3/11/2009

Instractor:
Eyassu Tesfamariam (PhD)

Assist. Instractor:
Sophonias Asrat(BSc)

Course contents
y Highway route selection
y factors
f considered
d d in highway
h h route selection
l
y Steps in highway route selection
y Geometric design of highways:
y Design controls and criteria
y Functional classification systems of highways
y Vehicle and driver characteristics
y Highway cross‐section elements:
y Lane and shoulders, sidewalks, medians, and p pedestrian crossings
g
y Elements of geometric design:
y Horizontal alignment, Transition and super‐elevation, Vertical
alignment, Sight distance, Intersections and Interchanges
y Earthwork quantities and mass‐haul diagram
y Drainage and drainage structures

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Sight distance
y Length
g of the roadwayy ahead visible to drivers
y It must allow driver to perceive, reaction, stop, change speed,
and swerve etc. when necessary

y Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

y Decision Sight Distance (DSD)
y Passing
P i Sight
Si ht Distance
Di t f two‐lane
for t l highways
hi h (PSD)
y Intersection Sight Distance (ISD)

Sight distance
y Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
y Perception‐reaction distance
d (d1) + braking
b k distance
d (d2)

d1 = vt = 0.278Vt SSD = d1 + d 2
where:
v = design speed, m/sec f = coefficient of friction
v2 V2
d2 = = V = design speed, km/hr g = acceleration of gravity,
2 fg 254 f t = perception & reaction 9.8 m/sec2
time (PRT), 2.5 sec d1 / d2 = distance, m
y Perception
P i reaction
i di distance: the
h distance
di travelled
ll d from
f the
h time
i the
h
object is sighted to the instant the brakes are applied.
y Recommended PRT = 2.5 sec (average driver 1.0 – 1.5 sec)
y PRT = 2.5 sec may not be adequate for the most complex, unexpected conditions
encountered in actual driving
y Braking distance: the distance required to stop after brake activation
( f = a/ g where, a = deceleration rate, typical value 3.5 m/s2 )

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Sight distance
y Effect of g
grade on SSD
V2
d2 = Where: G = grade in %
254 ( f ± G )
y SSD on upgrades are shorter than downgrades

y Decision Sight Distance (DSD)

y Distance required to detect an information source difficult to
perceive.. recognize the hazard, select the appropriate action and
complete the maneuver.
y Intersection area, Interchange area or other places where needs to
make speed/path/direction changes.

Sight distance
y Calculation of DSD
V2
DSD = 0.278Vt +
254 f
y Avoidance maneuver A, t = 3 sec
Stop!
y Avoidance maneuver B, t= 9.1 sec

DSD = 0.278Vt
y Avoidance maneuver C, 10.2 – 11.2 sec
Speed/path/direction
y Avoidance maneuver D, 12.1 – 12.9 sec
change
y Avoidance maneuver E, 14.0 – 14.5 sec

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Sight distance
y Control of sight distance
y Drivers eye height
h h 1.07 m ERA geometric
y Object height for SSD 0.15 m design manual, 2002
y Object height for PSD 1.30 m

This part will be covered in the

y
design. of vertical alignment

Sight distance
y Control of sight
g distance ((Horizontal curve))

On the inside of horizontal

curves, it may be necessary
to remove buildings, trees
or other sight obstructions
or widen cuts on the
insides of curves to obtain
the required sight distance.

