SITE CLEARANCE

1.Site Clearance is an important factor to be considered in the job layout plans, before
commencement of project work.
2.There should not be any obstruction like trees, plants, shrubs, bigger size stones, etc.
3. Approach road should be wide so as to allow the truck for loading and unloading the
constructional material.

4. If site ground is uneven, then it should be made plane, for this contouring is done in advance.

5. In short site should be cleared by all the way, otherwise no activity can be launched in
construction processes.

PREPARING JOB LAYOUT

1. A plan in which the arrangements for placing site office, store room, labour quarter,
medical aid center, godowns for keeping construction materials and other facilities are
properly prepared is called as Job layout or site layout .

2. The arrangements for processes should be such that the work is done smoothly and in
orderly manner.

3. Job layout depends upon three factors as follows:-

a) Location , area and topography of the site .

b) Method of construction.

c) Nature and type of work.

4. There should be proper co-relation and coordination among the different units.
Fig. :Layout for load bearing and framed structure by center line and face line method

Precautions while Marking Layout on Ground

a) Correct measurement of distances, preferably by steel tape.

b) Use of level, either dumpy level or mason’s level.

c) Correct marking of face -line or center – line.

d) Use of correct plumb –bob for transferring points on ground

e) Checking of distances from at least two independent measurements . Earthwork

EXCAVATION FOR FOUNDATION

 Excavation of foundation ,trenches can be done either manually with the help of
conventional implements or with the help of special mechanical equipment.

 Excavate foundation along the line created by batter boards.

 Excavate remainder of soil inside the perimeter.

 Don’t excavate inside soil if slab is on the grade.

  If foundation is deep, taper edges are used to prevent the collapse.

 If soil is unstable or very deep, Use shoring method.

TIMBERING AND STRUTTING

 Timbering and strutting is a method of giving the temporary supports to the sides of
trench, when the depth of trench is large or when the sub-soil is loose.

 Timbering is also called as Shoring. It consists of timber boards and struts to give
temporary support to the side of the trench.

 Following are the methods of timbering and strutting :-

1. Box sheeting

2. Stay bracing

3. Runner system

4. Vertical sheeting

5. Sheet piling

BOX SHEETING

 If depth of the excavation is upto 4m and soil is loose , the box sheeting method is used.

 It is just like box consisting of vertical sheets held in position by horizontal row of wales
and made tighten by providing strut.

 If soil is very loose, that time horizontal sheets are provided and supported by vertical
wales and made tighten on both sides by horizontal strutting

 Braces are provided when the height is more.

STAY BRACING

 When the depth of excavation is upto 2m, then stay bracing method is adopted to support
the sides excavated in fairly firm soil.

 It consists of a vertical sheets or polling boards opposite to each other against the two
walls of the trench and held these vertical sheets in position by strutting

RUNNER SYSTEM

 This is used in extremely loose and soft ground which need immediate support as
excavation process.

 This system is similar to vertical sheeting of box system, except in place of vertical
sheeting, runner, made of long thick wooden sheet or plank s with iron shoe at the end are
provided.

 Wales and Struts are provided as usual.

 These runner are driven about 30 cm in advance of progress of the work, by hammering.
VERTICAL SHEETING

 It is similar to the box system, only difference is that in this case excavation is progressed
in stages by providing an offset at the end of each stage.

 This method is best suited for deep trenches in soft ground.

SHEET PILING

 This method is adopted as follows :-

 When soil to be excavated is soft or loose.
 The Depth of excavation is large.
 When the Width of the trench is large.
 When there is sub soil water.

Sheet piles are used to resist the lateral earth pressure. These are driven in ground by mechanical
means. They can also be used for excavating for very large depth.
MATERIAL FOR PLINTH FILLING

If the plinth depth do not exceed 450mm above the ground level and if the exposed ground is
black cotton soil, then remove the black cotton soil so as to avoid the uneven settlement of
ground flooring. In process of plinth filling watering and compaction should be carried out till
the required level is reached so as to form a thoroughly compacted base. The material for plinth
filling consist of hard murum and broken rubbles. On the compacted surface or consolidated
plinth filling, a concrete bed of thickness of 80 mm is done for laying the tile work further.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS USED FOR EXCAVATION
FOUNDATION

 Functions of foundation

 Types of foundation

 Shallow foundations

 Deep foundations

 Well foundation and caissons

 Pumping methods of dewatering

 Deep wells

 Well points

 Cofferdams

FOUNDATION :

A part of the structure lying below the ground surface such as foundation of any type is
known as substructures.

 FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATION :
 To support the weight of superstructure.
 To distribute load of the entire structure over a wide spread area to prevent it from any
movement.
 To distribute load underlying bearing surface uniformly to prevent any unequal
settlement of the substructure.
 To prevent any lateral escape of the supporting material as it will endanger the structure.

 To increase the stability of the structure as a whole to prevent it from sliding or

overturning.

 To provide a level and firm natural bed for laying masonry.

SHALLOW FOUNDATION

 When the foundation is placed immediately below the lowermost part of structure it is
called as SHALLOW foundation.
  It can also be defined as, when the depth of foundation is less than or less than equal to
the width;, the foundation is called as SHALLOW foundation.

 PURPOSE: The purpose of shallow foundation is to distribute the structural load over
considerable horizontal area .

LIMITATION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION

 The load carrying is considerably less as compared with deep foundation.

 Can not be used under marshy land, made up of ground water or water logged
area.

TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION

• (ii) Isolated Footing

• (iii) Combined footings

• (iv) Inverted arch footing

• (v) Cantilever footings

• (vi) Grillage footings

• (vii) Raft or Mat Foundation

WALL FOOTING
1)WALL FOOTINGS

 It is of two types i.e. simple and stepped. For light structures or temporary structures,
simple footings are provided. These have concrete base below the walls with no steps on
wall.

 Whereas in case of load bearing structures the wall area is spread is spread step by step
till the foundation level is reached. In this case also a layer of concrete 15 cm to 20 cm
thick is provided below the wall.

 The area of the wall is increased so as to transmit the load on large area of soil. The depth
of footing is generally limited to 1m but in case of black cotton soils the footing should
be taken deeper below no crack zone.

 The simple footing is used under compound walls and light structures whereas the
stepped footing is used under load bearing structure.

2)ISOLATED FOOTINGS
 ISOLATED / COLUMNS FOOTING

 These are used to support the individual columns.

 They can either be of stepped type or have projections in the concrete base.

 Generally 15cm offset is provided on all sides of concrete bed.

 This is most commonly practiced footing.

COMBINED FOOTING

COMBINED FOOTING

 Sometimes two columns are located very near to each other in a structure. If separate
footings under these columns are provided, they may interfere with each other. Therefore,
providing a combined footing is essential.

 These are constructed of reinforced concrete. The essential condition to be fulfilled in this
type of footing is that the centre of gravity of column loads and the centroid of the
footing should coincide.

 These are of two types:

a) Rectangular combined footings: these footings are provided under two columns where
the loads on the columns are equal.

b) Trapezoidal combined footings: these footings are provided when the two columns
unequally loaded.
 a) These are of two types: 1)Rectangular combined footings: these footings are provided
under two columns where the loads on the columns are equal.2) Trapezoidal combined
footings: these footings are provided when the two columns unequally loaded.

INVERTED ARCH FOOTING

 This is an outdated foundation.

 It is suitable for the construction of bridges, tanks, underground sewers and reservoirs.

 It is used in case the load bearing capacity of the soil is poor.

 The arches are constructed under the columns.

CANTILEVER FOOTING
 It is also called as strap footing, it is used when a column is near the plot boundary and column
footing is not permitted to extend beyond plot boundary.

 In this case the load of column near the boundary is supported on the strap beam.

 The strap beam is originated from the column which is in the interior part of the plot.

 It should be kept in mind that the moment (P2 x l) should be greater than (P1 x e) for stability of
footings.
GRILLAGE FOUNDATION

 It is used to transmit heavy loads from steel columns to the soils having low bearing
capacity.

 These foundations are lighter and economical because it avoids deeper excavations.

 The footing consists of steel beams in one or two layers.

 Beams in each layer are held in position by 20 to 25 mm dia. spacers bars. This space is
filled it by concrete.

RAFT OR MAT FOUNDATION

 It is suitable where ground is soft, Claye or Marshy having low bearing capacity, and
where sub soil water conditions are uncertain.

 In such situations heavy concentrated structure loads are generally supported by

providing raft foundation.

 It consists of thick reinforced concrete slab covering the entire area of the bottom of the
structure on sub-soil. The slab is reinforced with bars running at right angles to each
other.

DEEP FOUNDATION
 The situation where the soil immediately below the structure within reasonable depth is
not capable of supporting the load of building, under such situations the structure has to
 be rested on a strata at a greater depth, such foundations are called as deep
foundations.

 It is provided under following conditions:

 Firm layer of soil available at greater depths.

 Heavy concentrated loading from the structure on soil.

 Off shore construction in marshey areas.

 Where structure is susceptible to unequal settlements.

Deep foundation is divided in to ---- 1) Pile foundation 2 ) Well foundation

A pile is defined as a slender column which is capable of transferring the structural load to the
underlying layers.

