SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS Building Construction Theory

Faculty: Prof. Priyanka Dey

FOUNDATION
➢ Every building consists of two basic components: the super-structure and the
substructure or foundations.
➢ The substructure or foundations is the lower portion of the building, usually located
below ground level, which transmits the load of the super-structure to the sub-soil.
➢ A foundation is therefore, that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the
ground to which the loads are transmitted.
➢ The soil which is located immediately below the base of the foundation is called the
sub-soil or foundation soil, while the lowermost portion of the foundation which is
in direct contact with the sub-soil is called the footing.
The basic function of a foundation is to transmit the dead loads, super-imposed loads (or live
loads) and wind loads from a building to the soil on which the building rests, in such a way that
a) Settlements are within permissible limits, without causing cracks in the super-structure, and
b) The soil does not fail.
c) A foundation should be sufficiently strong to prevent excessive settlement as well as unequal
settlement.
a) Unequal settlement or differential settlement may be caused by: -
i. Weak sub-soils, such as made up ground
ii. Shrinkable and expansive soils (such as clay)
iii. Frost action
iv. Movement of ground water, and uplift pressure
v. Excessive vibrations, due to traffic, machinery etc.,
vi. Slow consolidation of saturated clays, and
vii. Slipping of strata on sloping sites.
 FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATION
➢Reduction of load intensity – distribute the loads of the super – structure over a
larger area.
➢Even distribution of load – distribute non-uniform load of super structure evenly to
avoid differential/unequal settlement
➢Provision of level surface
➢Lateral stability – to prevent sliding or overturning
➢Safety against undermining – scouring/undermining by animals and flood water
➢Protection against soil movements – minimizes cracks in super - structure
ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FOUNDATION

➢ The foundations should be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and
transmit these to the sub-soil in such a way that pressure on it will not cause settlement
which would impair the stability of the building or adjoining structures.
➢ Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements are minimised, specially
for the case when super-imposed loads are not evenly distributed.
➢ Foundations should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage or
distress caused by swelling or shrinkage of the sub-soil.
➢ Foundations should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to any
unexpected future influence.
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Foundations may be broadly classified under two heads:

1. Shallow foundations
2. Deep foundations
A foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width. In case of deep
foundations, the depth is equal to or greater than its width.

The shallow foundation and its various types have been discussed in detail in the following
slides.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Foundation is shallow, if its depth is equal to or less than its width.
Also called open foundation, because it involves open excavation.
Footing means – a foundation unit constructed of masonry or concrete under the base
of the wall or column for the purpose of distributing the load over a large area.
Footings can be of 4 types:
1. Spread footing
2. Combine footing
3. Strap footing
4. Mat or raft foundation
The various types of shallow foundations and their sub-types have been illustrated
below: Shallow foundations

Spread footing Combined footing strap footing Mat/raft foundation

Combined rectangular

Combined trapezoidal
Strip footing Pad footing
Continuous footing

Simple pad
footing
Without masonry With masonry
Stepped pad
offsets offsets
footing

For RCC column

Steel Grillage
Grillage
foundation Timber Grillage
SPREAD FOOTING
Supports 1 wall or 1 column
Two types:
1. Strip footing : it is the spread footing of a wall
2. Pad footing: isolated footing for a column
When spread footing takes the load of more that one wall or column, it is called
combined footing or strap footing
Mat foundation is continuous in 2 directions covering an area equal to or greater
than the base area of the building.
STRIP FOOTING
It provides continuous longitudinal bearing.
So, spread footing for a continuous wall is strip footing.
Two types:
1. Strip footing without masonry offset
2. Strip footing with masonry offsets
An offset is the projection of the lower step from the vertical face of the upper strip.
SIMPLE STRIP FOOTING AND STEPPED FOOTING
SIMPLE STRIP FOOTING:
➢For walls that carry light load or when the safe
bearing pressure of the soil is very high.
➢The wall directly rests on the concrete base
➢The value of the offset a should be 10-20 cm
➢The width of the concrete base should not be
less than twice the width of the wall.
➢The thickness of the concrete base should be a
for cement concrete and 1.5 a for lime concrete.
National Building Code of India recommends
that the angle of spread of the load from the
wall base to the outer edge of the ground
bearing shall not exceed n1:1 (n1 horizontal and
1 vertical), where n1 = 2/3 for lime concrete
and n1 =1 for cement concrete.
STEPPED FOOTING:
➢ Masonry offsets help spread the load
➢ When the wall carries heavy loads, or when the safe
bearing pressure of the soil is not very high, the base
width required will be much greater than (T + 2a).
➢ The height and width of each offset should be so
proportioned that rate of spread does not exceed the
permissible value for the masonry.
➢ The figure shows such a stepped footing in which the rate
of spread through masonry is n:1 and that through
concrete base is n1:1.
 ISOLATED FOOTING OR PAD FOOTING
➢A spread footing for a single column
The base area A of isolated footing is
given by
A = P/qs
where P is the total load transmitted by the
column, including that of the footing and qs
is the safe bearing pressure for the soil.

