage for different intensities but with the same frequency.

Q: Define the term ‘intensity of radiation’ in photon picture. Plot a graph showing the variation of
photo current vs collector potential for three different intensities but with same frequency.

Or

Draw the effect of intensity of incident radiation on stopping potential

o It was observed that stopping potential was constant for all the values of intensity. Thus,
stopping potential is independent on the intensity of incident light. On the other hand,
saturation current got higher for higher values of intensity of absorbed light.

o Intensity of radiation : The amount of light energy or photon energy incident per meter
square per second is called Intensity of radiation.

(7) Current with voltage for different frequencies but with the same intensity

Q. Show the variation of photocurrent with collector plate potential for different frequencies but
same intensity of incident radiation.

o The variation of photoelectric current was plotted against the potential for 3 different values
of frequency of incident light (keeping the intensity constant)

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o It was observed that saturation current was constant for all the values of frequency. Thus,
saturation current is independent on the frequency of incident light.

o The stopping potential increases (negative direction )with increase in frequency of incident
light.

Explanation: - The K.E. of the photoelectrons increases with increase in frequency of incident
radiation. As the K.E. of the photoelectrons increases, the stopping potential increases. ( 1/2mv2 =
eV0). But the saturation current does not change with frequency.

Q. Draw the variation of stopping potential with frequency of incident light.


Or

(iii) Kinetic energy will not change. On reducing the distance only intensity of light changes, frequency
remains same. K.E. of emitted photoelectrons depends on frequency.

The value of threshold frequency is fixed for a specific material, and it


changes from one material to another

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The stopping potential increases with frequency of incident radiation.

The graph shows that

(i) the stopping potential V0 varies linearly with the frequency of incident radiation for a
given photosensitive material.
(ii) there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency ν 0 for which the stopping potential is
zero.

These observations have two implications:

(i) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies linearly with the frequency of
incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
(ii) For a frequency ν of incident radiation, lower than the cut-off frequency ν0 , no
photoelectric emission is possible even if the intensity is large.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=24iEQXWIr68

1. According to wave theory ,when light is incident on a metal surface ,it spreads evenly all
over the metal surface ie energy is shared by all the electrons .As a result an electron
receives less energy which makes the ejection out of the metal very slow.
But photoelectric effect is instantaneous
2. According to wave model ,no matter what the frequency of light is, even less energetic light
can cause emission in any metal . ie no threshold frequency.
But in photoelectric effect threshold frequency exist.
3. According to wave theory , greater the intensity of radiation greater should be energy
absorbed by each electron ,ie maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons should increase
with increase in intensity.
But in photoelectric effect kinetic energy is independent of intensity.
Thus wave theory of light fails to explain basic features of photoelectric emission.

EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION: ENERGY QUANTUM OF RADIATION

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Photon theory of radiations

Wave theory of light fails to explain photoelectric effect. So Albert Einstein extended Planck’s
quantum idea for light to explain photoelectric effect.

According to Max Planck’s quantum theory ,, radiations are emitted as packets of energy called
photons. The energy of each photon is directly proportional to the frequency of radiations.

ie. 𝐸 ∝ 𝜗 𝑜𝑟 𝐸 = ℎ𝜗

Where h – Plank’s constant (6.62x 10 -34Js)

𝜗 – frequency .Each packet is called photon or quantum and has same speed as that of light.

• The energy of photon is directly proportional to its frequency and inversely


proportional to its wavelength.

Q. Explain the experimental setup of photoelectric effect

Each packet is called photon or quantum and has same speed as that of light.

Q. Give Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric effect.

ASSUMPTIONS OF EINSTEIN’S THEORY

1. Photoelectric effect is the result of collision of two particles,


(a) Photon of incident light and Electron of photo metal
2. Electron of photo metal is bound with the nucleus by coulomb’s attractive force .The
minimum energy required to free an electron from its surface is work function.
3. Incident photon interacts with single electron and loses its energy in two ways
a) By releasing electron from its bondage
b) By imparting energy to emitted electron
4. A part of the photon energy is used as the work function and the remaining part of the
photon energy appears as the kinetic energy of photoelectrons.

