AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

INTRODUCTION

In the olden education depended almost on verbal written communication. All these sources
continue to play important role in learning process, technological magic touch has changed a simple
school into systematic learning institute. Today students are learning facts, skills, attitudes from
television, recorded material, programmed lessons and other media devices. Audio visual aids is anything
the audience can see and hear that helps the speaker get his message across the audience. “it is not the
material which makes itself an audio visual aids: it is the user who gives meaning to the aid”

According to Kinder, “ audio visual aids are any device which can be used to make the
learning experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic” Audio-visual aids, audio-visual
material, audio-visual media’ “communication technology” educational or instrumental media are learning
resources all these form broadly speaking means the same thing. Earlier the term used was audio-visual
aids in education. With the advancement in means of communication and that of technology, educators
coined new term. The use of new term “educational technology” or “instrumental technology” is primarily
due to dynamic expansion of programmed. Audio visual material must be seem in their relationship today
activity of teachers.

DEFINITION

Audio visual aids are any device which can be used to make the learning experience more concrete more
realistic and more dynamic.

According to Kinder S James

Audio-visual aids are those aids which help in completing the triangular process of learning i.e.;
motivation, classification and stimulation.

According to Corter v. Good

Audio visual aids are those sensory objects or images which imitate or stimulate and reinforce learning

According to Burton

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PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF A.VAIDS

● Improve and make teaching effective.

● Unable the audience to look, listen and learn.
● Make learning interesting and profited.
● Posters develop the knowledge.
● Add varsity and new ness to the lesson provide vicarious experience.
● Increase and sustain attention and concentration.
● Increase the meaningfulness of abstract concept by stimulating correct thinking.
● To provide an opportunity situation type of learning field trip.
● They direct dramatize the experience.

PRINCIPLES OF AUDIO- VISUAL AIDS

● They should be meaningful and purposeful.

● They should be simple.
● They should be accurate in every respect.
● They should be cheap.
● As far as possible they should be improvised.
● They should be larger enough to be properly seen by students.
● They should support the lesson objective
● Be student centred
● Maintain student attention and interest
● Encourage student participation, when appropriate
● Contain appropriate terminology for the students

Principles of selection:

The instructional aids selected should be suitable for the level of audience, the educational objective, age
level. Grade level and the nature of the content that is to be instructed.

Principles of preparation:

This refers to cost effectiveness in preparing the a-v aids. It will be better to make the aids by using locally
available material utilizing the creativity of the student.
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Principles of presentation:

● Carefully visualize the use of teaching aids before their actual presentation
● Adequate handling of aid to prevent damaging
● Display properly so that all the students able to see it
● Avoid destruction of all kinds

Principles of response:

The teacher should guide and motivate the student to respond properly to the audio visual stimuli so that they
derive the maximum benefit in learning.

Principles of evaluation:

There should be a continuous evaluation of both the a-v aids and teaching technique in the light of
realization of the desired objectives.

Principles of preservation:

All the aids that are used by the teacher or the student must be maintained properly and kept away from
dampness, dust insect, moths etc.

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CONCEPTS OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

Audio visual aids are the sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues for learning these are the planned
educational material that appeal to the sense of the people and quickens learning facilitates for clear
understanding

● Audio visual aids enhances clarity in communication

● Provides diversity in method

● Increases the forcefulness of the subject being learned or taught

● Seeing-87%

● Hearing – 7%

● Odour – 3%

● Touch – 2%

● Taste – 1%

PREPARATION / PLANNING AV AIDS

When planning for audio visual aids follow these simple guidelines:

⮚ Do use them to summarize or show the sequence of the content

⮚ Do use them to visually interpret the statistics by preparing charts and graphs that illustrate what
you will say
⮚ Do use them to illustrate and reinforce your support statements
⮚ Do use them to focus the attention of the target group on key points
⮚ Don’t reject copies of printed or written text. Instead summarize the information and show only the
key points on the visual aid
⮚ Don’t put yourself in the role of aiding your visual: a presentation is primarily an oral form of
communication. if your only function is to read the information on your over heads or slides, the
target group will become easily bored
⮚ Don’t use copies of your transparencies as hand-outs

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 ⮚ Don’t use charts, graphs or tables that contain more information than you want to provide
⮚ Determine the difference between what you will say and what the visual aids will show
⮚ Ask the audience to read or listen not both visual aids should not provide reading material while
you talk
⮚ Give participants paper copies of various graph aids used in your presentation
⮚ Assess your cost constraints
⮚ Seek feedback on the clarity of your visual
MAKING AV AIDS

⮚ Omit unnecessary words, symbols or ideas

⮚ The number of points to be made should be limited, key words should be shown instead of
complete letter
⮚ As a general rule, a visual should have- one idea;no more than 8 items; about 6 words per line;
mixed upper and lower case letters; simple; clean type faces and big enough to read easily
⮚ The use of colour, understanding, arrows and bolding are way to emphasis the major elements in a
visual
⮚ The lettering on the visual must be legible
⮚ The elements of the visual should fit together in a harmonious relationship
⮚ Easy to handle and transport
⮚ Good working condition
⮚ Convey upto date ideas
⮚ Avoid over writing, over -crowding, clumsiness in writing. Give space between the lines
ADVANTAGES OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

1. Antidote to the disease of verbal instruction: They help to reduce verbalism. They help in giving
clear concepts and thus help in accuracy in learning.
2. Best motivators: they are best motivators. The students work with more interest and zeal. They are
more attentive
3. Clear image: these images are formed when we see, hear, touch taste and smell our experiences are
direct and concrete and more or less permanent. Learning through these senses becomes natural and
consequently the easiest

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 4. Vicarious experience: it is beyond doubt that the first- hand experience is the best type of
educative experience. But it is neither predicable nor desirable to provide such experience to pupils.
For eg. It is not possible for a average man to climb Mount Everest
5. Variety: ‘mere chalk and talk’ do not help. Audio visual aids also give variety and provide
different tools in hands for the teacher like models, transpencies, etc.

6. Freedom: when audio visual aids are employed, there is great scope for children to move about,
talk, laugh and comment upon.
7. Opportunities to handle and manipulate: Many visual aids offer opportunities to students to
handle and manipulate things
8. Retentively: audio visual aids contribute to increased retentively as they stimulate response of the
whole organism to the situation in which learning takes place
9. Based on maxims teaching : the use of audio visual aids enables the teacher to follow the maxims
of teaching like ‘concrete to abstract’, known to unknown’ and ‘learning by doing’
10. Helpful in attracting attention: attention is the true factor in any process of teaching and learning.
Audio visual aids help the teacher in providing proper environment for capturing as well as
sustaining the attention and interest of the students in the classroom
11. Helpful in fixing new learning: audio visual aids help in achieving the objective by providing
several activities, experience and stimuli to the learners

DRAWBACKS OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

These are not essential for all instructional programmes

● These are helpfull for teaching but they will not substitute teachers and books
● Possible risk of spectatorism instead of attitude of thoughtful enquiry. It requires more time for
planning and preparing
● Tempts the teachers to narrow down the subject
● Audio visual aids are not ends but means

PROBLEMS USING TEACHING AIDS

● Apathy of teachers
● Ineffectiveness of the aids preparation presentation application and discussion are necessary

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 CLASSIFICATION

AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

VISUAL MATERIAL AUDIO MATERIAL AUDIO TRADITIONA

VISUAL L MEDIA
MATERIAL

NON-PROJECTED ⮚ Demonstration
⮚ Language ⮚ Puppets
⮚ Chalk boards s
laboratories ⮚ Drama
⮚ Bulletin boards ⮚ Films
⮚ Chart ⮚ Radio
⮚ Painted ⮚ Folk dance
⮚ Drawing
⮚ Exhibits ⮚ Sound materials with
⮚ Film strip
recorded sound
⮚ Flash card distribution
⮚ Flannel board ⮚ Sound film
⮚ Illustrated books system
strips
⮚ Magnetic board
⮚ Maps ⮚ Tape ⮚ Study trips
⮚ Models ⮚ Television
recording
⮚ Pictures
⮚ Posters ⮚ Video tapes
⮚ Photo graphs ⮚ Computer
PROJECTED ⮚ LCD
⮚ Silent films
⮚ Slides
⮚ OHP
⮚ LCD
⮚ Film strip
⮚ Diorama

⮚ 3d films

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 LEAFLETS

❖ INTRODUCTION:
Leaflets are one of the visual aids. A famous proverb state the-‘if I hear I forget, if I see I remember, if I
do I know it’. This is one of the sensitive tools used in teaching and as awareness. A leaflet helps in
giving whole information to the individuals in a single piece of paper. In leaflets we can show diagrams
and explain or with the flow graph of one topic covering all the areas.

❖ DEFINITION:
● Leaflet is a small material small in size containing information on a subject or specific topic and providing
opportunity of reading, learning or referring.
● It is a simple sheet carrying helpful information on useful themes on one or both of it’s side.
● It is a single sheet of paper folded to make a full page of printed matter on single side.

❖ HISTORY
Flier is also called as a leaflet.in 1908.by captain Thomas cochrane of a british royal navy.navy
constructed kites to distribute it but later on the balloons were used in 1870.

❖ PURPOSE:
● Provides basic information related to subject or topic.
● Provides additional knowledge.
● Reinforce learning.
● Contribute to increase retention of contents.
● Used as an effective mass media for health education of the people.
● Act as a teaching-learning aid and can be used at any age.

❖ GUIDELINES:
● Spoken language should be taken into account while it is being prepared.

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 ● Illustration with pictures will enhance the comprehension in the learner.
● Should be formulated with care and often without a strict time limit.
● Pictures can be added sometimes while on certain occasions picture may not be necessary.

❖ CLASSIFICATION
1. pursuasive –it helps to represent reasons and facts.

2. informative- any information about the topic.

3. directive-it helps to control the direct activities.

❖ ADVANTAGES:
● Makes mass education possible with high efficiency.
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 ● Easy to transport.
● Can be reproduced in easy language.
● Very flexible.
● Lasts well when given reasonable case.
● Stimulates interest of the learners.

❖ DISADVANTAGES:
● Some may throw it out.
● Storing is found to be difficult.
● Demand good typing
● Limited feedback
● Cannot be used for those who have not learned to react.

 PREPARATION:
1. HEADING –It is the most important part and it should be eye catching. In composing the heading
the propaganda must be brief, summarizing the theme by using short, forceful words.

2. SUBHEADING-it is used when it is impossible to summarize the text in the main heading and the
further explaination is needed to point out the message. they may also be used to introduce separate
paragraph in the body of the text and to bridge gaps between headline and text.

3. TEXT-To gain the interest the interest of the readers within the first few words. it should contain the
facts of the message. The text should be simple and to the point, presenting the message to the readers
without confusion. it usually presents only the theme. if more then one theme is used then it should be
closely related.

4. PICTURES-when pictures preferably photographs are used the picture and text must be
complement each other –convey the same idea to the reader ,each expanding the ideas of the other.

❖ STORAGE
● It should be store in a pile to avoid damaging
● Avoid unnecessary folding of the pages
● It should be kept in a dry, moist free place.

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 PAMPHLETS

❖ DEFINITION
Pamphlets are defined as the paper which can be folded into two, three or five, the matter will be
printed on one side or on either side. It may consist of few pages that are folded into half and stapled at
the crease to make a simple booklet. Usually it is stitched or stapled together. it is an unbound booklet
without a hard cover or binding.

❖ HISTORY
● The word pamphlet for a small work (opuscule) issued by itself without covers came into
Middle English ca 1387 as pamphilet or panflet, generalized from a twelfth-century amatory
comic poem with an old flavor, Pamphilus, seu de Amore ("Pamphilus: or, Concerning Love"),
written in Latin.[2] Pamphilus's name was derived from Greek, meaning "friend of everyone".
The poem was popular and widely copied and circulated on its own, forming a slim codex.
● The pamphlet form of literature has been used for centuries as an economical vehicle for the
broad distribution of information.Its modern connotations of a tract concerning a contemporary
issue was a product of the heated arguments leading to the English Civil War; this sense
appeared in 1642.[3]
● Pamphlets can contain anything from information on kitchen appliances to medical information
and religious treatises. Pamphlets are very important in marketing as they are cheap to produce
and can be distributed easily to customers. Pamphlets have also long been an important tool of
political protest and political campaigning for similar reasons.

❖ PURPOSE
● Provides basic information related to subject or topic.
● Provides additional knowledge.

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 ● Reinforce learning

❖ TYPES
● Educational-
o Give information regarding service facilities offered.

● Adentorial-
o To advertise something

● Product information-
o To increase the sale of certain product

● Propaganda-
o This is use to push one issue.

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❖ ADVANTAGES:
▪ Pamphlet provides information sometime available nowhere else and they are good to supplement a
book collection.
▪ It provides an inexpensive alteration source.
▪ It is concise with unique data.
▪ Useful for the propaganda.

❖ DISADVANTAGES:
▪ Sometimes expensive.
▪ Cannot store for further use.
▪ Don’t contain detail information.
▪ Time Consuming.
▪ Problems come during distribution.
▪ Illiterate people can’t use it.

❖ STYLES FOR ORGANIZING THE PAMPHLET

The tutorial style
● it involves easing into the topic of pamphlet so that it can be easily understandable for the
reader.
● Provide key definition of the hatdest word.
● It can be done using different section explaining every step of the way until hopefully.

Using the frequently asked asked question style

● It involves listing down the frequently asked question about the pamphlet topic.
● These are the information for which the readers are curious about.
● Each question is listed in different section and the answers are listed below afterwards.

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 ● This is the center of the pamphlet.

The testimonial style

● This is basically the type of story telling mode of pamphlet.
● This makes the learning process easy.

❖ PREPARATION STEPS
✔ Material required
1. Glossy paper
2. A4 size paper
3. Material for printing
✔ Preparation steps
● Before you start make sure that you discuss the purpose, the message, the target evidence and
the content.
● Work out how many we need to print and what quality we can afford.
● A good headline should be there to get people’s attention.
● All sides should carry organizations logo or name.
● Keep the language simple by avoiding long words or jargon.
● All facts, right things and policy issues should be there in pamphlet if necessary.
● Do not make the layout too dense with lots of small typing.
● This makes it easier for people to read.
● Vary the typing by using bold and italics as well as different size letters for headings, captions
and so on.
● Check spelling and proof read your pamphlet carefully.
● Before printing make a copy as printer sometimes lose or damage the master copy

❖ STORAGE
● It should be store in a pile to avoid damaging
● Avoid unnecessary folding of the pages
● It should be kept in a dry , moist free place.

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 HANDOUT

❖ DEFINITION

-a portion of food, clothing, or money given to or as if to a beggar

-a folder or circular of information for free distribution

-a prepared statement released to the news media

❖ HISTORY
First handout was found in 1882.

❖ OBJECTIVES
● It is a permanent source of reference
● Provides additional knowledge.
● Reinforce learning.
● Used as an effective mass media for health education of the people.
● Act as a teaching-learning aid and can be used at any age.
● To provide visual clue to the audience

❖ TYPE
1. Uncompleted or gapped handout

2. worksheet

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 3. assessment criteria

4. information sheet

❖ GUIDELINES-
● Use at 12 point font.
● Use heading and page number consistently
● Use bullet rather then continuation
● Make good use of space
● Keep line left justified
● Avoid excessive use of capital letters
● Leave plenty of space between the column
● Avoid starting a sentence at the end of the line
● Avoid use glossy paper.
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❖ ADVANTAGES
 It provides an inexpensive alteration source.
 It is concise with unique data.
 Useful for the propaganda.