Simple pad footing:

➢Column rests on single concrete base.
➢The shape of the footing is the shape of
the column.
➢Offset – a can be 10-20 cm.
ISOLATED FOOTING OR PAD FOOTING
Stepped pad footing – has masonry offsets
If the column load is more, or if the safe bearing pressure
of the soil is less, the base area found will be large (much
greater than b+2a).
In that case, it is necessary to provide masonry offsets, to
achieve larger spread, before the load is transferred to the
concrete base.
In the case of brick pillar, the offsets should not exceed 5
cm. In the case of masonry pillar, the offset may vary
between 10 to 15 cm corresponding to the step height of
15 to 22.5 cm respectively.
The depth of concrete block is given by
ISOLATED FOOTING OR PAD FOOTING
Footing for reinforced concrete columns: Reinforced concrete columns are supported
on reinforced concrete footing only.
ISOLATED FOOTING OR PAD FOOTING
GRILLAGE FOUNDATION:
➢Special type of isolated footing for heavily loaded steel stanchions
➢Depth of foundation – 1m-1.5 m
➢Layers or tiers of joists, each layer at right angles.
2 types:
1. Steel grillage foundation –
➢ Constructed of steel beams structurally called rolled steel joists. Provided in 2 or more layers/tiers.
➢ The joists are held in position by 20 cm spacers with 25 mm pipe separators.
➢ Grillage beams are embedded in concrete.
➢ Distance between flanges should not exceed 30 cm or 1.5 times the flange width.
➢ Concrete is to prevent corrosion not to carry load. Min. concrete cover – 10 cm. depth of concrete
below lower tier – 15 cm.
➢ May also be provided for a masonry wall on soils of low bearing capacity. The grillage foundation
for such a case consists of only one tier, though in some circumstances when the wall is wider and it
carries heavy loads, two tiers may also be provided.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
2nd tier of beams is
Foundation is Cement concrete is placed at 90⁰ to the
excavated (depth ≥ poured between and
around the beams of 1st tier and over top
90 cm) the 1st tier flanges of beams of
1st tier

Rich cement grout is Concrete is poured

Levelling the poured all around between and around
foundation base lower flanges of the steel beams
beams

Steel stanchion is
Rich concrete poured 1st layer of grillage connected to upper
& compacted (thickness beams are laid over tier with base plate,
≥ 15 cm) with separaters side angles & gusset
plate
2. Timber grillage foundation-
➢ For heavily loaded columns or walls. Uses timber
planks and beams.
➢ Bottom concrete is replaced with timber platform
constructed of planks (5-7.5 cm thick, 30-50cm wide,
laid without gap).
➢ Timber beam, size 15-10 cm spaced 30-50 cm laid
at right angles to planks.
➢ On this top layer timber beam of same section as
post/column is laid.
2. Timber grillage foundation-
➢ Useful in water logged areas where the bearing power of the soil is very low, and where
the steel beams may get corroded due to subsoil water.