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Let ℎ𝜗= energy of incident photon on a metal surface of work function ∅ . Then the energy of the
radiation is used to overcome the work function and to provide kinetic energy to the
photoelectrons.

ℎ𝜗 = ∅0 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
1 2
ℎ𝜗 = ∅0 + 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
5. The minimum frequency of radiations required for the emission of electrons from a metal is
called threshold frequency (𝜗0 )
𝟏
Q: Derive Einstein’s photoelectric equation 𝟐
𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝒉𝝑 − 𝒉𝝑𝟎
According to Einstein, when a photon of incident light strikes a bound electron of metal, its
energy is used in two ways:
(i) In overcoming the work function of the metal to free metallic electrons
(ii) In imparting kinetic energy to this freed electron,
ℎ𝜗 = ∅0 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

1 2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

𝑲. 𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉𝝑 − ∅𝟎

If ℎ𝜗 < ∅0 , then 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 becomes –ve . This is not possible.

If ℎ𝜗0 = ∅0

𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜗 − ℎ𝜗0
1
Or 𝑚𝑣 2 = ℎ𝜗 − ℎ𝜗0
2

is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation

6. Stopping potential is independent of intensity of radiation .

𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉0

7. Stopping potential and 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 of photoelectrons increases linearly with frequency.

𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ𝜗 − ℎ𝜗0

ℎ𝜗 ℎ𝜗0
𝑉0 = −
𝑒 𝑒

Note

Efficiency 1% -- only 1% of incident photons are capable of ejecting photoelectrons

Q. Give the relation between work function and threshold frequency

If a photon of threshold frequency (0) is incident on the metal surface, the K.E. of the emitted
electrons will be zero.

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0 = h0 - 

  = h0

Q. State the laws of photoelectric emission?

1. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process

2. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation (above the threshold
frequency),the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light, but
does not change with frequency.

3. Photoelectric effect does not occur if the frequency of the incident radiation is below a certain
minimum value. “The minimum frequency of incident radiation required to produce photoelectric
effect is called threshold frequency”.

4.Above the threshold frequency , The kinetic energy of photoelectrons is directly proportional to
the frequency of incident radiation but it is independent of the intensity of the radiation.

Q.Who explained photoelectric effect?

Ans: Albert Einstein explained photoelectric effect based on quantum theory of radiations.

VERIFICATION OF EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION( BY MILIKAN )

Q: Define the terms (i) cut –off voltage and (ii) threshold frequency in relation to the phenomenon
of photoelectric effect. Using Einstein’s photoelectric equation show the cut off voltage and
threshold frequency for a given photosensitive material can be determined with the help of suitable
graph. Or( Draw the variation of stopping potential with frequency of incident light. How can you
find Planck’s constant and work function from this graph?)

Cut –off voltage or stopping potential : The value of the retarding potential at which the photo
electric current becomes zero is called cut-off or stopping potential for the given frequency of the
incident radiation.

Threshold frequency: For a given material ,there is a minimum frequency of light below which no
photo electric emission will take place, this frequency is called threshold frequency

According to EINSTEIN , 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜗 − ℎ𝜗0

𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉0

𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ𝜗 − ℎ𝜗0

ℎ𝜗 ℎ𝜗0
𝑉0 = −
𝑒 𝑒
This equation is in the form of y= mx + c, equation for a straight line with +y intercept.
Millikan’s graph

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y intercept c = - /e

−ℎ𝜗0
Intercepting point c = 𝑒
on Y axis

Slope, m = h/e , so h = e × slope -----(1)

By measuring the slope and using the known value of e ,

Planck’s constant, h= m × e

That is, Planck’s constant = slope of the graph × charge of electron.