❖ DISADVANTAGES
 Sometimes expensive.
 Cannot store for further use.
 Time Consuming.
 Problems come during distribution.
 Illiterate people can’t use it.

❖ PREPARATION
● Decide the type of the handout, because each have different purpose.
● Record only those items which are closely relevant
● Recognize the key words and catch words
● Use simple and clear language
● Draw sketches labeled or unlabeled.
● Write pointwise where ever possible
● Use graphs.
● Give tirtes and subtitles.
● Use visual symbols and easy to recognize
● Use color appropriately
● Underline the important words

MATERIAL REQUIRED
1. A4 size of paper
2.Material for printing
❖ STORAGE

● It should be store in a pile to avoid damaging

● Avoid unnecessary folding of the pages
● It should be kept in a dry , moist free place.

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 INFORAMTION BOOKLET

❖ DEFINITION
It is a thin book with paper cover, typically giving information on a particular subject

❖ PURPOSE
● It is complicated in printing format because they need relationship with professional printing
firms.
● It helps in advertising
● It gives information on the particular topic
● It contain detail information
● Effective way to give information to large group.

❖ ADVANTAGES
 It provides an inexpensive alteration source.
 It is in detail with unique data.
 Useful for the propaganda.

❖ DISADVANTAGES
 Sometimes expensive.
 Cannot store for further use.
 Time Consuming.
 Problems come during distribution.
 Illiterate people can’t use it.

❖ PREPARATION
● Work out how many we need to print and what quality we can afford.
● A good headline should be there to get people’s attention.
● All sides should carry organizations logo or name.

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 ● Keep the language simple by avoiding long words or jargon.
● Do not make the layout too dense with lots of small typing.
● Leave some space in between the writing either as empty white space.
● This makes it easier for people to read.
● Check spelling and proof read your pamphlet carefully.
● Before printing make a copy as printer sometimes lose or damage the master copy.
● Print only enough to distribute to target group.
MATERIAL REQUIRED
1. A4 size of paper

2. Material for printing

❖ STORAGE
● It should be store in a pile to avoid damaging
● Avoid unnecessary folding of the pages
● It should be kept in a dry , moist free place.

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 AUDIO AIDS

In the purely auditory aids, sound recording and reproduction, and transmission and reception equipments
some, which include radio receivers and recording equipments like disc, tape and cassette players. These
pieces of equipments can be extremely useful for teaching languages and studies lessons.

RADIO

The most common form of public education and entertainment is radio receiver. It can be seen in the
remotest villages even. The radio transmission serves as a vital agency of mass education if used
effectively. These days transistorized radio receivers are easily available, which can be rum with dry cell
batteries and these are easily portable.

In the educational radio programs, the transmitted subject matter is correlated to the syllabuses of study of
the target group. Advanced information is sent to the schools about the nature and outline of the
programmes.

USES:

 Procedure and study in advance the nature and content of the radio lesson.
 Prepare students for the radio lesson by informing them about the background of the lesson.
 To set the stage for students discussions by preventing opinions of outside experts from the remote
sources.
 To develop interest and varied sources of new knowledge and to contribute to the development of
appreciation of attitudes.
 To develop increased skills in listening participation and evaluating what is learned.
 Developing critical thinking, leisure time interest and appreciation.

TYPES OF RADIO PROGRAMS:

Generally three kinds of radio lessons are popular:

 Talk
 Discussion
 Dramatisation

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PRINCIPLES AND THE PROCEDURE FOR THE EFFECTIVE UTILISATION OF
RADIO:

1. Preparation of instructor:
 Clear objectives- it will help to determine whether to use.
 To evaluate the effectiveness of media in a particular teaching- learning situation.
 Gathering advance information.
 Motivation.
2. Develop student readiness:
 Reception involves proper listening, can be facilitated by providing suitable physical conditions in
the classroom.
 Preliminary comments, questions, defining keyword, reference readings.
3. Listening to the program:
 Encourage the students to develop good listening habits.
 Concentrate on the programme, thinking about what is said and what it really means.
 Listen with an open mind, and with willingness to hear another point of view.
 Listen quietly and with courtesy to others in the room.

(Note) talking develops the ability to determine salient points from broadcast, to state facts, issues,
arguments clearly.

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 4. DISCUSSION AND APPLICATION:

After the programme, a group discussion should follow to clarify her thinking and enrich critical
thinking.

5. FOLLOW UP:

A proper follow up of students understanding of the information to remove fallacies and

misunderstandings.

LIMITATIONS:

 No concentrated attention.
 One way communication.
 Adjustment.
 No pre hearing and re usability.
 Administrative problems.

ADVANTAGES:

 Mass education.
 Are effective for distance education.
 Arouse positive emotions and attitude.
 A good radio lesson can be recorded for use at an appropriate time.

STORAGE
● It should be kept covered to prevent from environmental dust.
● It should be kept out of reach of the child.
● It should be kept in dry place.
● The battery should be removed while not in use.

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 TAPE RECORDER

DEFINITION

A mechanical device for recording on magnetic tape and usually for playing back the recorded
material .

www.thefreedictionary.com
An electrical device for recording or palying back sound ,video ,data on magnetic tape.

Random House Unbriged Dictionary

A tape recorder is portable electronic gadget to record , reproduce , erase and record sound on a
magnetic tape.

B.T. Basavanthappa

HISTORY/INVENTION

The earliest known audio tape recorder was a non-magnetic tape recorder was a non-magnetic , non-electric
version invented by Alexander graham bell's Volta laboratory.

The history of a tape recorder begins in the year 1878 , when an recorder
American machine Oberlin smith , who was inspired by with a visit to the Edison’s lab, started to think
about recording the telephone signals with a sticky wire . During the playing the medium generates electric
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cycles

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which have identical frequency as during the recording (the cycles are then transferred to the sonic cycles).

This principles of a magnetic recording was discovered by a Danish inventor

Valdemar Poulsen in 1898. And during the next few years he manufactures the first “sonic recorder" with a
steely wire ( or tape).

He obtains the patents in Denmark, USA and elsewhere . his apparatus was called telegarmphone and was
designed for recording the phone calls during the absence of the phone calls during the absence of the
called person, so the tape recorder was born from the idea of an answering machine.

ADVANTAGES OF TAPE RECORDER

o The tape recorder is simple to operate and it is portable.

o It is an ideal substitute for a live presentation.

o The talks of well -known personalities can be recorded at a convenient place and brought to the school
for replay to the students .

o On the spot can be recorded and played at an appropriate time for classroom interaction.

o For teaching music , phones , oral reading , poetry and recitation's etc. Tape recorder is of immense
value.

o Being a kind of voice mirror ,tape recorder can be used for improving spoken languages ; and as a
training or corrective tool for speed modulation and oral presentation of subjective matter.

o Can serve to document or summarize topic.

o Records to develop learner's learning skills , discussion , round tables talk.

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o It provides a change of pace and activity and this could arouse the interest of students.

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o The audio tape can be played repeatedly without changing intonation & content of the speech.

PREPARATION PROCESS

MATERIAL REQUIRED

 Information is recorded on strips of plastic tape (usually polyster) that are coated with fine particle of a
magnetic substance ,usually an oxide of iron ,cobalt or chromium.

 The coating is normally held on the tape with a special binder.

 The sound to be recorded is picked up by a device such as a microphone and transformed into an
electric current.

 The current is fed to a transducer in the recording head of the tape recorder, which converts it into
corresponding magnecting flux variations that magnetize the particles on the tape.

MECHANISM

Recording system that makes use of electromagnetic phenomena to record and reproduce
sound waves. The tape consists of a plastic backing coated with a thin layer of tiny particles of
magnetic powder . The recording head of the deck consists of a tiny c-shaped magnet with its gap
adjacent to the moving tape . The incoming sound wave , having been converted by a microphone a
time varying magnetic field in the gap of the magnet . As the tape moves past the recording head,
the powder is magnetized in such a way that the tape carries a record of the shape of the wave being
recorded.

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 GUIDELINES /CRITERIA /PRINCIPLES:-

The recording should be done in the following steps :-

1. First of all,choose a room with proper acoustics , a heavily curtained room in the school will
do this job . Special recording studios have the walls covered with sound absorbing materials like
straw -boards.

2. Place the tape recorder on a study table and insert in the cassette .Also ,plug in the powder
cord if the tape recorder is not to be run on the battery . Check the working of the tape recorder
before recording the lesson.

3. Locate the microphone input socket and plug in the microphone ,it is available to use
external microphone placed 25to 30cm away from the person whose voice is recorded.

4. Press the record-button ,speak into the microphone (do not blow in as iy can damage the
microphone),watch the sound level indicator meter and appropriate adjust the volume control,
tone control and treble control.

5. After testing and setting the tape recorder ,rewind the cassette completely and recorder on
stop before actual recording.

6. Record the actual material spoken into the microphone by pressing the record and
play buttons simultaneously.

7. After recording is over ,rewind and play the recorder for editing auditing and evaluation
before it is used in the classroom.

SPECIFIC POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED

There are certain do's for using tape recorder for teaching. These are :-

1. The teacher must practice the use of tape recorder to get familiar with various controls and
techniques.

2. The teachers must make special efforts to use the tape recorder in teaching proper speaking
of language, music and social sciences.

3. The teacher must prepare and practice tape recorder lessons before use in the classroom.

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 4. The teacher must prepare tape recorder material and catalogue it properly.

5. The teacher must record programmers’ from other sources such as radio programes , sound
tracks , TV programmers’ , performances in and out of the school etc.

6. The teacher must use the tape recorder for interview , talk and discussions of various experts.

7. The teacher must use a tape recorder supplemented by other teaching aids for example a
story may be played back with the drawn pictures and diagrams illustrating various scenes.

STEREOGRAPH

INTRODUCTION

Stereographic projection is a particular mapping function that projects a sphere onto a plane. The
projection is defined on the entire sphere except at one point. The projection point where it is defined, the
mapping is smooth and bijective. It is conformal meaning that it preserves angles. It is neither isometric nor
area preserving, which is it preserves neither distances nor the areas of fingers. Stereographic projection it
finds use in diverse fields including complex analysis, cartography, geology and photography a special
kind of graph paper called a stereograph.

DEFINITION

Stereoscopy is also called stereoscopic or 3D imaging is any technique capable of recording three
dimensional visual information.

Two stereoscopic pictures or one picture with two super scoped stereoscopic images designed to give a
three dimensional effect when viewed through a stereoscope or special glasses.

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HISTORICAL INVENTION

Stereographs an early form of three dimensional photographs, were a major vehicle for popular
education and entertainment in the later part of the nineteenth century. The stereograph today serves as a
primary source for the study of nineteenth century social history reflecting social conventions and cultural
values.additonally the various changes in card design reflect improved manufacturing methods and new
trends with in the decades that stereography was a phenomenon.

Stereograph was invented by Edward Earle (Rochester,N.Y,1979)

PURPOSE OF STEREOGRAPH

1. Stereography, where the goal is to duplicate natural human vision.

2. Sterographic vision under reflected light, yet requiring on the depth of focus as a function of
magnification.

3. Features relate to such light control means adapted for making stereographs.

4. The various forms of telescope both reflecting and refracting may refracting telescopes, from the fact
of there.

OBJECTIVE OF STEREOGRAPH

1. An extremely fast and useful technique for solving many structural problems.

31
 2. To investigate the reliability and accuracy of faster stereography in comparison with

radiography.

3. Interpretation of structural geology data for the purpose of stability analysis of rock.

CLASSIFICATION

WHEATSTONE STEREOSCOPE

The earliest type of stereoscope was invented by sir Charles wheatstone in 1838,it used a pair of
mirrors at 45 degree angles to the users eye, each reflecting a picture located off to the side. It demonstrated
the importance of binocular depth perception by showing that when two pictures stimulating left eye and
right eye views of the same object are presented so that each eye sees only the image designed for it, but
apparently in the same location, the brain will fuse the two and accept them as a view of one solid three
dimensional object. Wheatstone stereoscope was introduced in the year before the first practical
photographic process became available, so drawings were used. This type of stereoscope has the advantage
that the two pictures can be very large if desired.

BREWSTER STEREOSCOPE

Contrary to a common assertion, David Brewster did not invent the stereoscope, as he himself was
often at pains to make clear. A rival of Wheatstone , Brewester credited the invention of the device to Mr.
Elliot a teacher of mathematics from Edinburgh who according to Brewester conceived of the idea as early
as 1823 and in 1839,constructed a simple stereoscope without lenses or mirrors, consisting of a wooden
box 18 inches long, 7 inches wide & 4 inches high, which was used to view drawn landscape,
transperencies since photography was had yet to be invented. Brewsters personal contribution was the
suggestion to use lenses for uniting the dissimilar pictures in 1849, and accordingly the lenticular
stereoscope may fairly be said to be his invention. This allowed a reduction in size, creating hand held
devices which became known as Brewster stereoscopes, much admired by queen Victoria, when they were
demonstrated at the great exhibition.

HOLMES STEREOSCOPE

In 1861 Oliver Wendell Holmes, created and deliberately did not patent a hand held, streamlined,
much more economical viewer than had been available before. The stereoscope which dates from the 1850

32
consisted of two prismatic lenses and a wooden stand to hold the stereo card. The type of stereoscope
remained in production for a century. It is primarily American although it is often named Mexican
stereoscope.

GUIDELINES

● Two separate images are printed side by side.

● A simple stereoscope is limited in the size of the image that may be used.
● A more complex stereoscope uses a pair of horizontal periscope, like devices, allowing the use of
larger images that can present more detailed information in a wider field of view.
● A moving image extension of the stereoscope has a large vertically mounted drum containing a
wheel upon which are mounted a series of stereographic cards are restrained by a gate and when
sufficient force is available to bend bend the card it slips past the gate & into view, obscuring the
preceding picture.

ADVANTAGES

● Using positive curvature (magnifying) lenses, the focus point of the image is changed from its short
distance (about 30-40) to a virtual distance at infinity. This allows the focus of the eyes to be
consistent with the parallel lines of sight, greatly reducing eye strain.
● The card image is magnified, offering a wider field of view & the ability to examine the detail of
the photograph.
● The viewer provides a partition between the images , avoiding a potential distraction to the user.