➢ The loading on the soil is limited to 50 to

60 kN/m2.
➢ No concrete is embedded between the
timber joists.
➢ Lower layer of timber planks, and also
the middle tier of timber beams, should
extend to at least 45 to 60 cm on either
side of the wall footing base.
COMBINED FOOTING
➢Supports 2 columns.
➢If it supports more than 2 columns – it is continuous footing.
It is made when :
 Columns are very near to each other.
 Bearing capacity of soil is very low.
 When the end column is near plot boundary and footing cannot be spread in that direction.

➢It may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan

➢The centre of gravity of the footing area should coincide with the C.G. of the
combined loads of the columns.
1. Combined rectangular footing – made of RCC, can take longitudinal and
transverse bending
2. Combined trapezoidal footing – 2 column loads are unequal, outer column
carries heavier load.
 Combined steel grillage rectangular footing

Combined rectangular footing

Combined RCC rectangular footing

With longitudinal Beam
Combined trapezoidal grillage
footing: the top tier joists remain
uniform, lower tier joists increase
in length and breadth

Combined trapezoidal RCC footing:

can be with longitudinal beams and
without
3. CONTINUOUS FOOTING

➢A continuous footing is the one which supports

more than two columns.
➢The footing is analogous to the strip footing for
wall.
➢The loads from the individual columns are
transferred either directly to the footing slab, or
through a longitudinal beam running
longitudinally when the loads are heavy.
STRAP FOOTING OR CANTILEVER FOOTING
➢Comprises of 2 or more footings of individual
columns connected by beam called a strap.
➢If outer column is near property boundary and
distance between this column and adjoining
column is too large a strap beam is used to
connect the 2 footings.
➢The strap beam does not transfer any pressure
to the soil, it just transfers the load of the outer
column on to the inner one.
➢If the depth of the strap foundations has to be
kept low and the soil has low bearing capacity,
Grillage Strap Foundation can be used.
Various ways in which straps may be
arranged, and their choice depends upon
the physical conditions of each specific
case.
RAFT FOUNDATION
➢ A raft or mat foundation covers the entire area under a structure,
supports all columns and walls.
➢ If allowable soil pressure is too low, spread footings would cover more
than half of the area, it is more economical to go for raft
➢ Eliminates differential settlements.
➢ A flat raft /mat foundation is used only if column spacing and loads is
small.
➢ Mostly, the slab is thickened under the column lines. These bands are
called main and secondary beams.
➢ 2-way grid structure can also be used for heavy loads
➢ Where basements are to be provided – basement walls may be used
as ribs or deep beams.
RAFT FOUNDATION
➢ A raft may undergo large settlements without causing harmful differential settlement. For
this reason, almost double the settlement of that permitted for footings is acceptable for
raft. If a maximum settlement of 5cm is permitted for a raft, the differential settlement is
not likely to exceed 2cm.
➢ Raft foundation is also needed to reduce settlement on highly compressible soils, by making
the weight of structure and raft approximately equal to the weight of the soil excavated.
➢ A raft often rests directly on soil or rock. However, it may also rest on piles.
➢ The weight of the raft is not considered in the structural design because it is assumed to be
carried directly by the subsoil.
➢ Since this method does not take into account moments and shears caused by differential
settlements, it is customary to reinforce the raft more heavily than required according to the
analysis.
DESIGNING FOOTINGS
➢Identify unknowns
➢Formula
➢Values and units
➢Numerical
 WHAT ARE THE UNKNOWNS? Width of footing:
Based on safe bearing pressure :
B = W/qs
Min. Depth of foundation : W = super imposed loads
Q s = safe bearing pressure
Use Rankin’s Formula

φ = angle of repose,
q = load imposed (t/m2 or kN/m2)
y = unit weight of soil (t/m3 or kN/m3) Depth of concrete block:

Depth cross –check:

a = projection beyond the masonry face
m = safe modulus of rupture of concrete mix,
q = net soil bearing pressure,

