BCE

MODULE 3
STONE MASONRY
The art of laying stones in mortar in a proper systematic manner gives homogeneous mass which
can withstand forces without disintegration, called stone masonry.
Stone masonry can be classified into;

 Rubble masonry
 Ashlar masonry

Rubble Masonry
The blocks of stones, which are undressed or roughly dressed are used in rubble masonry.

Ashlar Masonry
In ashlar masonry, regular and finely dressed stones are used.

Random Rubble Masonry

1. Random Rubble Masonry- Uncoursed
 It is the roughest and cheapest form of stone masonry.
 Stones of different shapes and sizes are used
 Better load distribution is achieved

2. Random Rubble Masonry-Built into courses

 Stonework is brought to courses of thickness varying from 30 to 45 cm.
 All these courses need not be of same height
Random Rubble Masonry- Uncoursed
BRICK MASONRY
The art of laying bricks in mortar in a proper systematic manner gives homogeneous mass which
can withstand forces without disintegration, called brick masonry.
Header: A brick laid with its length perpendicular to the direction of wall. The course of brick
work in which all the bricks are laid as headers is known as header course.
Stretcher: A brick laid with its length parallel to the direction of wall. The course of brick work
in which all the bricks are laid as stretchers is known as stretcher course.
Quoins: it is a corner angle on face side of a wall. These are stones used for corners of walls of a
structure.
Bat: it is the portion of brick cut across the width.
Closer: it is the portion of the brick cut length wise in such a manner that its one long face
remains uncut.
Queen closer: It is the portion of brick obtained by cutting a brick length wise into two portions.
King Closer: these are the portions of a brick obtained by cutting off the triangular piece
between the center of one end and the center of one side.
Bevelled Closer: it is that portion of a brick in which the whole length of the brick is beveled for
maintaining half width at one end and full width art the other.
Types of bond- Stretcher bond, header bond, English bond, Flemish bond,
Flemish bond-

 In this type of bond each course comprises of alternate header and stretcher
 Alternate courses start with stretcher and header.
 To break the vertical joints queen closers are required, if a course starts with header.
 Every header is centrally supported on the stretcher below it.

English bond

 In this, alternate courses consist of either headers or stretchers in elevation.

 This is considered to be the strongest bond. Hence it is commonly used bond for the walls
of all thicknesses
 To avoid continuity of the vertical joints, queen closers are provided
FOUNDATIONS

Importance of determining Bearing capacity of soil

The selection of a suitable foundation is an important task for any structure. The type, depth,
shape &size of foundation are to be determined so that it can safely transmit the load to the soil.
The loads from a structure are finally transmitted to the soil & hence, it is important to study
strength and behavior of the soil. The supporting power of soil without any failure is called
bearing capacity.

Types of foundation
Types of foundation of shallow foundation

Isolated or column footing

 Foundations provided for column to transfer the load safely to the soil beneath.
 When load on the column is less a spread is given under the column. This is
called isolated footing.
 A simple footing may be adopted for light load
 A stepped or sloped footing is adopted for medium and heavy column loads.
 In sloped footing, the total width of the footing is gradually attained.
 These footings are constructed in stone masonry, brick masonry or concrete or
in combination of these.