PREPARATION PROCESS

● Cardboard box: A shoe box would be ideal mirrors (2 small sized * 2 big ones)
● Pen knife
● Pictures
● Glue or adhesive
● Scissors
● Pencil
● Measuring tape or scale
1. Once assembled all the material and the necessary equipment, begin with the procedure right away
with the cardboard box in place, clean the interiors of the same thoroughly. There should be no dirt
or muck lying around in the box

33
 2. Make sure that, ready with the pictures as well. Preferably choose pictures that look scenic, do not
consider photographs that have human or animal intervention. Scenary that looks quintessential, is
what one should, ideally look out for,
3. Coming back to the cardboard box, after you have cleaned it, you need to slit off its top. The
cardboard top can be preserved for some other ventures during the activity.
4. Make a slit from the side of the box, the slit should be long enough, around 10 to 14 cm in length.
The box should be cut in a manner that they resemble pillar.
5. Now prepare the floor of the box. Make sure that there are no dents or gaps in the box. If there are
any, stick them together with glue. If the dents are too big, you may place the remaining cardboard
pieces in between, if this still does not suffice in between the cardboard flaps and then fix them
together with glue or an adhesive, this should make the surface bump free.
6. With the rectangular side of the box, make a hole with a pen knife, you may draw up a circle with a
protractor and cut the shape. You will have a view finder window to peep through.
7. With the cardboard that you were asked to keep aside, meant to be preserved, you have to cut four
squares roughly 12* 12 in size
8. The mirrors have to be taped on their sides, so that they do not hurt you due to its rough edging
9. Cut one square into halves, so that if forms a triangle. You will have two triangles out of these you
may choose the best one and keep it for use
10. With a pencil, draw a line in the middle of the square. Cut from the middle however, end the cutting
when you reach half way through the square. You may now fold the square into two halves.
11. Now bend the cardboard square and place it by gluing it on the triangle that you have chosen out of
the two
12. With the two mirrors taped and ready, you must stick them at the back of the folded cardboard
13. With a pencil and ruler, draw lines through the base of the box. The lines should be clear and non
bumpy.
14. One edge of the square that you constructed (12*12) should be placed at the vertical line at a
45degree angle. Place the other edge as well on the vertical line.
15. Now, as you have the two big mirrors remaining, you have to attach them with glue to the back of
the cardboard.
16. Place the small mirror in such a manner, that they face the big mirrors, stick the images on the
opposite side of the mirror
17. Make adjustments if necessary.

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 VIDEO CASSETTE RECORDER (VCR)

DEFINITION

Video cassette recorder (VCR also known as the video recorder) is an electro mechanical device
that records analog audio and analog video from broadcast television on a removable, magnetic tape video
cassette, so that the images and sound can be played back at a more convenient time.

HISTORICAL ASPECT

In 1952 Charles Paulson Ginsberg while working for Ampex started working on what we would
now call a VCR. The first VCR was sold by Sony in 1971.

The history of the video cassette recorder follows the history of videotape recording in general. Ampex
introduced the quadruplex videotape professional broadcast standard formal with its Ampex VRX – 1000
in 1956. It became the world’s first commercially successful videotape recorder using two inch (5.1cm)
wide tape. Due to its us $ 50,000 price, the Ampex VRX 1000 could be afforded only by the television
networks and the largest individual stations.

In 1959 Toshiba announced a new method of recording known as helical scan. At first, this was marketed
in reel to reel video tape recording machines but was eventually adapted for use with cassette.

In 1963 Philips introduced their EL 3400 1 helical scan recorder (aimed at the business and domestic user)
and Sony marketed the 2 PV 100 their first reel to reel VCR intended for business, medical, airline and
educational use.

OVERALL PURPOSES/ OBJECTIVES

1. The main purpose of the video recorder is recording and replaying video and audio signals
2. Playing and recording television programs and for creating home video recordings
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 3. The use of equipment likely to be available can produce only acceptable results which are not
considered professional
4. It can be used in educational as well as other setting also
5. Operating a VCR does not need much skill, it is easy to operate a VCR
6. Helpful in nursing education in selected situation
7. Involves students totally and they appreciates the lesson and remember it better
8. Makes students creative and alert.

CLASSIFICATION / TYPES

VHS (video Home System)

The most common of all models, the standard VCR varies in price and options. It comes in either 2
head or 4 head play back, and 240 lines of resolution. Low priced models will usually only provide mono
and an assortment of record functions while high dollar models feature time lapse recording. Hi Fi stereo
and security related functions like an alarm, tape end buzzer, and parental controls. Prices range between $
50 and $ 1000

S- VHS ( Super Video home System)

Super VHS is its name sake, offering a resolution of over 400 lines S VHS offers many of the same
options as a standard VCR, but differs in format. Usually, you can’t play S-VHS tapes in a VHS play back
unit, but can play VHS in S-VHS machines. On some S-VHS decks, you can record on less expensive VHS
tapes. S-VHS recorders will record digital will less picture loss than VHS.

DV/ Mini DV (Digital Video)

A DV/Mini DV VCR records and play DV and Mini Digital Video tapes. DV tapes are much larger
than Mini DV, but are still smaller than Beta tapes. Many consumer concoders feature the mini DV format,
while some professional models require DV. The strength of a DV playback unit is you can lessen wear

36
and

37
tear on your camcorders when playing home movies on your TV. The format is digital and will offer a
crisp, clear image. It is important to note that you can play mini DV tapes in a DV Deck, which is
something to consider if you have access to both formats. The playback unit will have many of the same
options as other common VCRs but also boast a fire wire or 1394 connector. This deck is closely
associated with home video making and editing on a computer. DV and mini DV decks cost in the $1000
and up range.

Dual Deck

A dual deck VCR is nothing more than two VCR’s in one. Depending on the model, expect the
same features, you will find in a standard VHS recorder. But with the added benefit of being able to record
tape to tape, play back while recording and recording two programmes at once. Dual deck recorders can
cost a couple of hundred dollars.

Combination units

An added convenience of technology is combining two different formats in one unit. Video cassette
recorders come in combo units mainly with DVD players, but can also come in S- VHS / mini DV. VCR’s
are also included in many television sets as an added feature, and should be considered for their shared
space if in tiny quarters.

Digital /HDTV

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 The digital VHS recorders could be the last stand for VHS as a feature consumer recording format,
built like the standard VHS, it offers high quality digital and high definition recording. They are quite
expensive for a VCR, but play VHS, S-VHS and D_VHS tapes. D-VHS tapes are made to record much
longer than standard VHS tapes. The value of a digital VHS recorder won’t be clear until digital is the only
signal available, and the public decides whether or not DVD recorders and DVR’s are more convenient.

First two types of VCR’s

Video tape recorders were the precursor to VCRs. The first VTR player was developed by Ampex
in 1956, a prototype was given to CBS in Hollywood. The first commercially available unit, the VCR-100
was obtained by king TV of scattle at a cost of $ 50,000. The 2 inch wide tape allowed KING to record
programs and then broadcast them at a later date- a revolutionary development at a time when all television
was broadcast live. The unit could not record in color. Sony developed a VTR for home use in 1964, but
only a very few were sold.

First VCR

VTRs needed to be hand threaded through the recording machine, which was a time consuming
process. This problem was solved with the invention of VCRs, which housed a unit that would
automatically thread the tape. The first VCR produced for the home was created by Philips and released in
England in 1972. The model number was 1500 X it used square cassettes. The unit was almost 2 feet wide
and could record for one hour. It coat more than $ 2000 X was most popular with the general public.

Beta VCRs

In 1976 Sony released its version of a VCR, which was called a Beta max. the company marketed it
directly to the general public. It could only record for an hour. Sony was sued by Disney and universal
studios because the companies claimed that the ability to record television programs was copyright
infringement.

First VCR for VHS tapes

In 1977, RCA introduced a new machine to compete with the Betamax, which featured VHS tapes.
The tapes were more efficient than those produced by Philips and Sony and could record for more than
twice as long enough to record an entire football game. The longer recording time coupled with an

39
expensive and

40
campaign and the fallout from the law suit, resulted in rapid sales. The VHS tapes quickly became the
standard for use in VCRs

ADVANTAGES

1. Video can be shown in normal room lighting

2. Video recording can be stopped and restarted if discussion is required during presentation
3. Video recording can be played many times
4. It is easier to re record
5. Recording tape can be re used
6. Video cassette recorders are easier to operate

DISADVANTAGES

1. The play back equipment is bulky and heavy

2. It cannot be operated in absence of power
3. Editing the content is impossible when using basic equipment. It means not a flexible medium
4. Equipment required for editing is expensive and process of editing is time consuming
5. One way communication is another disadvantage
6. Classes cannot to made to work identical timings
7. Listening to and viewing a particular TV program in school hours would very often require the
teacher to rearrange the school schedule
8. Financial problem, not all schools can afford a TV set

PREPARATION PROCESS

MATERIALS REQUIRED

CONTENTS

● Typical VCR assemblies - 2

● Features - 3
● Materials of construction - 3
● Pressure ratings - 3
● Temperature ratings - 3
● Testing - 3
● Cleaning - 3

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 ● Ultra high purity processing - 4
● Ordering information pressure ratings and dimensions - 3

Glands

● Tube butt weld - 5

● Socket - 6
● Male weld - 7
● Tube adapter - 7
● Blind- 7

Bodies

● Male connector - 8
● Female connector - 8
● Swagelok tube fitting connector - 9
● Male unions - 10
● Tube buck weld bulk head connector - 10
● Coupling - 11
● Reducers - 11
● Elbows, Tee, cross - 11

MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION

Material Designator specification

316 stainless steel Ss Bar stock ASME Sa 479
ASTM A 276
Forged shapes ASME SA 182
ASTM A 314
316 stainless steel 316 L Bar stock ASME Sa 479
ASTM A 276
Forged shapes ASME SA 182
316 L, VAR stainless steel 6 Lr SEMI F 20 0305 high purity
Gasket
Nickel NI ASTM F3

42
316 L stainless steel Ss ASTM A 240
Copper CLI ASTM B 152

PLATING

VCR female nuts are silver plated. Avoid chemical processes used for cleaning, electropolishing and
passivation that will remove plating. If the plating is damaged or removed threat galling may occur,
damaging fitting components and preventing a proper seal

HOW TO MAKE VIDEO TAPE

1. The first step mixing, involves creating the magnetic layer or paint that will coat a tape. This
magnetic powder is first pre mixed with solvents and dispersants, typically polyurethane, which
keep the powder from floating on top of the solvent. The mixing process starts with the powder
being dispersed by large planetary mixers in large, metal tanks. When the magnetic material is
dispersed, the binders, additives and lubricants are added and mixed. The paint is then automatically
on to the milling stage, when it is milled, or rolled by large rollers. This create a shearing action that
prevents agglomerations from forming in the paint.
2. In the second step, the coating stage,, the magnetic paint is applied to the base film in a continuous
process that starts when large rolls of the base films are fed into a machine called a coater. The
coater is 120 ft (36.6m) long and used 400 kw of power. The film is drawn by six motors through
the coater at low tension. At the start of the process the tape enters the head end of the coater, which
is called the un wind end. New rolls are automatically spliced on when the coater senses the end of
a roll. A mechanical device called a flying splice attaches the new roll of base film, cutting off the
end of the old, while the rolls are in motion. The coater head shops painting the film until the new
splices goes through.
3. The coater head applies the magnetic layer to the base film. Computers monitor and control the
process, so that a thin, even layer of magnetic paint can be applied without defects. The thin layers
are measured in submicrons, or millionths of a meter. The coating method most often used is called
extrusion. In this process, the paint is applied to the film as it is blown out, by pressure through a
small opening. As the base film passes over the extruded paint, the paint sticks to the surface of the
base film in a smooth layer.
4. After coating the still wet – tape is automatically passed through a strong magnetic field which
physically orients the magnetic material in a newly coated layer. At first, the particles are randomly

43
44
 arranged on the binder. As the physical alignment is important for the most effective magnetic
recording, the particles are then oriented in the same direction. This is accomplished by passing the
tape through the magnetic fiels as the binder hardens. The more uniform the dispersion and
orientation of the particles, the better the tape will perform. The magnetic layer is now ready to be
dried.
5. Drying fixes the now oriented particles before they can change position. During drying, solvents
used for mixing are evaporated and recovered. The tapes magnetic layer is stabilized. When the
drying is complete, the tape passes through an X ray scanner that checks the evenness of the newly
applied layer.
6. After the drying and scanning, the tape is wound back onto large rolls measuring upto 4 ft (1.2m) in
width and over a 1000 ft (305m) long. Like the flying splice that started the process, a slit is made
in the tape and the new roll automatically starts wind up. The tension of the tape is held steady
during coating. As the newly wound roll gradually increases in size, the speed of the wind is
gradually decreased to keep the tension even from start to finish.
7. The third step involves a process called calendaring. At this point the space between the magnetic
particles has not completely set. Therefore it is possible to minimize this space by the calendaring
process, which involves compacting the layer that had just been formed between steel rollers and
elastic rollers. This increases the packing density of the magnetic layer to maximize the tapes
magnetic density, and it smoothes the surface of the magnetic layer, which provides better tape to
head contact. During the process the tape is automatically fed through a series of the rollers. The
steel rollers make contact with the back of the tape, a method that creates an wven pressure across
the film. After this process, the tapes final surface characteristics and thickness are set. The tape is
now ready to be slit.
8. Before being coated into cassettes, the tapes are slit to the width determined by its format.
Commonly used tape formats include 0.5 in (1.3cm) 0.75 in (1.9cm) or 1 in (2.5cm). the tape is
spliced on to a slitter comprised of two sets of blades. As the tape is drawn through the slitter, the
blades cut the tape into the desired width. The slitting is a very precise process and it is critical to
the quality of the tapes. The process is usually monitored by lasers to detect defects such as folds or
pinholes. The tape is slit within the microns of the desired width to insure smooth operation in a
VCR or concorder. A poorly slit edge can shed oxide, base film and back coated particles. After the
tape is slit, it passes over a cleaning wipe that removes any debris accumulated during the process.
The tape is then wound onto long pancake rolls which resemble rolls of movie film. The tape is now
ready for the finishing stage, when it will be loaded into cassettes.

45
 9. In the finishing stage, the tape cassettes are produces. The cassettes shells themselves are created
from melted plastics that are placed in a metal cavity, or mold and formed into the top and bottom
halves of the shells. These halves are held together by five screws. Components of the video
cassettes shells include two spools that hold the tape itself. A moving spring loaded door that houses
the tape safely inside the shell. Stainless steel pins and rollers that protect the tape itself against
scratches, l ow friction rollers that guide the tape during recording or play back, onto static leader
that prevents build up of dust and two spring loaded locks that prevent the tape from rolling around
inside the shell. T empty cassettes shells have hubs with leader attached. The leader is automatically
spliced to the pancake rolls, which are placed on an in cassette loading machine that spools a
measured amount of tape into the cassette. Next the loaded cassette are assembled with packing
inserts and placed in protective sleeves. Finally the cassettes are packaged and boxed for shipment.

46
 OBJECTS AND CUT AWAYS

DEFINITION

An object is a thing itself in its entirely brought up from its natural setting in its classroom to supply
the type of sensory experience that will make instruction meaningful.

HISTORICAL INVENTION

1756-1827 Pastalozzi used the concept of object method in teaching.

PURPOSES

1. To give the students correct initial concepts at the time she first learns of an object or process. For
eg: in describing the structure & function of the heart, the teacher would have difficulty in
explaining the valves, partition location of vessels. By using a heart model, she is able to explain
the concept far more clearly.
2. To clarify a concept in the students mind clear cut images result from seeing an object and so give
meaning to words which name the object. Eg: to describe an artificial kidney is difficult, but to see
one implants a clear image in the students mind.
3. To intensify and vitalize an object in the students mind. The presence of 3 dimensions media can
transfer such attributes as form, size, colour, motion & other characteristics to the students mind,
there by intensifying the subject under consideration. This quality makes a subject far more
interesting. To see an object is more lifelike than to read about it or just hear it described learning
becomes real rather than merely verbal.
4. To provide concrete experience use of real combats the tendency of the teacher to become too
abstract in the classroom. Words must convey definite meaning, real give a definite example of
what word mean. A teacher may describe perfectly the preparation and administration of
hypodermic, but she will present a more concrete explanation by furnishing each student with a
hyperdermic syringe & orange which to practice.
GUIDELINE
1. Plan the teaching with certain simple and direct observations of the object being refered in.
2. Ask questions from the students to elicit more details of the feature of the object under
observation.
3. Clarify and emphasize important structural details of the object under observation.

47
 4. Provide review and practice to make learning permanent.