When n1 = n
T = width of wall
B= width of foundation
DEPTH OF FOUNDATIONS
➢The footings should be carried below the top
(organic) soil, miscellaneous fill, abandoned
foundation, debris or muck.
➢If the top loose soil or fill is too deep, two
alternatives may be used depending upon the
relative economy and the time available:
➢ Removing the top soil directly below the footing and
replacing it with lean concrete [Fig. (a)].
➢ Removing the top soil in an area larger than the footing
and replacing it with compacted sand and gravel fill.
The area of the compacted sand and gravel fill should
be sufficiently large to distribute the footing load, as
shown in Fig. (b).
DEPTH OF FOUNDATIONS
➢ All the foundations shall extend to a depth of at least 50 cm below natural ground
level.
➢ On rock or such other weather-resisting natural ground, removal of top soil may be all
that is required.
➢ Where there are conditions adjoining to the subsoil on which the building is to be
erected, which are likely to be impair the stability of the building, the foundations of
the same shall be taken beyond the detrimental influence of such conditions or suitable
works shall be constructed for the purpose of shielding from their effects.
➢ In either case, it is essential to reach the level of the strata which has the required
bearing capacity adopted for the design of footing.
DEPTH OF FOUNDATIONS
➢ The National Building Code of India (SP: 7-1970) lays the following
recommendations regarding the depth of foundations:

➢ The depth to which foundation shall be carried depends upon: -

➢ The securing of adequate bearing capacity,
➢ The depth of shrinkage and swelling in case of clayey soils, due to seasonal weather changes
which are likely to cause appreciable movements, and
➢ The depth of froast penetration in the case of the fine sand and silts.
 DEPTH OF FOUNDATIONS
Sometimes, the top soil may be good and compact, and may have adequate bearing
capacity. In that case, it is desirable to keep the minimum depth of foundation given by
Rankines formula:

Where φ is the angle of repose, the values of which may be taken from the
following table.
q = intensity of load at the base of footing (t/m2 or kN/m2)
y = unit weight of soil (t/m3 or kN/m3)
VALUES OF UNIT WEIGHT AND ANGLE OF REPOSE
 DEPTH OF FOUNDATIONS
➢ It is to be noted that q is the actual load intensity (self weight + live loads) and not the safe
bearing capacity of soil.
➢ Sometimes, the actual load intensity may be less than the safe bearing capacity of soil, requiring
lesser minimum depth.
➢ When footings are supported on very stiff soil, having very high safe bearing capacity, the
minimum depth of foundation computed on the basis of safe bearing capacity would come out to
be very large which is ridiculous.
➢ In such soils, the width of the footing (found from other considerations) would be larger than the one
required from the bearing capacity considerations, thus giving rise to actual soil pressure lesser than
the safe bearing capacity.
➢ The depth of footing should also be such that the rate of angle of spread of the load from the
wall base to the outer edge of the ground bearing does not exceed the permissible value.
 WIDTH OF THE FOOTING
The width of footing is found on the basis of safe bearing
pressure for the soil, by expression: -
B = W/qs
Where,
W = total super-imposed load on the base of the footing
qs = safe bearing pressure
As per National Building Code, the angle of spread of the load from the wall base to the
outer edge of the ground bearing shall not exceed the following values:

In brick work and stone masonry ½ horizontal to 1 vertical

In lime concrete 2/3 horizontal to 1 vertical
In cement concrete 1 horizontal to 1 vertical
Thus, n = ½ and n1 = 2/3 (for lime concrete) and n1 = 1 (for cement concrete)
WIDTH OF FOOTING CAN ALSO DETERMINE MIN. DEPTH
In order to spread the bearing width from original T (width of wall) to B (footing width), the
minimum depth required would be as follows:
T

When n1 = n
B
➢ In the case of brick walls, the offset should not be greater than 5 cm; the corresponding height of
each step would work out to be 10 cm.
➢ As a thumb rule, the width B of the bottom brick course should not be less than twice the width
of the wall.
➢ In the case of stone masonry, the offsets may vary from 7.5 cm to 10 cm (max.) corresponding to a
min. height of masonry course equal to 15 cm and 20 cm respectively.
DEPTH OF CONCRETE BED BLOCK
➢ The depth of concrete bed block depends upon - the type of concrete, the projection of
the block and the soil bearing pressure.
➢ It is found on the basis of the bending moment imposed on it, and on the basis of safe
modulus of rupture.