This part will be covered in the

design of horizontal alignment

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Sight distance
y Passing
g Sight
g Distance ((PSD))
d1 = distanced traversed during
PSD = d1 + d 2 + d 3 + d 4 perception/reaction time to
the point where the vehicle
just enters the left lane
d2 = distanced traversed while
driving on the left lane
d3 = safe clearance length
d4 = distance traversed by an
opposing vehicle (assuming
d1 1/3d
/ d2 opposing
i vehicle
hi l travell at
the same speed of passing
vehicle), usually taken as
2/3d2

2/3d2
d1 d2 d3 d4

Sight distance
y Passing
g Sight
g Distance ((PSD))
⎛ at ⎞
PSD = d1 + d 2 + d 3 + d 4 d1 = 0.278 t1 ⎜V − m + 1 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuver, sec d 2 = 0.278Vt 2
a = average acceleration, km/hr/sec
V = average speed of passing vehicle, km/hr d 3 = refer to table !
m = difference in speed of passed & passing
vehicle,
hi l k km/hr
/h 2
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, sec
d4 = d2
3
Table: Clearance distance (d3) Vs ambient speeds

ERA design manual, 2002

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Sight distance
y Sight Distances

y ERA design manual, 2002

Sight distance
y Assumptions in PSD calculation

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Sight distance
y Intersection sight
g distance
y Purpose – provide sight distance at intersections to allow
drivers to perceive the presence of potentially conflicting
vehicles and traffic control devices.

y Method – Specified areas along intersection approach

legs and corners should be clear of obstructions. Two
types off clear
l sight
i h triangles
i l are considered
id d ini
intersection design:
y Approach Sight Triangle and
y Departure Sight Triangle

Sight distance
ISD = 0.278Vmajor t g
y Approach
pp sight
g triangle
g
w + La
where, t g = ta +
0.88Vmiinor
ta: travel time to reach the major
road from the decision point for
a vehicle that does not stop

W: width of the intersection

La: Length of design vehicle

Vmajor: design speed of major road

Vminor: design speed of minor road

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Sight distance
y Departure
p sight
g triangle
g
ISD = 0.278Vmajor t g
ISD

Vmajor: design speed of

major road
tg: time gap for minor road
vehicle to enter the
major road,
7.5 sec for passenger car;
9.5 sec for single‐unit truck;
11.5 sec for combination truck.

Sight distance
y Example
y Two
T drivers
di each
h have
h a reaction
ti time
ti off 2.5 sec. One
O is i obeying
b i a 88.5
88 km/hr
k /h
speed limit, and the other is travelling illegally at 112.6 km/hr. How much
distance will each of the drivers cover while perceiving/reacting to the need to
stop, and what will the total stopping distance be for each driver (using
practical stopping distance assuming G = ‐2.5%)?
Driver 1 : Driver 2 :
d1 = 0.278Vt d1 = 0.278Vt
= 0.278 × 88.5 × 2.5 = 0.278 × 112.6 × 2.5
= 61.51 m = 78.26 m
V2 ⎡ a⎤ V2 ⎡ a⎤
d2 = , ⎢f = ⎥ d2 = , ⎢f = ⎥
254( f − G ) ⎣ g⎦ 254( f − G ) ⎣ g⎦
(88.5) 2 (112.6) 2
= = 92.84 m = = 150.29 m
⎛ 3.5 ⎞ ⎛ 3.5 ⎞
254⎜ − 0.025 ⎟ 254⎜ − 0.025 ⎟
⎝ 9.8 ⎠ ⎝ 9.8 ⎠
y .
SSD = d1 + d 2 SSD = d1 + d 2
= 61.51 + 92.84 = 154.35 m = 78.26 + 150.29 = 228.54 m

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Sight distance
y Exercise:
y A driver is travelling at 80 km/hr on a wet road. An object is spotted
on the road 140 m ahead and the driver is able to come to a stop just
before hitting the object. Assuming standard perception reaction
time and practical stopping distance, determine the grade of the
road. (PRT = 2.5 sec, a = 3.5 m/s2)

y A test of a driver’s perception reaction time of two drivers (young

and old) is being conducted on a special testing track with wet
pavement and a driving
p g speed
p of 9
90 km/hr.
/ The yyoung g driver was
able to make a stop just in time before hitting an object that is
visible 160 m ahead. The older driver fails to stop in time and strikes
the object at a speed of 50 km/hr. Determine the perception /
reaction time of the younger and older drivers.

y .