ADVANTAGES

1. Collection of objects by students requires interaction with others leading to development of

social skills & values.
2. Students when collect & display objects derive satisfaction of contributing to the school and
something worthwhile.
3. Students power of observation &first hand experience is enhanced by collection of objects.
4. Students personal collection objects can be good source of doing investigatory projects.
5. Collection of objects become an interesting educational pursuit of the teacher & students a
like.
6. Objects involve all the five senses in the process of learning.
7. It heightens the reality in the classroom.
8. It makes teaching lively.

PREPARATION PROCESS

● Materials required and preparation steps

● Objects are collected from local markets
● Manufacturers & factories
● Discarded materials from the houses.
● Plasters cast can be purchased.
● Wild flowers, leaves, shells, stones, butterflies, moths, insects can also be procured.

STORAGE

Objects should be mounted in shallow boxes in an artistic way & the boxes should be covered
with cellophane paper. Also label each object using self adhesive paper.

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 CUT AWAYS

DEFINITION

Cut aways are the replicas of the orginal things to show internal parts of a thing.

ADVANTAGES

1. It illustrates the application side of certain principles and laws.

2. Models explain the complex & indicate operations in a simplified way & thus make
comphrehension easier.

3. They are lasting & ultimately work out to be cheaper teaching aids.

4. Easy to make with the help of discarded material.

5. It involves the use of all 5 senses.

LIMITATIONS

▪ It requires expertise to make.

▪ Time consuming.
▪ Some may be very expensive.

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 ROLE PLAY

INTRODUCTION

Essentially every teacher creates his own teaching method in terms of his personality and experience the
purpose and subject matter of instructions he judges suitable different way choosing and adopting various
techniques learning many be stimulated and guided in many different ways. role playing is a dramatization
based on a particular theme. This helps the students to experience the situation emotionally and to develop
insight. it also encourages thinking and creativity.

MEANING Role play or socio drama is based on the assumption that may be more effective if the
situation is dramatized by the group.

DEFINITION

1. Role playing is based on a particular theme, performed before the audience to spread the message to the
people.

2. Role playing is a dramatization along with verbalization.

HISTORICAL ASPECT

The term role play was originally coined in

The by Jacob L morens, a veins psychiatrist who surmised patient gained more knowledge from
exploring their problems by acting them out then talking about them. When the practice become popular in
business and educational intuitions twenty years later the problem solving aspect shifted to words the
learning of a professional role for later real life assumption. What astron out do in their for mission. What
pilot do in learning to navigate flight simulators; what thousands of soldiers do in the course of military
exercises its all role playing teaching salespersons to deal with customer teachers doctors to interview
patients teaching teacher to deal with different situation.

PURPOSES OF ROLE PLAY

1. To convey information.

2. To involve everybody to work co-operatively for a common goal.

3. To try new behaviors in the presence of co-learner.

50
 4. To experience the situation emotionally and to develop insight in to the problem.

5. To develop new skills for dealing with problems.

6. To encourage thinking and creativity

8. To create the motivation and involvement necessary for learning to occur.

TYPE--

1. SOCIO-DRAMA

Deal with interaction of people with other group/individual involves situations more than one persons and
deal with problems.

2. PSYCHO-DRAMA

deal with unique individual’s needs/problems Practiced in group sitting mainly concerned with the unique
needs and problems of a particular individual. it should not be attempted except under guidance of a trained
therapist.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROLE PLAY--

1. The role play should have clear objectives.

2. It should analyze the needs in a stimulated real life situation.

3. it should encourage independent thinking.

4. The actors are not allowed to project their own life in the role.

5. It should make the audience to participate actively.

FACTORS INFLUENCING ROLE PLAY---

1. Level; it indicates the minimal level at which the activity can be carried out.

2. Time; depends on whether the students need to read articles, reports. Etc.

3. Aim; aim indicates the brooder objectives of each activity.

4. Language; language indicates the language the students will need

6. Preparation; it indicates anything the need to be done before class.

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 7. Warm- up; it involves ideas to focus the student’s attention and get them interested.

8. Procedure; the activities are performed accordingly.

9. Follow-up;it involves the activities that are done after completion of the role play.

PRINCIPLES OF ROLE PLAY

1 .As a teaching techniques role play is based on the philosophy that meanings are in people not in
words or symbols.

2. creating a teaching situation which can lead to the change of self concepts requires a distinct
organizational pattern.

3.should be flexible.

4.should be stimulant to think and should not be an escaped from disciplines of learning

6. should be able to analyze and evaluate which is an essential element to gain maximum learning
benefits.

7. should be done for a period.

ADVANTAGES OF ROLE PLAY

1. It provides an opportunity to practice new skills.

2. It helps in group problem solving.

4.It encourages the students in independent thinking.

6. It promotes activity and interest in the students.

7. It instills confidence in the students.

8. It is good for developing initiative and creative.

DISADVANTAGES OF ROLE PLAYING

1. It is time consuming.

2. Requires careful planning preparation and rehearsal.

52
 3. Learners may have difficulty in acting their roles.

4. The group members may be too she in participating.

USES IN ROLE PLEY IN NURSING

1. It helps in developing leadership skills and social interaction.

2. It helps in problem solving.

3. It develops to identify to observe and analyze situation.

4. To epractice selected behavior in real life situation.

5. Helps to identify critical issues.

PREPARATION PROCESS

1. PREPARATION

● Define the problem.

● Create a readiness for the role.
● Establish the situation.
● Cast the characters.
● Brief and warm up.
2. PLAYING

● Acting
● Stopping
● Involving the audience
● Analyzing the discussion
● Evaluating

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 EXHIBITIONS

DEFINITION

A collection of things ( goods or work of an art etc. ) for public display.

-Advance English dictionary.

Exhibit is an arrangement of communication media design to inform the observer about a specific subject
or topic. -K.P Neerja

MEANING

Education exhibit offers in an interesting and unique manner of combining multiple media into a small
area. Exhibit s will be arranged in big gathering like conference like books exhibitions will be organized
by publishing or in conference to encourage the students.

OVERALL PURPOSES /OBJECTIVES

 Exhibition provides a valuable opportunity for students prepare projects and things themselves and
therefore, induces better learning.
 Preparation, display and explanation of exhibits by students provide them excellent learning
opportunities.
 Excellent teaching aids as exhibitions are able to capture interest and impart learning in relaxed mood.

GUIDELINES /CRITERIA /PRINCIPLES

The exhibition should have a central them with a few subthemes to focus attention to a particular concept.

1. The exhibits should be clean and labeled properly.

2. The concept of contrast in color and size should be used for lying out the exhibition .

3. The exhibits should be so placed so that most visitors can see them .

4. As exhibition is meant to be mainly seen the place and the exhibits should be well-lighted.

5. To capture interest and attention of visitors both motion and sound should be utilized .

6. The exhibition must include a lot of demonstration as they involve deeply the students and the both.
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ADVANTAGES OF EXHIBITIONS

1. Exhibitions inspire the students to learn by doing things themselves and they get a sense of involvement
2. Exhibition develop social skills of communication , co-operation and co-ordination .
3. Exhibitions give students a sense of accomplishment and achievement .
4. Exhibition diffuse and disseminate interesting new work among students .
5. Exhibitions couple information with pleasure .

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TO BE REMEMBERED

1. It would be advisable that the exhibits should be prepared by the students themselves using readily
available and low-cost materials.
2. Many times, funds for the exhibition are a person, this can be overcome by raising contribution and
donations.
3. All kind of audio-visual materials relevant to the theme of the exhibition must be displayed.

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 MODELS

DEFINITION

Models are the replicas or copies the real objects.

-Advance English Dictionary.

A model in general is pattern , plan ,representation (especially in miniature) , or description design to show
the main object or working of an objects , system or concepts.

MEANING

A model is a recognizable representation of a real thing three dimensionally that is height ,width and depth
are felt as a reality. This makes the understanding of the things easy and better .

 Models provide the knowledge of the internal and external parts of a thing properly which is not
possible with two dimensional diagrams and charts.
 Also big models of small things can make its structure and small things can make its structure and
working easily comprehensible to a large number of students.
 Examples of the models often used by teachers are : clay ,models of hearts ,eye ,tooth; globe and
planetarium etc .

OVERALL PURPOSES /OBJECTIVES

 Models enhances the learning .

 Models is a technique to help students with physicals signs to supports clues to patients condition .
 Training emergency response team and other medical &military personnel .

OVERALL PURPOSES /OBJECTIVES

 The real thing s may not be available in that season or may be far away from the school .
 The real thing may be too big to be brought to the school .
 Models simplifies reality .
 It provides the correct concepts of an real of objects
 A workings model explain the various processes of objects and machines .
 Models concretize abstract concepts .
 Models enable use to reduce or enlarge objects to an observable size.

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TYPES OF MODELS

There are four main types of models .These are :-

1. Solid models .

2. Cut-away and x-ray models .

3. Working models .

4. Sand models .

1. SOLID MODELS

A solid model is the replica of an original thing made with some suitable material like clay, plaster of paris,
wood iron, etc. To show the external parts and features of the thing.

Example :-Globe ; clay model of human and animal ; a Vegetable ; dolls , toys etc.

2. CUT-AWAY AND X-RAY MODELS

Cut - away and X-ray models are replica of the original things to show internal parts of a thing. It may
either in the form of a cross - section model showing internal parts of a thing or may be composed of
detachable parts. Cross sectional models are difficult to make in the institutions as they require expertise to
construct them.

Example :- Cross-sectional model of human body ; petrol engine ; automatic traffic control system.

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3. WORKING MODELS

These models are either actual working things or their miniature replicas. For illustrating an operation
,working models are of great educational value .

Example :-A motor , a generator, a cycle pump etc .

4. SAND MODELS

These are the graphic layout using sand ,clay, saw dust and other objects to show trees , building, rivers ,
etc . Sand models are made using colored sand in a tray of convent size or on a table . Generally a green
field is shown by covering area with saw dust , water with blue cellphone , cardboard cut-outs for showing
forests .

Example :- A tribal village , a city area marketing complex , a forest area

GUIDELINES /CRITERIA /PRINCIPLES

 Use of construction system such as 'meccano' and 'Fishcer-Price' to make working models .
 Use of inexpensive materials such as card board wood and wire to make up static models of all types
(models of buildings, geometry bodies , three dimensional shapes).
 Use materials like plaster like of paris and papier mache to produce landscapes .

ADVANTAGES OF MODELS

1. Models heightens reality of things and make learning direct and meaningful as they are three-

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 dimensional .
2. Models illustrate the application side of certain principles and laws .
3. Models explain the complex and intricate operations in a simplified way and thus make comprehension
easier .
4. Models are lasting and ultimately workout to be cheaper teaching aids .
5. Still models are easy to make with the help of discarded materials like empty box , pins , rage , and clay
.
6. Models are to reasonable and convenient to handle .
7. Models involves the use of all five senses and thus make learning effective .

LIMITATIONS OF MODELS

Not all the models can be made in the educational institutions as they require expertise to make them
properly. Also models at times give a wrong impression and conception of the size of the real things .
Some of the models can be very expensive .

PREPARATION PROCESS

MATERIAL REQUIRED

o Clay.
o Plaster of paris .
o ordinary paper.
o Card board .
o Ordinary wood.
o Plywood.
o Metals.

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 MOULAGE

DEFINITION

The art of applying mock injuries for the purpose of training medical or military personnel .

-Advance English Dictionary.

MEANING

A moulages is a mold made of plastic material (one of a diversified group of plastic suitable for this
purpose) to stimulate some life object, such as part of the body which shows evidence of trauma ,
infections , surgical interventions or disease .

DESCRIPTION /HISTORICAL ASPECTS /INTERVENTION

The technique of making moulages (wax models) for the teaching of anatomy was introduced in Florence
from the late 1600s .Studding the moulage was a much more pleasant way of learning anatomy than the
alternative of dissecting dead bodies .When the tissues were undergoing postmortem decay. The history of
wax models is ancient .Wax anatomical models were first made by gaetano gintio zummo (1656 -1701)
who first worked in Naples , then Florence and finally Paris where he was granted monopoly right by
Louis XIV . Later Jules barrette (1834-1923) made more than 2000 splendid wax models in hospital saint
Louis , Paris , where more than 4000 wax models were collected , he made pleasant conversations with the
patients moulages.

PREPARATION PROCESS

OBJECTIVE

✔ Using moulages to create a realistic degloving wound.

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ARTICLES /MATERIAL REQUIRED

1. Latex.

2. Latex paint brush.

3. Small paint brush.

4. Make up sponge.

5. Red moulage gel.

6. Clear moulage gel.

7. White make up.

8. Flesh toned make.

9. Blood gel.

10. equipment.

11. Hot pot .

PREPARATION STEPS

 Heat the moulage gel to 105o F. Carefully remove the fingers tips and 'rib' from both end of glove (The
rib is the rounded edge of glove , where it is the rounded edge of the glove, where it sits at the wrist).
 Carefully place the glove on the victim's hand ,feeding the fingers through the openings to expose the
patient's own finger tips and nail beds.
 Using latex , secure the cut edges of the finger holes to the victim's finger by applying latex around the
,where the skin and glove meet allow to set 1-2 min or until fully dry.
 Remove extra glove around the finger as necessary to create a more natural from the Victim's natural
hand to the glove create skin discoloration and mottling by Using a make-up sponge or paintbrush that
has been dipped in white make-up and lightly blot the surface of the Victim's natural skin and nail beds.
Care should be taken to alternate the intensity of color placed on the skin by the amount of pressure
applied to the applicator and allowing some of the victim's natural skin color to show through
 Create degloving skin folds by carefully moving the base the glove forward carefully lift the glove at
the wrist and work forward on the glove the hand until the folds have reached the base of fingers and
exposed the top of the hand.
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 Using a make-up sponge that has been sipped in red moulage gel, create the degloved area by lightly
applying colorant over the entire back of the hand using a gentle blotting motion .Allow to set for
several minutes or until moulage gel is fully set.
 Using clear moulage gel, create tendons on the back of the hand by applying a thin strip of moulage
gel, extending from the top of the hand to the bottom of the created skin fold area . Allow to set for
several minutes or until moulage gel is fully set.
 Using a small make-up brush that has been dipped with make-up, carefully apply colorant down the
perimetes of the tendons. Apply blood gel as desired to fingers and base of glove , along skin folds.

GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION OF MOULAGE

● Degloving wounds can be made in advance, stored covered in the moulage box and reused indefinitely.
● When sizing gloves for victim, choose a glove one size larger than the normal to allow for "draping" of
skin folds.
● Secure glove using later at fingers and underneath folds as needed for stability before proceeding to "on
scene".

STORAGE

 Gentle remove the glove from hand of the patient.

 Store the glove in a plastic bag in a refrigerator or freezer to preserve blood long term.
 Using a soft clean cloth or make-up remove towelette , wipe away the make-up , blood and sweat from
the skin of the victim .

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 COMPUTER

INTRODUCTION

Computer can teaches at any level of learning from knowledge and comprehension up through application,
analysis and synthesis. They can be programmed to teach problem solving and decision learning. The
primary computer application for students in a nursing programme is computer assisted or learning by
means of computer programs.

DEFINITION
A computer is a device that accepts information (in the form of digitalized data) and manipulates it for
some result based on a program or sequence of instruction on how the data is to be processed.