Following is the classification of piles on the basis of …

1) Material of construction of pile

2 ) Supporting action of pile
3) Function of pile
4) Shape of pile
5) Method of construction of pile

Depending upon the material used for construction of pile , they are classified into
1) Timber Pile
2) Concrete Pile
3) Steel pile

TIMBER PILE
 A trunk of a tree about 30cm dia. Is used as pile. The trunk should be strong, durable and
straight.

 A head of pile is covered by steel cap to avoid shattering or spreading of timber in case of
hammering the pile in the ground.

 An iron shoe is provided at the other end to facilitate insertion in ground and avoid
damage of pile.

CONCRETE PILE
 These are most commonly used for deep foundations. These are either precast or cast-in-
situ piles.

 Pre-cast are mostly circular or octagonal in shape and having length 10m. Pre-cast piles
are used for bridge foundations.

 Precast piles can sustain large bearing pressure as compared to timber piles. These are
also suitable under sea.
  Cast in situ concrete piles are cast in position by drilling a hole of required dimeter and
depth into the ground. Then the reinforcement cage is lowered in this hole concreting is
done.

 Here the advantage of cast in situ pile over precast pile is that the length can be adjusted
as per the requirement on site.

 Concrete piles can be used practically for every type of foundation subjected to medium
and heavy loads.

STEEL PILES
 Steel piles are either of rolled steel section or any fabricated shape or it may be a sheet
pile.

SUPPORTING ACTION

Depending upond the supporting action…. Piles are classified as .. 1) End bearing pile

2)Friction Pile
 BEARING PILES

 When the piles transfer load of the building through a soft soil strata to a suitable bearing
stratum at greater depths then it is called a bearing pile in which the pile rests on a hard
strata at greater depths.

FRICTION PILE

When piles transfer the loads only by means of skin resistance without any end bearing then
piles are called friction piles.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FUNCTION

Sr. No. Type of support Type of Pile

1 Vertical support Friction and bearing pile
2 Lateral resistance Batter Pile , Sheet Pile
3 Anchoring Under rimmed pile
According to the Shape, the piles are classified as …

1) Batter Pile 2) Belled or Under rimmed Pile 3) Anchoring

 BATTER PILE

 Batter piles are driven inclined to resist the lateral loads.

 Whereas sheet piles are sheets of steel 4 to 5 cm thick which are driven in ground to form
an enclosure and to sustain lateral loads.

UNDER RIMMED PILE

 These are commonly used in black cotton soil which swell and shrink to greater extent
when in contact with the water.

 This is bored in –situ pile provided with one or more spreads or bulbs along its length
known as under-ream.
 In expansive soils such piles are one of the satisfactory solution to make crack free
constructions.
 TAPPERED PILE

 Piles having tapered cross section towards the bottom as shown in fig. are referred as
tapered piles.

 These pile are used only to increase the density of sub-soil by driving these piles in the
loose soil.

 These are also called as compaction piles.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PILE FOUNDATION

ADVANTAGES

 The volume of excavation is considerably reduced.

 Dewatering is not required.

 Length of pile can be adjusted as per requirement

 No temporary supports are required.

DISADVANTAGES

 The heavy equipment's are need to handle and to fix in position, such as pre-cast piles

 Initial cost is high.

 No check on concreting work in case of in-situ piles.

WELL FOUNDATIONS AND CAISSONS

 Construction of caissons is a type of well foundation.

 Caisson: It is a water tight structure preferably made of wood, steel, RCC for excavations
of foundations of bridges, piers in rivers, dock structures etc.

 These are used for placing a foundation in correct position under water.

TYPES OF CAISSONS….1) Open Caisson 2 ) Box Caisson 3 ) Pneumatic Caisson

OPEN CAISSON:

 It is a box type of structure which is open at the top and at the bottom.

 These are normally used on sandy soil or soft bearing stratum and where no firm bed is
available.

According to the shape of caissons, it is further classified as..

1) Single wall 2 ) Double Wall 3 ) Open Caisson with dredging wells

SINGLE WALL OPEN CAISSON
BOX CAISSON

 These are similar to open caisson, only difference is that it is closed at the bottom.

 These are casted and cured properly on ground and then it is launched in water by filling
sand or gravel or concrete in the empty spaces.
PNEUMATIC CAISSION

 This type of caissons is open at the bottom and close at the top.

 These caissons are specially used at the place where it is not possible to construct the
well.

 It is suitable for the depth of water more than 12m.

 In this caissons the compressed air is used to remove water from the chamber and then
construction work is carried out.

 These are made of timber, concrete or steel.