Strap Footing/ Cantilever Footing

 These are Isolated footings connected by a strap beam
 This type of foundation is provided when the distance between the columns is
large.
Combined Footing
 When a footing is constructed for two or more columns is known as combined
footing. The aim is to get uniform pressure distribution under the footing.
 Adopted when end column is near a property line so that its footing cannot
spread in that direction.
Continous footing
 A single continuous reinforced concrete slab is provided as foundation for three
or more columns in a row.
 Continuous footing is more suitable to prevent the differential settlement in the
structure and for the safety against earthquake.
Inverted arch footing
 These are constructed between two walls at the base. In this, end columns are to
be designed to resist outward pressure caused by arch action.
 It is commonly used for bridge piers, tanks& support for drainage works
Wall or strip footing
 The footing provided for throughout the length of a continuous structure is called
strip footing.
 Strip footings are normally adopted for load bearing walls.
Grillage foundation
 Grillage foundations are constructed by rolled steel joist (RSJ), which are placed
in single or double tier.
 In double tier grillage foundation, the top tier is placed at right right angles to the
bottom tier.
 The distance between the flanges of RSJ is kept equal to 1.5 to 2.0 times the
width of the flange or 30 cm whichever is less.
 The entire arrangement is embedded in concrete.
 A grillage foundation may be constructed for a single column or for more than
one column.

Raft or Mat Foundation

 Raft foundation is combined footing which covers entire area beneath the
structure.
 It may consists of a single continuous reinforced concrete slab or an inverted
beam and slab construction.
 The load is transmitted to soil by a continuous slab covering entire area.
Raft foundations are adopted when
 The load is heavy but bearing capacity is less
 When isolated footings of each column require large area
 In highly compressible area
 When differential settlement is suspected
 To counteract the effect of hydrostatic uplift


Deep Foundation

 Foundation having very large depth compared to width is called deep

foundations.
 Various types of deep foundation are :
 Pile foundations
 Well foundations

Pile Foundations

 When the load is to be transferred to underground strata of poor bearing

capacity, pile foundations are used.
 Pile foundations may be used under following circumstances
 Loose foundation soil
 Heavy dead load and liveloads
 Position of water table is likely to fluctuate.
 Near seashore or riverbed
 Adoption of other foundations like grillage or raft is not
economical
Classification of piles based on function and use

 End bearing Piles

 Friction piles
 Under reamed piles
 Sheet pile
 Fender pile
 Batter pile compaction pile
End bearing Piles

Friction Piles

 Friction piles generate sufficient load bearing capacity by friction.

 These piles are driven upto a depth where the total frictional resistance on the
sides is equal to the load coming on the pile.
 This frictional force is called skin friction.
Well Foundation
Well foundation is a box like structure mainly used for the bridge construction
They are hollow from inside which should be filled with sand and plugged at the
bottom with concrete.
 Well foundation

ROOFS

 It may be defined as the uppermost part of the building, provided as a structural covering,
to protect the building from weather.
 Structurally, a roof is constructed in the same way as an upper floor, though the shape of
its upper surface may be different.
 Roof consists of structural elements which support roof is roof covering.

REQUIREMENTS OF A ROOF
 It should be durable against the adverse effects of various agencies such as wind, rain,
sun etc. It should grant the desirable insulation against sound and heat.
 It should be structurally stable and sound, it should be capable of taking the loads likely
to come over it.
 It should be well-drained.
 It should have efficient water-proofing arrangement.