HISTORICAL ASPECT

● The first electronic digitals computers were developed between 1940. Originally they were the size of a
large room. Consuming as much power as several hundred personal computers (PCs). In this era
mechanical analog computers were used for military application.
● The first recorded use of word “computer” was in 1613 in a book called yong means gleanings by
English writer Richard Braithwaite.
● The computer was first theorized by Charles Babbage.
● In 1910, Machine was given to the science museum in south Kensington.
● Alan Turing is widely regarded as the father of modern computer science.
● In 1980, witnessed home computer and now obiquitous personal computer.
● In 2009, Modern smart phone are fully programmable computer.
PURPOSE

o Emulating the machine hardware and bringing it in a format that can be manipulated and understood by
user.
o Operating system integrating a system’s devices into a single plateform.
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o To extends our thinking.
o To earn revenue for their vendors.
o To solve problem caused by computer.
o To crystallize conceptual understanding.
o To execute man made programs and hopefully useful output.
CLASSIFICATION

Computer is mainly classified in 3. They are

1) Classification with respect to purpose

a) General purpose computers
⮚ Those entire computer which are used for general purposes. Eg. PC.
⮚ A personal computer used for playing games, word processing, accounting information system,
management information systems etc.
⮚ These computers can stored a huge amount of data.
b) Special purpose computers
⮚ It is also known as dedicated computers because these are designed to perform a particular jobs.
 It is perform a single and specific task. Eg: Games , controlling traffic light, ATM etc.
 These system have a predefined set of instructions permanently stored into them, that are designed
to perform only one task.
 They are fast in processing
2) Classification with respect to function or logic used
Types of computer

Digital Analog
Hybrid

Micro Mini Mainframe Super

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 a) Analog computer

● It measures and answers the question by method of “How much” the input data is not a number
infect a physical quantity like temperature, pressure, speed, velocity etc.
● It calculates the result by measuring the continuous change in these quantity.
● These system are more speedy than digital.
● Examples: speed meter, air pressure measurement devices, rain gauge etc.
b) Digital computer

● Digital computer works on discrete data.

● Discrete data is refers to discrete value such as 0,1 (Binary number).
● These computer based on the presence and absence of an electronic charge or binary 0 &1.
● Examples: personal computer, digital watches etc.
c) Hybrid computer

● It is combined of best features of both digital and analog system.

● It works on both analog and digital data.
● It speedy like analog and accuracy like digital.
● Examples: weather forecasting, air defense, radio controlling system, digital petrol pumps etc.
3) Classification with respect to size, speed and cost

a) Micro Computer

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 ● These computer are small in size.
● It is used to have primary memory range from a few kilobytes to gigabytes.
● These are usually designed for personal use therefore, they are also called as personal computer
(i.e PC).
● They are highly flexible.
● Examples: IBM, APPLE,COMPAC, RADIO SHACK, COMMOBORE etc.
b) Mini computer

● These computer are small in size but larger as compared to micro computer.
● They are less expensive.
● Primary memory is used in Giga bytes.
● Examples: PRIME – 1995, IBM SYSTEM – 36 etc.
● It is application on departmental systems, network services.
c) Mainframe computer

● These computer are very powerful.

● They are large in size, large in memory and powerful.
● They are also capable of connecting terminals with it.
● They are used in network environment and mainly as network.
● Examples: IBM – 4381, NEC – 610 etc.
d) Super computer

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 o They are the most powerful computer.
o They are use for problem requiring complex calculation.
o The speed of a super computer is measured in “FLOPS” (10 Power 12 FLOPS).
ADVANTAGES
⮚ It allows the student to interact in learning situation.
⮚ Computer can also individualize learning to an extraordinary degree.
⮚ The nonjudgemental nature and endless patience of computer are also important advantage.
⮚ It provide information storage like watch movies and listen to music, search content etc,
DISADVANTAGES
⮚ They are expensive.
⮚ Depending of the OS and Software/ hardware installed, they can be difficult to maintain.
⮚ They can cost a lot.
⮚ Addictive to people when using internet.
⮚ Hackers can interfere in your personal things.

SPECIFIC POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED:

● Starting the computer

● Note that the computer actually consist of three part like TV, monitor & CPU box.
● The procedure for switching the computer “on” will be slightly different or different brands of
computer.
● Normally the computer switch will on the right side of cabinet.
Steps1.

● Turn on the main power supply computer box and the monitor.
● Monitor switch to “on”.
● Shut down the computer.
Steps2.

● Before shut down you should refresh it

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 INTERNET

INTRODUCTION

Internet is a global system of interconnected computer network that use the standard internet suits to serve
several billion user world wide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public,
academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of
electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of
information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web
(WWW), the infrastructure to support email, and peer-to-peer networks.

HISTORICAL ASPECT

● On 29 October 1969, the first two nodes of ARPANET were interconnected between Leonard
Kleinrock’s network measurement.
● In 1974, ABC interview with Arthur C. Clarke, in which he describe a future of ubiquitous
networked personal computer.
● In 1989, Australian university joined the push towards using IP protocol to unify their networking
in fracture.
● In 2000, Clinton made first web cast.
● In 2001, Wikipedia launched
● In 2002, my space launched.
● In 2003. Face book launched

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TYPES

Social

Media

Website Blogs

Internet / Types

Marketing Viral

Networking

PRINCIPLES

● Transmission control protocol and internet protocol: They are most commonly – used protocol
for using the internet.
● Packet switching:
● User datagram protocol: It is a protocol at the same level as TCP, above the level of IP.
● IP Address: It was a unique address for every host computer in the world. They are registered so
that they stay unique. It is useful for testing processes.
● Domain name: The domain name is the user – friendly equivalent of an IP address.
● Client Server and Peers: A network application usually involves a client and a server. Eg. Game,
Chat, internet phone.
● Port numbers: To identify a host machine. An IP address or a domain name is needed. Eg. SMTP,
FTP.
● Sockets: A Socket is the software mechanism for one program to connect to anothers. Eg:
Telephone.
● Streams: A streams is a serial collection of data, such as can be sent to a printer, a display or a
serial file.
● Uniform resources locator (URL): A unique identifier for any resource on the internet.
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ADVANTAGES

● Internet is a virtual treasure trove of information.

● Internet can help you to find data on any subject that you need.
● Internet is a very effective way to buy and sell products all over the world.
● To meet up with people of similar interest and discuss common issues.
● To meet new people, make new friend, as well as to stay in touch with old friend.
DISADVANTAGE

● If you use the internet, your personal information such as your name, address etc can me accessed
by other people.
● If you use a credit card to shop online, then your credit card information can be “stolen” which
could me akin to giving someone a blank check.
● Pornographic sites on the internet can be easily found and can be determent to letting children use
the internet.
● Sending unsolicited e – mails in bulk, which serves no purpose and unnecessarily clog up to entire
system.

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 SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES

DEFINITION
A social networking sites is an online service, platform or site that focuses on building and reflecting of
social networks or social relations among people, who for example – share interest and/or activities.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
● In the early 1930, Dr. Jacob Levi Mareno introduced the sociogram.
● In 1999, bounce web was first established as a free web hosting provider.
● In 1990, new social networking method were developed.
● In 2003, face book launched.
● In may 2010, a child pornography social networking site was dismantled my law enforcement.
● In 2013, study in the Journal cyber psychology, behavior and social networking investigated
phenomenon from perspective of face book user.
ADVANTAGES
● Increase leads and sales.
● Building customer relationship.
● Create awareness and engage people.
● Good for human resources.
● Health and education benefit.
● Create and maintain many relationship.
DISADVANTAGES
● Anyone can upload any kinds of photo, video.
● Any comments you can pass through it. (i.e bad and good)
● You can create any community sites. Eg: something bad for terror.
● People loose their security by providing self information in those site.
● Sexual offenders and stalkers could easily search your name and fined enough information to put
you in danger.

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 VIDEO CONFERENCING

INTRODUCTION

Video Conferencing as a term has become a misnomer. It no longer embraces the full range of technology,
or the communication styles, it is supposed to describe. In education, the situation is further complicated
by the range of teaching and learning methods applied.

DEFINITION

Video conferencing is the conduct of video conference by a set of telecommunication technologies which
allows two or more location to communicate by simultaneous two way video and audio transmissions. It
has also been called “visual collaboration”.

HISTORICAL ASPECT

● In 1968, multiple user video conferencing first being demonstrated with Stanford research
institute’s NLS computer technology.
● In 1980, digital telephony transmission network became possible, such as with ISDN network etc.
● On November, 1984, first commercial come from picture tel corp., which had initial
● In 2000, video telephony was popularized via free internet service such as skype, ichat and web
plugin and online telecommunication.
● In 2008, a Tanberg T3 high resolution tele peesence room is use.
● In 2009, Russian President Dmitry Medveder attending the Singapore APEC summit, holding a
video conference with Rashid Nurgaliyer via Tactical MXP, after an arms depots explosion in
Russia.
● In 2010, Indonesian and US students participating in an educational video conference.

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PURPOSE

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 ● The main purpose of video conferencing is to enable face to face communication between two or
more people in different location.
● The primary cost benefit is to business afforded by the use of video conferencing is the reduction
employee travel cost.
● It also offer the possibility of increased profit for the business as well.
● It helps in distance learning.
● It helps in sharing lecture with the students.
● It promotes job interview.

TYPES

There are commonly four steps of video conferencing system. They are –

1. Tele presence conferencing

This system give the appearance of being present in an actual meeting even through the participant
are geographically dispersed. This system can either e portable or immersion.

2. Integrated room conferencing

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 This type of system are mostly used in conference room, board room or class room with multiple
participant. This type of system usually consist of a centralized location for the codec and
associated hardware.

3. Set – Toi conferencing system:

Set – toi are complete video conferencing system designed to sit on a monitor. They are useful in
small conference room and other small group venous. They are often maintained on cart making it
possible to roll them around for use in different room.

4. Desktop conferencing system:

This type of conferencing bring video conferencing into your personal work space. This technology
can deliver full motion video conferencing from your PC. These system provide about H.323 voice
and video as well as application sharing.
PRINCIPLES

i. Video input:
It usually consist of either a video camera or a web cam. It is usually to video camera at each
location. Digital projector are used to show the presentation not only in one location but sending to
one presentation as well.
ii. Video output:
It can be in the room of any video output form such as standard TV set, digital TV set, computer
monitor etc.

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iii. Audio input:

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 It takes the form of microphone. Sometimes each person might be individually milled, some video
conference how one general microphone that passed around or consist of microphone in the central
location.
iv. Audio output:
It usually consist of speakers. These speaker can range from professional equipment, headphone or
even tiny speaker.
v. Data transfer:
Video conferencing uses several kind of technology including digital technology as well as analog
technological. ISNO lines, a normal broad band internet connection and radio frequencies which
include WIFI.
vi. Data compression software:
In order for digital video conferencing to take place over ISNM line broad band internet and wifi
there must be a software to compress both video and audio data.

ADVANTAGES

● It improved quality of life.

● Reduced environmental impact.
● It is cost sharing as it avoided the travelling cost.
● It helps in effective communication.
● To maintain relationship by face to face communication.
● It helps in educational purposes.
● It save time.
● Provide and promote health status by using Tele medicine.
DISADVANTAGES

● It is very expensive.
● It is not effective until stability of computer.
● It includes complex technology.
● Time zone – depending on where you are in the world it may be difficult to get everyone on
sometimes.
● Extra training – with the work of special equipment they has to be trained according to the
equipment.
● Only limited number of user can attend conference at some time.

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 E – LEARNING

DEFINITION

E – Learning refers to the use of electronic media and information and communication technologies (ICT)
in education.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
● Early e – learning systems based on computer based learning / training often attempted to replicated.
● In 1994, first online high school has been founded.
● In 2008, the council of Europe passed a statement endoring e – learning potential to drive equality
and education improvement across the EU.
OBJECTIVES

● To guide the content material and teaching method.

● To make sure to reach the goal.
● To assess and grading of content material.
● To developed an instrumental strategy.
● Ability to use learned material in new situation.
TYPE

a) Web based training

● It is used in corporate training.

● Technology is used primarily to deliver content to end user without significant interaction with
for support from training professional or manager.

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 ● It significant industry has grown up around this form of e – learning.
b) Supported online training

● It is used in higher education.

● The majority of the content of the course may be delivered through lecturers or through distance –
education textual material.
c) Informal E – learning

● It is used in many knowledge intensive organization.

● It linked with knowledge management.
ADVANTAGES
 Improved open access to education, including access to full degree programs.
 Improved integration of student particularly in continuing education.
 Provision of tools to enable student to independently solve problem.
 Improved interaction between students and instructor.
 To pursue a degree in higher education.
 To explain the concept in a different way.
DISADVANTAGES

 Less effective of learning.

 Potential distraction that hinder true learning.
 Ease of cheating.
 Teachers lack of knowledge and experience to manage virtual teacher – student interaction.
 Lack of social interaction between teacher and immediate feedback from teachers.
 Synchronic communication hider fast exchange of question.
 Danger of procrastination.

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 COMPUTER ASSISTED INTERACTION

DEFINITION

Computer assisted instruction (CAI) refers to instruction or remediation presented on a computer. Many
educational programs are available online and from computer stores and textbook companies. They
enhances teacher instruction in several ways.

HISTORICAL ASPECT

● The method was first introduce in the 1960s. since then it has evolved so that in the twenty first
century. Computers are an integral part of the education process in the developed countries.
● According to Greta G. Fein and Jerome L. Singer who studied the effect of play on children
education, the involvement in the fantasy as a whole is highly intrinsically motivating.
● According to certain studies, the combination of computer assisted instruction and teacher assisted
instruction (TAI) is highly effective in bolstering students achievements.
● The Logo project ( Papert 1980; 1993) was probably the first CAL system that was based on a
specific learning approach ( the experimental, discovery learning approach). Also known as
computer assisted instruction.
● Pioneer such as suppers ( Stanford university), Kemeny and Kirtz and Bitzer Plato, university of
Illinois (Hart 1981, 1995) were among the first to use a computer as part of learning process.
PURPOSE

● Providing background knowledge.

● Remediation.
● Foundation mastery.
● To provide practical instruction through interactive programs that teach effectively.
● Review and reinforcement.
● Assessment for improving teaching.
● Improve motivation through reward and interaction.

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 ● It builds confidence.
● Problem solving.
● Providing a tool for student self reflecting.
● Helping in critical analysis.
● To provide a rich diversity of environment and problems.
● To achieve the programs developed for a single course may differ drastically.
TYPES

● Drill and practice of nursing procedure

It provides opportunities to student and demonstrator to repeatedly practice the skills of nursing
procedure that have previously been presented and that further practice is necessary for mastery.
● Simulation

Simulation software can provide an approximation of reality that does not require the expense of
real life and its risk.
● Tutorial

Tutorial activity includes both the presentation of information and its extension into different
forms of work, including procedures, games and simulation and games. Lecturer can be carried out
through the CAL effectively.

● Statistical analysis
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 Complicated statistical analysis can be carried out easily through statistical software.
● Reference writing
Different types of software are available which helps the author’s and students to write reference
according to desired type or design.

PRINCIPLES

● While lecture form of teaching has be often maligned, there are techniques for enhancing lectures
that can also apply to CAI.
● Effective communication methods , both verbal and audio visual are as important in computer
modules as they are in face – face teaching.
● The quality of interactive questioning and nature and timing of a feedback are critical to the
success of instruction by computer.
● Appropriate feedback can improve retention as can use of proper distracter in multiple – choice
question.