For a footing shown in the figure, let

d = depth of concrete block in cm
a = projection beyond the masonry face in cm
m = safe modulus of rupture of concrete mix, in kg/cm2
q = net soil bearing pressure, in kg/m2
Then,
NUMERICAL
Design a strip footing for a brick wall 30 cm thick, and 3.5 m high above ground level. The
soil has unit weight of 1700 kg/m3 angle of repose of 30° and safe bearing capacity of 16
t/m2. The footing may have lime concrete base, which has unit weight of 2000 kg/m3 and
modulus of rupture equal to 16 t/m2. Take the unit weight of masonry as 1950 kg/m3.

P
Solution:
Loads on base of footing and footing
width
Super-imposed load = 12 t/m
Self weight of wall = (0.3 x 1 x 3.5) 1950 P
= 2050 kg/m
= 2.05 t/m
Assume the weight of foundation equal to
10% of total load = 0.1(12+2.05) ≈ 1.4 t/m
⸫ Total load transferred to soil = 12 + 2.05 + 1.4 = 15.45 t/m
15.45
⸫ Width of footing = = 0.965 m (here 16 t/m2 is the safe bearing capacity)
16
Provide B = 1 m

Depth of footing
The minimum depth of footing is given by Rankines formula.
𝑞 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 2
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = [ ]
𝑦 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
15.45
where q = soil pressure = = 15.45 t/m2
1
y = unit weight of soil = 1700 kg/m3 = 1.7 t/m3
φ = angle of repose = 30⁰
 15.45 1−sin 300 2
⸫ 𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = [ ] ≈1m
1.7 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛30⁰
However, the minimum depth is also governed by the following equation which is
based on the requirement that the angle of spread of load should not exceed the permissible
values.
1
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = [ 𝐵 − 𝑇 − 2𝑑 𝑛1 − 𝑛 ]
2𝑛
For computation of Dmin, either we have to assume some suitable value of d (i.e.,
thickness of concrete block), or n1 may be assumed to be equal to n. In the latter case, we
have
𝐵−𝑇
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
2𝑛
Where B = width of footing = 1 m
T = width of wall = 30 cm = 0.3 m
n = ½ for masonry
 (𝐵−𝑇) (1−0.3)
⸫ 𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1 = = 0.7 𝑚
2× 1
2

This is lesser than the value found earlier. Hence adopt D = 1 m.

Proportioning of foundation
➢The width is to be increased from 30 cm at ground level to 100
1
cm at base. Increase on one side of wall face = 100 − 30 =
2
35 𝑐𝑚
➢Let us fix the concrete projection as equal to 15 cm. Hence the
total width of offsets to one side of wall = 35-15 = 20 cm
➢Since the maximum offset in brick masonry is 5 cm, there will be
four offsets as shown in the figure. The minimum height of each
offset = 2 x 5 = 10 cm
 Thickness of concrete block
Offset a = 15 cm
Thickness of concrete block is given by
3𝑞
𝑑=𝑎
𝑚

where q = bearing pressure on soil = 15.45 t/m2

m = safe modulus of rupture for lime concrete = 16 t/m2
3×15.45
⸫ 𝑑 = 15 = 25.5 cm
16

Provide d = 30 cm
Note: If the concrete block is provided in 1:2:4 cement concrete, having m = 52 t/m2
(say),
3×15.44
𝑑 = 15 = 14.2 𝑐𝑚
52
However, a minimum depth d = 15 cm has to be provided since the spread of the load cannot
be steeper than 1:1 (i.e. n1 = 1 for cement concrete).
CHECK
Weight of foundation below ground level
= [(0.3 x 0.3) + (0.4 x 0.1) + (0.5 x 0.1) + (0.6 x
0.1) + (0.7 x 0.1)] 1950 + [0.3 x 1.0 x 2000]
= 1250 kg/m
= 1.205 t/m
Actual assumed = 1.4 t/m (10% of total load )
Hence safe.