Work function of the metal, ɸ= -(c × e) That is work function of the metal, ɸ= - (y-intercept of the
graph × charge of electron)

At 𝜗 = 𝜗0 , 𝑉0 = 0 that means at 𝜗0 photoelectrons just come out and no stopping potential is


needed.

Millikan performed experiment on photoelectric effect and plotted a graph between different
stopping potentials and the corresponding frequencies. The value of ‘h’ is determined from the
graph using the eq(1) is found to be the same as its theoretical value.

This verifies Einstein’s photoelectric equation

Q.Photoelectric effect cannot be explained using wave theory. Justify the statement.

According to wave theory of light, light is an electro-magnetic wave consisting of electric and
magnetic fields. A wave is a continuous distribution of energy. The changes that will occur in the
photoelectric effect if light is considered as a wave are.

1. Greater the intensity of incident radiation, greater will be the amplitude of the wave. When
amplitude of wave increases the energy density of the wave increases. Thus a high intensity light
contains high energy waves and can emit photoelectrons of greater kinetic energy. Therefore, by the
wave concept the K.E. of the photoelectrons should depend on the intensity of incident radiation.
But experiments show that KE of photoelectron does not depend on the intensity of incident
radiation but depends on the frequency.

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2. When we consider the wave concept, even low frequency wave can produce photoelectric effect
if the intensity is greater. Thus threshold frequency should not exist. But experiments show that
there is a threshold frequency.

3. If light is a wave, the electron in the metal surface can absorb energy continuously from the wave
front. But the energy absorbed per unit time is very small. Therefore, it takes a long time (hours) for
a single electron to absorb sufficient energy to escape from the metal surface. But experimental
observations show that photoelectric effect is instantaneous. Thus the wave picture of light is unable
to explain photoelectric effect.

PHOTOCELL

Photoelectric cell is a device used to convert light energy into electric energy using the principle of
photoelectric effect.

. It consists of a semi cylindrical photosensitive plate (emitter) on which the light radiations of
suitable frequency fall. The emitted electrons are attracted by the anode (collector). This produces a
current in the circuit ,giving an output.

USES: In automatic controlling of street light ,reproduction of audio in motion pictures , burglar
alarms ,for detecting minor flaws or holes in metal sheets etc.

PHOTON PICTURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS

Photons : According to quantum theory, an electromagnetic radiation travels in the form of

discrete packets of energy called quanta.

One quantum of light radiation is called a photon.

Properties of Photons :

1. They travel in straight line with speed of light in vacuum.

2. Frequency of photon does not change when photon travels through different media.

3. The energy of a photon is given by

𝐸 = ℎ𝜗
𝑐
Where 𝜗 =
𝛌

ℎ𝑐
𝐸=
𝛌

Where h – Plank’s constant (6.62x 10 -34Js)

𝜗 – frequency of the photon

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λ −wavelength of the photon

c – velocity of light

ℎ𝜗 ℎ
4. Momentum of photon 𝑝 = =
𝑐 𝛌

5. Photons are electrically neutral .Photons are not deflected by electric & magnetic fields.

6.In a photon-particle collision (such as photon-electron collision), the total energy and total
momentum are conserved. However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a collision.
The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.

7.Light having greater intensity contains more no. of photons. But the energy of photons is
independent of intensity.

Q. What is meant by dual nature of radiation?

Ans: Radiation has wave nature as well as particle nature. This is called the dual nature of radiation.

Dual Nature of Matter

Q.What is meant by dual nature of matter?

Ans: De Broglie found that particles of matter have wave nature. Thus material particles have dual
nature.

WAVE NATURE OF MATTER: DE BROGLIE’S HYPOTHESIS:


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RUpyxNzBzbI

o De Broglie proposed that if the radiations could possess dual nature, matters could also
possess dual nature ie . particle and wave.