ADVANTAGE

● Interesting and motivating:

Classical method of teaching can monotonous, boring and even frustrating.
Eg: “Fill in the blanks”, images, sound etc.

● Individualization:
Its self directed learning student can decide where and what to learn.

● Compatible learning style:

Self – place learning, self directed learning, exercising of various sense and variety of media.

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 ● Promote enthusiasm:
They provide a simulating environment and promote enthusiasm.
● It helps shy and show learner.
● It provide responsible and easily communicable.
● Optimal use of learning time without limited.
● To receive maximum benefit from feedback only if it is given immediately.
● To analyze the specific mistake that student made.
● One to one interaction is possible to learner and teacher can devote more time to individual student.
DISADVANTAGE

● Overwhelmed with information available.

● Lack of trained teacher.
● Inability to handle unexpected situation.
● Divert the attention from content by over use of multimedia.
● Learning becomes too mechanical.

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 CHARTS

INTRODUCTION

Charts are versatile and useful visual aids that have been used by teacher for long time.These usual symbols
used for summarizing, comparing, contrasting or performing other services in explaining subject matter.
Diagnostic representation of the facts and idea. Teacher has to prepare charts by incorporating his own
ideas and lines of approach of the specific topic are more useful. Edgar dale defines charts as, ‘a visual
symbol summarizing or comparing or constricting or performing other helpful services in explaining
subject matter ‘. The main function of the charts is always to show the relationship such as comparison,
relative amounts, development processes, classification and organizations.

DEFINITION

A chart is a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical or vertical material which presents a clear visual
summary.

HISTORICAL ASPECT

Most of the chart used today in data visualization among virtually all of the social sciences. Derive from
the original design of William Playfair (1759-1823).

PURPOSE

 For showing the relationships by means of facts and figures.

 For presenting the material symbolically.
 To showing the continuity in process.
 For presenting abstract ideas in visual form.
 For creative problem and stimulating thinking.

CHARACTERISTICS

 Charts can be carefully stored and preserved for use in future.

 They have an educational value.
 Usually the charts are teacher made.
 Charts can be of any size.
 Charts display specific information.

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 Easy to carry.
TYPES OF CHARTS
 Wall charts
 Narrative charts
 Cause and effect charts
 Chain chart
 Evolution chart
 Pull chart
 Flow or organization charts
 Bar chart
 Pie chart
 Tabulation chart
 Time/Table charts
 Genealogy chart
 Job chart
 Tree chart
 Flip charts

● Wall chart –Displays that are pinned to a wall or bulletin board and are mainly intended for casual
study outside the context of a formal lesson. The material on wall chart clearly distinguishable or
legible at a distance.

● Narrative chart- arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing the events in the process or
development of a significant issue to its point of resolution or we can show an improvement over of
years.

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 ● Cause and effect chart- arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing the relationship between two
system or between right and responsibilities or between a complex of conditions and change.

● Chain chart- arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing transitions or cycle.e.g. life cycle of
organism or individual.

● Evolution chart- facts and ideas for expressing changes in specific items from beginning data and
its projection into the future.

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 ● Pull chart- it consists of written messages which are hidden by strips of thick paper. The message
can be shown to the viewer, one after another by pulling out the concealing.

● Flow or organization chart- diagrams used to show organizational element or administrative or

functional relationship

● Bar chart- learners abilities to recognize concepts such as ‘more’, ‘greater than’, ‘higher’, ‘taller ,
‘smaller’ etc. can easily be developed through graphs.

● Pie chart-a circle will be drawn and the division will be made into different sections, each section
will be coded differently and coded key will be given at right corner of the chart as a legend.

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 ● Tabulation chart- the numerical data are presented in a tubular form, used for comparisons or for
listing advantage and disadvantage of an organization. e.g. comparison table.

● Time/Table chart- to show the schedule of an activity or of an individual, e.g. tour chart, time
table of a class.

● Genealogy chart- to represent historical facets or growth and development of the family. Taking an
analogy from the tree, the origin is shown in a single line, rectangle, circle or other representation of
the trunk and the various changes or developments are shown , e.g. family tree.

● Job chart- job responsibilities of specific categories will be listed out and circulated among its
members.
● Tree chart- to show the development or growth or the types in the form of a tree, e.g. complication
or type of a specific disease.

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 ● Flip chart- A flip chart is a collection of large papers (pages) which are bound together at the top.
The pages are ‘flipped’ or brought up and to the back as they are used.

HOW TO USE CHARTS EFFECTIVELY

 Involve the students in preparation of the charts.
 Every details depicted in the charts should be visible to all pupil in the class.
 It should display the information only about one specific area in the subject.
 It should not contain too many details.
 It should represent neat and tidy in appearance.
 Teacher should make sure that there is provision for hanging the chart at a vantage point.
 Use the pointer to point out specific factors in the chart.
 Charts should be carefully stored and preserved for use in future.

ADVANTAGES

 Simple to use
 Inexpensive, portable
 Suitable for multicolored display
 No need of electricity
 Effectively help to focus learner’s attention

PREPARATION PROCESS
 MATERIAL REQUIRED-
 Sheets of thick white or colored paper
 Fiber tipped round- point
 Chisel marker
 Graphic material
 Stencils
 Drawing aid

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 Thread

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  PREPARATION STEPS-
● before making a chart, one should plan the content in terms of objective and decide the layout
● the layout should be balanced and should use the space effectively
● one should draft the plan on a small sheet of paper with the aspect ratio i.e as is required for the chart
● the size of the chart , the size of the letters and the contrast of the display material should be such
that it is readable by the farthest viewer
● standard chart paper in size 19x60 cm and 70x55cm is suitable for most purose
● the size of the letters for the captions ,labels and keywords written on a chart should be between 2
and 3 cm for a class room of depth 6 m
● the thickness of the line should be between 2 and 3 mm
● the display material should be contrasted with the background so that it stand out

STORAGE

⮚ it should be kept in a chart cover( in a rolled manner)

⮚ it should be rolled in between two newspaper to prevent crack and dust
⮚ it should be keep in dry place to prevent spoiling from moisture

SPECIAL POINT
❖ teacher should use appointers to point out a specific point in a chart
❖ the color should be used meaningfully
❖ one chart should convey just one idea or one principle

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 GRAPHS

INTRODUCTION
Graphs are the visual teaching aids for presenting statistical information and contrasting the trend or
changes to certain attributes. A huge data and long list of figure is always boring but if the same is
represented by a graph, capture attention and make students think. A good graph can give a lot of
information just by shooting a glance at it.

DEFINITION
“Graphs depict numerical or quantitative relationship or statistical data that are presented in the form
of a visual symbol.”
From textbook of nursing education
(Neeraja K.P.)
HISTORICAL ASPECT

A Swiss mathematician, Leonhard Euler, is who came up with graphs. He was born in 1707 and died in
1783. He discovered graphs while working on Kaliningrad bridge in Russia. The graph theory was used
by Euler to solve a problem that a Russian city had with determining how to have seven bridges to two
islands and only cross them once.

USES
● Inaccuracies in the data can be identified with he help of a graph.
● Make presentation of quantitative data easily interpretable.
● For consisting the huge data.
PROPERTIES
● The common edge is called incident.
● The graph with one vertex and no edge is known as trivial graph.
● The graph with only vertices and no edges is known as edgeless graph.
● The graph with no vertices and no edges is called null graph or empty graph.
TYPES
o Pie graph
o Pie graph is known as circle diagram.
o The data are presented through the section or portion of the circle.
o Bar graph-

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 o A graphic representation which extends the scale horizontally along the length of bars. Each
bars must be of same width.
o Line graph-
o To show the trends and relationship. E.g. single lines show the relation and variation in
quantity.

o Pictorial graph-
o It is an outstanding method of graphic representation. Pictures are used for the expression of
ideas; they are more attractive and easily understood.

o Frequency polygon-
o A line graph for the graphical presentation of the frequency distribution.

o Histogram or column diagram-

o It presents an accurate picture of the relative proportion of the total frequency from interval
to interval.

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 o Cumulative frequency graph-
A line graph drawn by plotting actual limits of the class interval on the X-axis and the
respective cumulative frequencies on the Y-axis.

o O give-
To determine quickly and accurately the statistical data like percentile, median deviation can be
used.

GUIDE LINE

while constructing a graph the following points should be consider

o They must have a title and index

o The proportion between width and height should be balanced
o Selection of scale must be appropriate
o Footnotes may be included they are needed
o Principle of simplicity must be kept in mind
o Neatness and cleanliness in construction of graph must be insured

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 ADVANTAGES:
● Huge matter can be concise and represented.
● Portable.
● Easily available.
● It improves skill.
● It facilitates completion of data represented in different columns and row
DISADVANTAGES:
● No detailed ideas about the natter can be collected.
● Audience should have the knowledge about the graph to understand it.
● Present only quantitative aspect
PREPARATION PROCESS

 MATERIAL REQUIRED-
● Graphic sheet
● Geometrical instrument
● Scale
● Chart paper
● Marker pen
● Pencil
 METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION-
 Pie graph-
o The surface area of a circle is to cover 360o
o The total values or frequencies are equated to 360o and then the angles corresponding to the
component part are calculated.
o Divide the circle into appropriate sectors using protractor.
o Color each section and write the corresponding percentage it represents.
o Caption the pie graph with a descriptive title.
● Bar graphs-
o Before making the bar graphs make a rough sketch of it in a notebook.
o For drawing the bar graph use the chart paper of 50*72cm in size.
o Use two different color shades for the two contrasting groups.
o The bars should be of equi-spaced.
o Write the key to the bar graph in a box on the right hand side corner of the chart paper
o Numbers specifying the magnitude of the bars should be on the top of the bars.
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 POSTERS
INTRODUCTION
Posters are the graphic aids with short, quick and typical messages with attention capturing paintings.
Posters can be of different sizes. A big poster which are also called bill board or hoarding. It is good
substitute for the first hand experience.
DEFINITION
● Posters are the graphic aids with short quick and typical messages with attention capturing
paintings.
● Posters are good substitute for first to inspire the people and lastly it will serve as a remainder to the
group.

PURPOSE
• Advertising an event or product.
• Campaigning for a cause.
• Giving a directive
• Popularizing a slogan.
• Giving a warning.
• Popularizing a symbol or a sign.
• Propaganda.
• To make an instant appeal.
• To convey single idea or few idea.
FEATURES OF GOOD POSTER
• Simplicity in depiction.
• Dramatic action packed short message.
• Colorfulness
• Eye catching figurative design.

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 Thus, it has been seen that a poster has be both colorful and educative.

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 GUIDELINES
o The message of the poster should be short simple direct and one that can be taken at glance and
easy to understand immediately.
o The right amount of matter should be put up in the right place at the time.
o The audience should become aware of the events, practices or ideas you want to communicate.
RULES TO PREPARE POSTER
✔ To do a special job.
✔ To promote one point.
✔ To support local demonstration and local exhibits.
✔ Planned for specified people.
✔ It should stop the people and make them look.
✔ Tell the message in a single glance.
✔ Use bold letters (20’’x 30’’).
✔ Use simple, few words which conveys idea.
✔ Use pleasing colors.
✔ Must be timely.
✔ Poster can be developed with the help of an artist.
ADVANTAGES
 To make an instant appeal.
 To convey single idea or few ideas.
 To be understood at a glance.
 Comprehensive at a distance and sufficiently clear.
 Suitable for patient education, presenting scientific facts, showing safety measures and many other
facts relating to health.
DISADVANTAGES
 Effect of the poster depends on contrast of colour.
PREPARATION STEPS
 Statement of problem(need for project).
 Purpose of the poster (can also be clearly stated in title).
 Description of the program and target outcome should be there.

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 MAPS

DEFINITION

“Map is defined as the graphic representation of the earth surface or portions of it are terms as maps.
Neerja,K.P.
“Map is a graphic aid representing the proportionately as a diagram the surface of the earth, world or part s
there of”. Basavanttappa.
VARIOUS ASPECTS OF MAP

A map is always drawn to a scale which is mentioned on one corner of it. Every map should have
following description on it. A caption or title a grid, a scale, a key, date on which it has been prepared.

→ A square with a flag on the top usually represented a school.

→ Width and combinations of lines represents road.

→ Washed line represents a boarder.

→ With a north arrow, a user can determine direction.

COLOR DIFFERENTIATION REPRESENTS

Brown → Mountain, Hills.

Blue → River.

Dark green → low elevation or below sea level.

White or Gray → highest elevation.

Green → Fertile region.

PURPOSE
 A map provides information on the existence the location of and the distance between ground features
such as populated places and routes of travel and communication.
 It give an idea of variation of heights and the extent of vegetarian cover.
 Give knowledge of large area in a single view.
 Convey geographical, political information etc.

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TYPES
There are various types of map are present.

→ Globe -It is the model of the earth in the spherical shape.

-It shows the aris of the rotation of the earth and its
inclination.

→ Flat Maps-The earth, containments, countries etc are shown on flat

surface and are called flat maps

THERE ARE VARIOUS TYPES OF FLAT MAPS

● Weather maps
● Population maps
● Road maps
● Tourist maps
● Railway maps

ADVANTAGES
 It provides a current pictorial view of the ground the no map
can equal.
 Convey useful information in a concise manner.
 A large area can be visualized at a time.
 The distance, direction, poles can be easily understood.
DISADVANTAGES
 Position location and scale are only approximate.
 It lacks marginal data.
 It requires more training to interpet than a map.
 It should not contain too many details.
 It should possess neat appearance.
 Use the pointer to point out specific factors in the charts.

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 MULTIMEDIA

DEFINITION

Multimedia is a media and content that uses a combination of different content form this contrast with
media that use only rudimentary computer displace such as text only or traditional forms of printed or hand
produced material . Multimedia include combination of TEXT, AUDIO, STILL IMMAGES,
ANNIMATION, VEDIO OR INTER ACTIVITY content form.

Multimedia is a computer-based interactive communications process that incorporates text, graphics,

sound, animation, and video

COMPUTER MULTIMEDIA
Computer based multimedia , two or form of communication delivered by one tool running different
software, makes instructor’s access to multimedia more accessible and varied.

CHARACTERISTICS
 Multi-sensory experience – real world
 Multi-sensory memory imprints
 Different learning styles benefit
ADVANTAGES
● Multi-sensory
● Creates knowledge connections
● Individualized
● Teacher and student creation
MULTIMEDIA DISADVANTAGES
● Lack of structure
● Complex to create
● Time consuming
● Cognitive overload
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.

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

INTRODUCTION
Teaching is also untouched with the technology advancement presenter’s and teaching always looks for
new ways to help student to understand the course material. The use of LCD projection in class is one of
the newest tools to help meet that goal. LCD’s used with a computer project an image onto a seen or a
blank wall and provides more instructional flexibility in the types of content that can be used in a
classroom. An LCD projector can be used in the classroom to view.

DEFINITION
An LCD projector is a device that uses a liquid crystal display technology to project still images, video
and other data onto a screen or other surface.
Mukesh Chandra Sharma.

HISTORY:-
● In 1888, Friedrick Reinitzer (1858-1927) – discover the liquid crystalline nature cholesterol extracted
from carrots( that is, two meltings points and generation of colors) and published the finding at a
meeting of the Vienna chemical of society on may 3,1888.
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● In 1904 Otto lehmann published his work Flussige Kristalle (liquid crystal).
● In 1911, charles mauguin first experimented with liquids crystal confined between plates in thin layers.
● In 1972 the first active matrix liquid crystal display panel was produced in the united states
● In 1996, Samsung developed the patterning techniques that enables multi-domain LCD. Multi domain
and in plan switching subsequently remain the dominant LCD designs through 2010.
● In fourth quarter of 2007, LCD television suposed CRT’s in worldwide sales for the first time.
● LCD TV’s was projected to account 50% of the 200 million TV’s to be sleeped globely in 2008,
according to display.
● In October 2011, Toshiba announced 2500into1600 pixels on 6.1 inch LCD panel suitable for use in
tablet, computer especially for Chinese corrected display.