TYPES OF ROOF
 Pitched or Sloping Roofs
 Flat Roofs or terraced Roofs
 Curved Roof
PITCHED ROOF
 A sloping roof is known as pitched roof.
 These are suitable in those areas where rainfall/ snowfall is very heavy
PITCHED ROOF: BASIC ELEMENTS
 SPAN:- The horizontal distance between the internal faces of walls or supports is known
as span or clear span.
 RISE:- It is the vertical distance between the top of the ridge and wall plate.
 PITCH:- It is the inclination of the sides of a roof to the horizontal plane. It is expressed
in degrees or as a ratio of rise to span.
 RIDGE:-It is defined as the apex line of the sloping roof. EAVES:-The lower edge of a
roof which are resting upon or projecting beyond the supporting walls are known as eave.
 HIP:-The angle formed at the intersection of two roof slopes is known as hip.
 VALLEY:-When two roof surfaces meet together and form an internal angle, a valley is
formed. VERGE:- The edge of a gable, running between the eaves and ridge is known as
a verge.
 COMMON RAFTER:-These are the intermediate rafters, which give support to the roof
coverings.
 PRINCIPAL RAFTER:- These are the inclined members of a truss.
 HIP RAFTER:- Which provided at the junction of two roof slopes.
 PURLINS:- The wooden pieces which are placed horizontally on principal rafters to
carry the common rafters are known as purlins.
 BATTENS:- Thin strips of wood which are fixed on rafters or ceiling to support the roof
ceiling. 
 CLEATS:- Small blocks of wood which are fixed on truss to prevent the sliding of
purlins.
 GABLE:-The triangular upper part of a wall formed at the end of a pitched roof is known
as gable.
 TYPES OF PITCHED ROOF
 Single Roofs:-
o Lean-to-Roof
o Couple Roof
o Couple-close Roof
o Collar beam Roof or Collar tie Roof
 Double or Purlin Roof
 Framed or Trussed Roof
o King post truss
o Queen post truss
o North light
o Howe truss
o Pratt truss
LEAN-TO-ROOF
o It is the simplest form of a pitched roof and it is known as pent roof or Aisle roof.
o In this type of roof, one wall is carried up sufficiently higher than the other to give
necessary slope to the roof.
o A lean-to roof is generally used for sheds, outhouses attached to main buildings verandah
etc. This is suitable for a maximum span of 2.4m.

o
COUPLE ROOF
o This type of roof is formed by couple or pair of rafters which slope to both the sides of
the ridge of the roof.
o In this type of roof the common rafters slope upwards from the opposite walls and they
meet on a ridge piece in the middle.
o A couple roof is suitable for spans up to about 3.6m.

COUPLE CLOSE ROOF

o This roof is just similar to couple roof except that the ends of the couple of the common
rafters is connected by horizontal member, called tie beam.
o The tie beam prevents the tendency of rafters to spread out and thus danger of
overturning of the walls is avoided.
o The tie beam may be a wooden member or a steel rod.
o This roof can be adopted economically up to the span of 4.2m.
COLLAR BEAM ROOF
o When the span increases or when the load is more the rafters of the couple close roof
have the tendency to bend.
o This is avoided by raising the tie beam and fixing it at one-third to one-half of the vertical
height from the wall plate to the ridge. This raised beam is known as collar beam.
o This beam roof is adopted to economize the space and to increase the height of a room.
o This roof can be adopted up to a maximum span of 4.8m.

DOUBLE OR PURLIN ROOFS

o When the span exceeds 2.4m, the necessary size for the rafters becomes uneconomical.
o Hence in order to reduce the size of rafters, intermediate supports called purlins are
introduced under the rafters.
o This roof can be adopted economically up to 4.8m.
FRAMED OR TRUSSED ROOF
When the span exceeds 5 m and when there are no inside supporting walls or partitions for
purlins, framed structure known as trusses are used.

1.KING POST TRUSS

o In this type of truss, the central post known as king-post forms support for the tie beam.
o The inclined members, known as struts, prevents the principal rafters from bending in the
middle.
o A king-post truss suitable for roofs of span varying from 5 to 8 m is as shown.

2.QUEEN POST TRUSS

o This truss is differ from a king-post truss in having two vertical members known as queen
posts.
o The upper ends of the queen posts are kept in position by means of a horizontal member
known as straining beam.
o Additional purlins are supported on the queen posts.
o A queen post truss is suitable for roof spans varying 8 to 12 m as shown in the fig below
3. North Light truss

o North light trusses are traditionally used for short spans in industrial workshop-type
buildings.
o They allow maximum benefit to be gained from natural lighting by the use of glazing on
the steeper pitch which generally faces north or north-east to reduce solar gain.
4. Howe Truss
A Howe truss is a truss bridge consisting of chords, verticals, and diagonals whose
vertical members are in tension and whose diagonal members are in compression.

5. Pratt Truss
The basic form of Pratt truss includes triangular truss design whose diagonal members
slope toward the center of the bridge.