ASSUMPTIONS

o A particle of mass (m), moving with velocity (v) could behave like a wave under suitable
conditions. And the corresponding wave related to that matter is called matter wave

o The whole energy in this universe is in the form of matter and electromagnetic radiation.

o The nature loves symmetry. So as radiation got dual nature, matter should also possess dual
nature

o De Broglie’s wavelength for matter wave is given by: λ = h/p

de – Broglie relation

Q: Show that the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is equal to the de – Broglie wavelength
of its quantum (photon). OR Give expression for the De Broglie wave length of a particle.

According to de – Broglie, a wave is associated with every moving particle .Hence these waves are
called de – Broglie waves or matter waves

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According to quantum theory ,

𝐸 = ℎ 𝜗 ---(1)(Planck’s relation )

𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐 -----(2)

Equate (1) & (2)

ℎ 𝜗 = 𝑝𝑐

ℎ𝜗
𝑝=
𝑐
𝜗 1
Where 𝑐
= 𝛌


𝑝=
𝛌

𝒉
de – Broglie wavelength 𝛌 = 𝒑

Where p = mv

𝒉
𝛌= De – Broglie relation
𝒎𝒗

HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:

According to the principle, it is not possible to measure both the position and momentum of an
electron (or any other particle) at the same time exactly. There is always some uncertainty (∆ x)
in the specification of position and some uncertainty (∆p ) in the specification of momentum.

o This principle was in favour of the wave nature of matter

o According to this principle , it is impossible to simultaneously evaluate the position and


momentum of an electron .

Let Δx is the uncertainity in position and Δp is the uncertainity in momentum

(Δx)(Δp) ≥ h/(2π)

Where h – Plank’s constant (6.62x 10 -34Js)

Considering the above equation, 2 cases are possible:

If Δx = 0 , then Δp must be infinite and if Δp is zero then Δx must be infinite so that their

product is non zero value of the order of 2𝜋

If an electron has a definite momentum p, ie Δp = 0 , by de Broglie relation it has a definite


wavelength . A wave of definite wavelength extends all over space. By Born’s probability
interpretation this means that electron is not localised in any finite region of space . ie. Δx is ∞

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In general , the matter wave associated in the electron is not extended all over the space . Δx is
finite. And a wave packet of finite Δx does not have a single wavelength. Hence Δp is infinite by
de- Broglie’s relation.

Thus it can be shown that the wave packet description together with de- Broglie relation and
Bohr’s probability interpretation reproduce Heisenberg’s uncertainity principle.

Study fig: 11.6 NCERT

Expression for de- Broglie wavelength associated with accelerated electrons:

Q: Deduce de- Broglie wavelength of electron accelerated by a potential V volt . Draw a


schematic diagram of localized wave describing the wave nature of moving electron.

Consider that an electron of mass m and charge e is accelerated through a potential difference of
V volt

Let E be the energy acquired by the particle

E=eV
1
E = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

2𝐸
𝑣 = √ 𝑚 where E is the K.E of the particle

𝐡
de-Broglie wavelength 𝛌 =
𝐦𝐯

𝐡 2𝐸
𝛌= 2𝐸
multiply and divide √ 𝑚 𝑏𝑦 𝑚
𝐦√
𝑚

𝐡
𝛌=
2𝑚𝐸
𝐦√
𝑚2
𝐡
𝛌=
√𝟐𝐦𝐄

By using E = e V
𝐡
𝛌=
√𝟐𝐦𝐞𝐕

m= 9.1 x 10 – 31 Kg

e= 1.6 x 10 -19 C

h= 6.62 x 10 -34 J s

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𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟕 𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟕
𝛌= × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝒎 , 𝛌= 𝐀° (Angstrom (Å), unit of length, equal
√𝐕 √𝐕
to 10−10 metre)

If V = 100V 𝛌 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟕 𝐀° 𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐗 𝐫𝐚𝐲𝐬

Draw a plot showing the variation of de Broglie wavelength of electron as a function of its
K.E.
(Comptt. Delhi 2014)
Answer:

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