IMPORTANCE OF LCD
1. It provides a large, clear image that students can see from anywhere in the room. Enhancing the
learning experience.
2. Lecture becomes more effective and interesting.
3. Students are more attentive.
4. Benefit for visual learners.
5. Allows instructor to project videos or image directly from a book to the screen through the LCD
projector.
6. Presentation are easily made using PowerPoint at other software applications PowerPoint can also be
used to prepare handouts and content outlines.
GUIDELINES OF LCD
⮚ Each pixel of on LCD typically consist of a layers of molecules aligned between two transparent
electrode, and 2 polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are perpendicular to each other.
without the liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be
blocked by the second polarizer .
⮚ Before an electric field is applied the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules is determined by the
alignment at the electrodes.
 LCD with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top such that the top and bottom polaizer
are parallel.
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 The device can also operated between parallel in which case the bright and dark stales are reversed.the
voltage off dark state in this configuration appears slowly however because of small variations of
thickness across the device.
 Displays for a small number of individual digits and or fixed symbols can be implemented with
independence electrodes for each segment.
 There more to building on LCD then simply creating a sheet of liquid crystal. The combination of
four facts makes LCD possible.
⮚ Light can be polarized see how sunglass work far some facscinating information on polarized.
⮚ Liquid crystal can transmit and change polarized light.
⮚ The structure of liquid crystal can be changed by electric current.
⮚ There are transparent substance that can conduct electricity.
ADVANTAGE OF LCD
⮚ Very compact and light.
⮚ Very little heat emitted during operation due to low power consumption.
⮚ No geometric distoration.
⮚ The possible ability to have little or no flicker depending in the backlight technology.
⮚ Razar sharp image with no bleeding/smearing when operated at native resolution.
⮚ Emits much less undesirable electromagnetic radiation than a CRT monitor.
⮚ Can be made in almost any size or shape.
⮚ No theoretical resolution limit.
⮚ Can be made to large sizes (more then 24 inches)lightly and relatively inexpensively.
DISADVANTAGES
⮚ Limited viewing angle, causing color, saturation, contrast and brightness to vary even within the
intended viewing angle,by variation in posture.
⮚ Uneven backlight in some monitors causing brightness distortion especially towards the edges.
⮚ Block levels may appear unacceptably bright due to the fact that individual liquid crystal cannot
completely black all light from passing through.
⮚ Fixed bit depth many cheaper LCDs are only able to display 262,000 colors.8 bit S-IPS panels can
display 16 millons colors and have significantly better black level,but are expensive and have
slower response time

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 ⮚ Low refresh rate .all but a few high end monitors support no higher than 60 or 75HZ while this
doesnot cause visible flicker due to the LCD panel high internal refresh rate,the low input refresh
rate still limits the maximum frame rate that can be displayed ,negatively impacting gaming and 3D
graphics.
⮚ Loss of brightness and much slower response times in low temperature environment .in sub zero
environment LCD screens may cease to function without the use of supplemental heating.
⮚ Loss of contrast in high temperature environment .
⮚ Not usually designed to allow easy replacement of the backlight.
PRECAUTIONS FOR HANDLING LCD MODULES
1. Do not make extra holes on the printed circuit board modify its shape or change the position of
components to be attached.
2. Donot damage or modify the pattern wiring on the printed circuit board.
3. Absolutely do not modify the zebra rubber strips or heat the seal connector.
4. Do not deep, send or twist the LCD module. In particular don’t forcible pull are bend the I/O cable
are backlight cable.
5. Store them in a sealed polyethylene bag.. If property sealed, there is no need for desicant.
6. Do not leave them for more then 160 hours at 70%.
7. Store them in dark place ,donor expose them to sunlight or fluorescent light. keep the temperature
between 0-35 Celsius.
8. They should not be left for more then 48 hours at 20 degree celsius
9. Do not press if pressure is applied to LCD orientation may be disturbed.
10. Do not swallow or touch liquid crystal. Liquid crystal may leak if the display breaks.
11. No DC voltage to LCD- DC voltage or higher voltage than specified will reduce the lifetime of the
LCD.
12. Do not put pressure on the metallic frame at disposable the LCD module.
13. Slowly peel off protective film avoids static electricity.
14. Wear gloves while handling it is preferable to wear gloves to avoid damaging the LCD.
PREPRATION
To create on LCD you take two pieces of polarized glass. A special polymer that creates microscopic
grooves in the surface is rubbed on the side of the glass that does not have the polarizing film on it.The
grooves must be in the same directions as the polarizing film. you then add a coating of nematic. Liquid
crystal to one of the filters. The grooves will causes the first layers of molecules to align with the filters
orientation. then add the second piece of glass with the polarizing film at a right angle to the first piece.
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Each successive layers of the molecules will gradually twist until the uppermost layer is at 90 degree angle
to the bottom, matching the polarized glass. As the light strikes the first filters. It is a polarized the
molecules in each layers then guide the light they receive to the next layers. As the light passes through the
liquid crystal layers , the molecules also change the lights plane of vibration.to match their own angle
.when the light reaches the for side of the liquid crystal substance it vibrates at the same angle as the final
layer of molecules.if the final layers is matched up with the second polarized glass filter,then the light will
pass through.
If we apply an electric charge to liquid crystal molecules they untwisted .when they straighten
out,they chang. the angle of the light passing through them so that it no longer matches the angle of the top
polarizing filter.consequently no light can pass through that area of the LCD.which makes that area darker
than the surrounding areas. Building is a simple LCD is easier then you think. Start with the sandwich of
glass and liquid crystal described above and add two transparent electrodes to it. For eg.imagine that you
want to create the simplest possible LCD with just a simple rectangular electrode on it.
The layer would look like this.

The LCD needed to do this tab is very basic. It less a mirror.

1. In back, which makes it reflective. Then we add a piece of glass.
2. With a polarizing film on the bottom side and a common electrode plane.
3. Made of indium tin oxide on top. A common electrode plane covers the entire area of the
LCD. Above that is the layer of liquids crystal substance.
4. Next comes another piece of glass.
5. with on electrode in the shape of the rectale on the bottom and on top, another polarizing
film
6. at a right angle to the first me.

The electrode is hooked up to power source like a battery. When there is no current,light entering through
the front of the LCD will simply hit the mirror and bounce right back out. But when the battery supplies
current to the electrodes, the liquid crystal between the common plane electrode and the electrode shaped
like a rectangle untwist and block the light in a that region from passing through the makes the LCD show
the rectangle as black area.

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STORAGE OF LCD
LCD’s are composed of glass, liquid crystal fluid and a polarizer. Please pay attention to following item
when handling
1. keep the temperature within a specified range for use and storage. Polarization degradation,
bubble generation or polarizer peel off may occur with high temperature and high humidity.
2. Do not touch, push or rub the exposed polarizer with anything harder an on HB lead pencil( glass.
Tweezer etc.).
3. N- hexane is recommended for cleaning the adhesives used to attach the front/rear
polarizer.Reflectors made of organic substance will be damaged by chemicals such as acetone,
toluene,ethanol and isoprophyl alchohol.
4. If is display surface becomes contaminated, breathe on the surface and gently wipe it with a soft
dry cloth. If it is heavily contaminated wipe it gently with absorbent cotton or another soft material
like chamois soaked in isoprophyl alcohol or ethyl alchol . srub gently to avoid damaging the
display surface.
5. wipe off salive or water immediately ! contact with water over a long period of time may cause
deformation or color fading.
6. avoid contact with oil or any greasy substance.
7. if there is condensation on the surface and contact with the terminals while cold, it will damage,
stain or dirty the polizer after use the product is tested at low temperature, they must be warmed up
in a container before being exposed to room temperature environments.
8. Do not put or attach anything on the display area in older to avoid leaving marks.
9. Donot touch the display with bare hand .this will stain the display area and degrade the insulation
between terminals .
10. Exercise care to minimize corrosion of the electrode .corrosion of the electrodes is accelerated by
water droplets moisture condensation or a current flow in a high humidity environment.
11. As glasses fragile care should be taken to avoid chipping while handling the edges especially.

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 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
A light emitting diode (LED) is a semi conductor light source. LED are used is indicator lamps in many
devices and are increasing used for general lighting. Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,
early LED’s emitted low- intensity red light, but modern version are available across the visible, ultraviolet
and infrared wave length with very light brightness.

HISTORY

Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experiments H.J. round of
marconi labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat’s whisker detector. Russian oley reported
creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Russian, German, and British scientific
journals but no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades.rubin braunstein of the radio
cooperation of America reported an infrared emission from gallium arsenide and other semi conducter.
Alloys in 1955. Broustain observed infrared antimonide, indium phosphide & silicon germanium alloys at
room temperature and at 77 kelvin
The first protocol visible spectrum LED was developed in 1962 by Nicks Holonyak,Jr while working at
general electric company. Holonyak first reported this break through in the journal applied physics letters
on the December 1,1962. Holonyak is seen as the “Father of the light diode”.
M. george CRAFED a former student of holonyak invented the first yellow LED. And improved the
brightness of red and orange. LED’s by a factor of ten in 1972. In 1976,T.P. pearsall created the first high
brightness, high efficiency. LED for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor
material specifically to adapted fiber transmission wavelength.

ADVANTAGES:
 Efficiency: -LED’s emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs. The efficiency of LED
lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.
 Color:- LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional lighting
methods needs. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
 LED’s can be very small( smaller than 2mm)land are easily attached to printed circuit boards.
 On/Off Time:- LED’s light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achievefull brightness in
under a microsecond.

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 Cycling: - Led’s are ideal for uses subjects to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluroscent lamps that fails
foster cycled often or lamps that requires a long time before restarting.
 Dimming: - LED’s can very easily be dimmed either by pulse width modulation is lowering the
forward current. This pulse width modulating is why LED lights viewed on camera particularly
headlight an cars, appear to be flashing or flickering.this is type of stroboscopic effect.
 Cod light:- In contrast to most light source. LED’s radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can
cause damage to sensitive object or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the
LED.
 Slow failure: - LED’s mostly failed by diming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of
Incandescent bulbs.
 Lifetime: - LED can have a relatively long useful life one report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of
useful life, through time to complete failure may be longer.
 Shock resistance- LEDs being solid state components are difficult to damage with external shock,
unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulb,which are fragile.

DISADVANTAGES:
 High Initial Price: - Led’s are currently more expensive, price per lumen on initial optical cost basis,
then most conventional highly technology As at 2010 the cost Per thousands lumen was about $18
 Temperature Difference: - LED performance largely depends on the ambient tempreture of the
operating environment or “thermal management” properties.an adequate heat sink in is needed to
maintain long life.
 voltage sensitivity-LEDS must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below
the rating .this can involve series resistors or current regulated power supplies.
 Light Quality: - Most cool white LED’s have spectra that differ significantly from a block body
radiators like sun or an incandencent light.

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 SPECIMEN
INTRODUCTION

Collection of real things per instructional of use refers to specimen.specimen is an typical object
representing a classor group of thing. Specimens are real thing and view use for class room teaching
imparts a direct learning experience to student.
It is believed that contact with specimen can provide the first hand experience to children and the will
remember these throughout their lives. The collection of specimen may be in itself an interesting education
or experience and their study can be still more rewarding. The real specimen in the classroom be interest
arousing for student.

MEANING OF SPECIMEN
Specimen part of real objects taken from the natural setting it is a simple that shows quality or structure
example section of lung. A specimen is a part of an object it may be sample that shows quality or structure.

USING SPECIMEN
While using the Specimen as a teaching aid a teacher must keep the following points in his/her mind.
1. Plan your teaching with certain simple a direct observation of the specimen being referred to.
2. Ask question from the students to ellict more details of the features of the specimen under observation.
3. Clarify and emphasize important structure, detail of the specimen under observation.
4. Provide review and practice to make learning permanent.

SOURCE OF SPECIMEN
Specimen found in nature can be collected by student themselves by organizing nature hunts and field
trips. The specimen to be collected from the nature may include the plants, insects etc. some specimen can
be a procured free of cost by writing to manufacture.

ADVANTAGE OF SPECIMEN
The advantage of specimen are two fold i.e. whole collective the specimen by students and also while they
are being use for class room instruction and study.
The instruction advantage of collection of specimen is as follows:

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 ⮚ Collection of an specimen by student requires interaction with others leading to development of
social skills and values.
⮚ Student when collect, display specimen derive satisfaction of contributing to the school and teacher
something worth while.
⮚ Student power of observation and first tend experience is a enhanced by collection of specimen.
⮚ Student personal collection of specimen can be good source of doing investigatory projects.
⮚ Collection of specimen can become an interesting educational pursuit of the teacher and student a
like.
Also as a teaching aids in the class room and specimen have some advantage to the teacher Some of them
are as follow.
1. Specimen arouse student interest in teaching.
2. Specimen involves all the five senses in the process of learning.
3. specimen is being real and three dimesional things, reality in the classroom.
4. Specimen develops observational skills of the students.
5. Specimen make classroom teaching lively.

MOUNTING AND DISPLAYING OF SPECIMEN

Small specimen can be mounted by pasting them with adhesive minerals, cellotape, cardboard. The
collection of grains of seeds can be kept in small sized bottle or small polythene bags, stuck on to
cardboard using quick fix adhesive for rocks, minerals and shells a discarded cardboard box can be
divided into small rectangular of square compartment to hold the specimen.
Botanical specimen after they are pressed and dried can be stuck on pages of drawing books for mounting
zoological specimen like butterflies, insects etc. boxes lined with nepthaline balls. Specimen like birds,
snakes, fish etc. can be preserved in suitable bottles filled with formaline. After mounting the specimen
should be labeled a cataloged. Use of object and specimen very useful in nursing education.

TYPES OF SPECIMEN
BIOLOGICAL SPECIMEN
A biological specimen ( also called a biospecimen) is a Biological laboratory specimen held by a
Biorepository for research. Such as specimen would be taken by sampling, so as to be representive of any
other specimen taken from the source of specimen. When biological specimen are stared ideally they
remain equivalent to freshly-collected specimen for the purpose of research.

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 SPECIMEN USES EXTRACTION
TECHNIQUE
cheek Tissue DNA profiling Buccal swab
Whole blood Venipunture
Dried blood spot Gives high quality DNA & Fingerstick
RNA
Organ tissue Gives high quality Biopsy
DNA,RNA, Mitochondrial
DNA a source of disease.
Plasma Limited DNA & RNA Blood plasma
content fractionations.
Urine Makes for some diagnostic urination
test
Feces Maker for some diagnostic Stool sample
test
Skin Mostly used by forensic
teams, investigatin ,
criminal cases
Hair Mostely used by forensic Hair analysis
teams investigation criminal
cases.

STORAGE OF SPECIMEN:
1. Serum and plasma should always be kept covered to minimize evaporation and contamination.
2. Serum as plasma should be tasted in within 4 hours.
3. If the delay before testing is going to be longer than 5 hours the specimen should be refrigerated at 2 -8
degree.
4. blood sample should be processed as soon as possible after being drawn . The following general,
precaution should be observed.
5. Keep the specimen tubes capped this should be done for safety resons as well as for specimen
preservation .
6. Refrigerate specimens not tested immediately anticoagulants venous specimen should be started as 2 -8
degree C If they will not be tested within 4 hours.

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 DIORAMAS

INTRODUCTION
The word diorama can either refer to a 19th century mobile theatre device, or in modern usuage, a three
dimensional full size or miniature model, sometimes enclosed in a glass. Showcase for a museum.
Dioramas are often built by hobbyist as part of related hobbies such as military modeling, miniature, figure
modeling or aircraft modeling.

DEFINITION
diorama defined as three dimensional visual presentation of a scene in a miniature form represented with
help of miniature objects with backwards in actual perspectives.
S.L. aliuwalia.

It is a three dimensional scene in depth incorpating a group of modeled object and figures in a natural
setting.the diorama scene is setup on a small stage with a group of modeled objecys kept on the
foreground,which is blended into a painted realistic background.

HISTORY OF DIORAMAS
The word “dioramas” orginated in 1823 as a type of the camera device from the French in 1822. the word
literally means “through that which is seen” from the Greek di “through” orama that which is seen ‘
sight”. The dioramas was invented by Daquerre and Charles marie bouton first exhibited in London is
from 1902.
First use of dioramas in a museum is in Romania by professer Grigare Antipa in 1907.

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TYPES OF DIORAMAS

⮚ MINIATURES: - Miniatures dioramas are typically much smaller and use scale models and landscaping
to create or historical scenes. Such a scale model based dioramas is used foreg. in Chicago’s museum
of science and industry to display railroading. This dioramas employs common model railroading
scale of 1:87. hobbyist dioramas often use popular scales as 1/35 or 1/48.

⮚ FULL SIZE DIORAMAS: - a dioramas in the museum of natural history in Milan (Italy).
Modern museum dioramas may be seen in most major natural history museum. Typically these displays
use a plane to represents what would otherwise be level surface, incorporate a painted background of
distant objects and often employ false perspective, carefully modifying the scale of objects placed in the
plane the reinforce the illussion through depth perception in which object of identical real world size
proceed farther from the observer appear smaller than those closer.
 EDUCATIONAL DIORAMAS: - Educational dioramas are widely used in the American educational
system, mostly in elementary and middle school. They are often made to represent historical events,
ecological biomes, cultural scenes ar to visuals depecit.

ADVANTAGES: -

 Dioramas provides students on opportunity to project walk.

 Dioramas provides a feeling of solidity to reality because of the perpective and background painting.

DISADVANTAGES: -
 If using paints it requires a long drying time.
 It is very costly.

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 MOCKUP

A usually full sized scale model of a structure ,used for demonstration study or testing a layout of printed
matter.In manufacturing and design a mockup is a scale of full size model of a design is a device cases for
teaching, demonstration, design evaluating, promotion and other purposes. A mockups is a prototype is it
provides at least part of the functionality of a system and enables testing of a design.
APPLICATION
Mockups are used virtually everywhere a new product is designed. Few specific eg. are the following:
1. Automotive Device:- Mockups are used in the automotive device industry as part of the product
development process, where dimension, over all impression and shapes are tested in a wind tunnel
experiments. They can also be used to test consumer reaction.
2. System Engineering: - mockups wireframes and prototypes are not so clearly distinguished in
software and system engineering. where mockup are a way of designing user interfaces on paper or
in computer images. A software mockups will look like a real things, but will not do useful walk
beyond what the user sees.
3. military acquisition: - mock ups are on integral part of the military acquition process. Mockups
are often used to test human factors and aerodynamics for e.g. In this context, mockups includes
wireframe models. They can also de used for public display and demonstration purpose prior to the
development of a prototype .
4. consumer goods: - mockups are used in the consumed goods industry as parts of the product
development process, where dimension human factors , overall impression and commercial art are
tested in marketing research.
5. furniture and cabintry- mockups are commonly required by designers ,architect and end users for
custom furniture and cabintry .the intentions is often to produce a full-sized replica using
inexpensive materials in order to verify a design
ADVANTAGES OF MOCKUPS: -
1. low cost method for verifying physical layout of custom interaction hardware.
2. May be useful in simulating environment for excersises where full interaction in not required.

DISADVANTAGES: -

1. limited to representing surface features.

2. Full captures of erganomic aspects of performance requires more expensive representation
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 PUPPETS

INTRODUCTION

One of the old and popular art in Indian villages has been puppetry. Puppet can serve as an effective aid to
learning. Puppets are derived from Latin word puppa which means doll. The word puppet today means a
figure which fits over the hand like a glove and is operated from behind below by the figure.

DEFINITION

A puppet is an animate object or representational figure animated or manipulated by a puppeteer.

HISTORICAL ASPECT

A puppet is an inanimate object or representational figures animated or manipulated by a puppeteer. It is

used in puppetry. Ancient Greek terracotta puppet dolls, 5th/4th century BC, National Archaeological
Museum. Puppetry was practised in Ancient Greece and the oldest written records of puppetry can be found
in the work of Herodots and Xenophon dating from the 5th century BC. The Greek word translated as
“puppet is Nevrospasts which literally means “ drawn by strings, sting pulling, from “VEUPOV” meaning
either “sinew”, tendon, muscle, string or wire. “Aristole”(384-322) discuss puppets in his work On the
Motion of Animals. The movements of animals may be compared with those of automatic puppets, which
are set going on the occasion of tiny movements the levers are released and strike the twisted strings
against one another. In India puppetry was practised from ancient times and is known by different names in
different parts of the country. Excavation of clay dolls from Indus Valley sites serves as an literature
silappadikaram which is written around 2nd century BC.

PURPOSES

1. Developing communication skills, students can use their puppet to follow instructions, answer a
puppet question or talk to the puppet.
2. Teaching emotions puppets can share joy or sadness, they can be naughty or good, cheeky or shy
and when a student is engaged by a puppet they can learn lessons and absorb message without even
realizing there are.
3. Research has shown that children who are not anxious preoperatively recover quicker after surgery
than children who are anxious. For the professional staff there is a need to alley the Childs fears and
gain their trust.

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 4. Puppets can offer comfort and safety, they can be used to help children understand and what they
will experience as a patient and by doing so, they can calm the child’s fear and enhance their
recovery.
5. The development of fine motor skills in a fun way by encouraging children to move their finger to
make the puppet move.
6. Providing a visual aid which makes songs and stories more enjoyable for small children the
promotion of imaginative skills by providing a material for acting out stories the demonstration of
different situation and role play scenarios.
7. They can motivate and support children with difficulties in communication and interaction.
8. They can help to develop their social and motor skills and can meet the visual, tactile and emotional
needs of the individual.
CLASSIFICATION OF PUPPET

1. BLACK LIGHT PUPPET: A form of puppet zing where the puppets are operated on a stage
lit only with ultraviolet lighting, which both hides the puppeteer and accentuates the colour of
the puppet. The puppeteers perform dressed in black against a black background, with the
background and costume normally made of black velvet .

2. BANRAKU PUPPET: Banraku puppet are a type of wood carved puppet originally made to
stand out through torch illumination Banraku traditionally use three puppeteers to operate a
puppet that is close to half life size.

3. ROD PUPPET: these are operated from below the stage by a combination of rods and springs.

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 These have jointed bodies made with stiff wires or wooden sticks attached to arms and legs.

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 4. STRING PUPPET: These are fingers with movable limbs and operated to arm and legs.

5. CARNIVAL PUPPET OR BODY PUPPET: It is usually designed to be part of large

spectacle. These are often used is parades and demonstrations, and are at least the size of a
human and often much larger. One or more performer are required to move the body and limbs.
These puppets are particularly associated with large scale entertainment.

6. CHIN FACE PUPPET: A type of puppet in which the puppet puppet features are drawn on ,
and otherwise attached to the face.

7. FINGER PUPPET: An extremely simple puppet variant which fits onto a single finger. Finger
puppets normally have no moving parts and consist primarily of a hollow cylinder shape to
cover the figure.

8. HAND OR GLOVE PUPPET: These are puppets controlled by one hand which occupies the
interior of the puppet. Larger varieties of hand puppet place the puppeteers hand in just the

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 puppets head controlling the mouth and the head and the puppets body then hangs over the entire
arm.

9. MARIONETTE OR STRING PUPPET: These puppets are suspended and controlled by a

number of strings, plus sometimes a central rod attached to a control bar held from above by the
puppeteer. The control bar can be either a horizontal or vertical one. Basic strings for operation
are usually attached to the head, back, hands, and just above the knee. This form of puppetry is
complex and sophisticated to operate, requiring greater manipulative control than a finger, glove
or rod puppet.

10. HUMAN ARM PUPPET: Also called a two man puppet or a live hand puppet. It is similar to a
hand puppet but is larger and requires two puppeteers. This is a form of glove or hand puppetry
and rod puppetry.

11. INSTANT PUPPET: This kind of puppetry is created as part of the performance, in order to
add detail to the characterization of the puppet. The puppets are very often loosely of the rod or
table top type and can be highly articulated.

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 12. SHADOW PUPPET: A cut out figure held between a source of light and a translucent screen.
Untypical, as it is two dimensional in form, shadow puppets can form solid silhouettes, or be
decorated with various amounts of cut out details. Colour can be introduced into the cut out
shapes to provide a different dimension and different effects can be achieved by moving the
puppet or light source out of focus.

13. ANIMATED OR DIGITAL PUPPET: Animation is a related but essentially different process
from puppetry. Animation puppet in time based media such as film or video is a simulation of
movement created by displaying a serious of pictures, or frames, whereas puppetry is the live
manipulation of figures.

14. SOCK PUPPET: A sock puppet is a puppet made from a sock or similar garment. The
puppeteers wear the sock on hand and lower arm as if it wears a glove, with the puppet mouth
begin formed by the region between the socks heel and toe, and the puppeteers thumb acting as
the jaw.

15. MAROTTE PUPPET: The marotte puppet is a simplified rod puppet that is just a head and or
body on a stick. In a marotte a main pernate, the puppeteers other arm emerges from the body to
act as the puppets arm.

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 16. PAPER PUPPET: Paper puppet is made up of paper. This paper puppet take no time to make
and will be a delight for the kids.

17. TICKLE BUG PUPPET: A Ticklebug is a type of hand puppet created from a human hand to
have four legs , where the puppet features are drawn on the hands itself. The middle finger is
lifted as head, and the thumb and forefinger serve as a first set of two legs on one side, while the
ring finger and little finger serve as second set of two legs on the opposite side.

18. TABLE TOP PUPPET: A table top puppet is a puppet usually operated by a rod or direct
contact behind, on a surface similar to a table top. Shares many characteristics with Bunraku.

19. JUNK PUPPET (Found Object): The simple paper bag puppet typifies the junk puppet.
Everyday objects like socks, egg cartons, mops and watering cans, manipulated by hands,
strings or rods, can become puppets. These "found objects", in the hands of a talented
puppeteer, can be truly magical.

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 20. VENTRILOQUIST PUPPET: Just don't call it a dummy. Ventriloquism is lots of fun, but it
too takes a great deal of practice. The puppet has a slotted mouth that works on a trigger. A
good vent figure will also have multiple eye movement and eyebrows.

21. CABLE PUPPET : One of the most expensive forms of puppet, a cable puppet uses bicycle
cables to control its motions. Whereas a rod puppet or marionette needs only one or two strings
or rods to move an arm, a cable-controlled puppet requires as many as a dozen cables. These are
popular puppets in the world of special effects. A puppet like Chucky in Child's Play requires as
many as eight puppeteers. The cables are all bundled out the back where they then branch out to
the different controls for the head, left arm, right arm, and fingers.

22. ANIMATRONIC (RADIO-CONTROLLED PUPPET): An animatronic is an externally

controlled puppet or figure. The external controls can be either cable, like a bicycle cable, or
radio signal, like a remote-controlled airplane. The puppeteer or puppeteers manipulate the
figure at a distance. This manipulation may be done in real time or recorded and played back on
a computer. Also popularized by movie special effects, the radio-controlled puppet uses model
airplane controls that send radio signals to servos inside the puppet to control the puppet's
movements. Directors like radio-controlled puppets because the puppeteers can manipulate the
puppet from behind the camera with no external controls visible. Most movie puppets combine
cable, radio controls and traditional puppetry.

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 23. BODY SUITS (WALKABOUTS): “Walkabouts” are the costumed characters that stroll
through amusement parks. When facial animation is added, the body or “character” suit
becomes a puppet. Animation can be done with strings, cables or radio controls. Often the
controls are in the pad of the character's hand so the performer in the suit can work them.

24. PNEUMATIC PUPPET: Air pressure moving through tubes in their body parts makes these
puppets move. Air- controlled or pneumatic puppets are the large, funhouse figures seen on
fairgrounds. They are generally controlled remotely, though simply, with no puppeteers
necessary. In these cases, the puppet designer and builder is considered as the performer.

25. HYDRAULIC PUPPET: Sometimes a puppet is so big and heavy that the only way to
manipulate it is by water or oil pressure. You'll see these creatures in big theme parks. Disney's
Jungle Cruise ride shows hydraulic puppetry at its finest. Large dinosaurs in amusement parks
are generally moved by oil pressure.

PRINCIPLES OF PUPPETS

1. Puppets plays must be based on action rather than words.

2. Keep the plays short, puppet must be skilfully manipulated.
3. Do not omit the possibilities of music and dancing as part of the puppet show.
ADVANTAGES OF PUPPETS
1. The craft of puppetry is an effective aid to learning.
2. It develops co-operation among children.
3. Children develop their imagination by providing the puppets wit speech.

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 4. Children increase their manual dexterity through manipulation.
DISADVANTAGES
1. It needs special training for manipulation of puppets and marionettes to convey ideas.
2. Ideas convey through puppets show can be misinterapted by the audience.
3. It requires to keep on the mind the age, background and tasks of the student.
4. Puppets plays with too much action take away the attention of the audience.

PREPARATION PROCESS
MATERIAL REQUIRED: A used post cards, old newspapers, glue, two pieces of string, Indian ink,
colour box, pins, brushes, scrapes of coloured cloth, a pand and scissors needle and thread.

PROCEDURE
1. Roll the piece of used post card around your finger glue it into a firm tube which fits the finger.
2. Tie a piece of plain paper and use Indian ink to put on eyes, hair, nose, lips and etc. Put red and
black colors as needed to size it an attractive appearance.
3. Take a piece of bright colored cloth and sent into a long tube and tie the cloth on the neck and
then turn it.
4. Some puppets may be prepared to play roles of females, some of males or children. They may
have moustaches, turbans, salwars, kurtas etc. Depicting the life and characters you want to
show the audience.
5. The stages further show of puppets can be prepared by using a wooden frame, two chairs, one
cot, and two pillars of verandah.
6. Before the show, a brief description of the dialogue is given. There should not be silent pause.
There should be lot of actions wit and humor.
7. Everyday people and familiar situation should be used which have relationship with village
problem.

STORAGE

1. Store flat.
2. Store in a sealed container as puppet are made of wool/rayon felt which can attract the wool
moth.
3. If needed, iron or wool setting avoiding plastic eyes.
4. Wipe clean with damp cloth. Do not wash.

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 MUSEUM

DEFINITION
 A museum is a building displaying a collection of historical relics, antiques, curiosities, works of arts,
work of science, works of literature, and other artefacts of general interest.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
The museum of an ancient times such as the museum of Alexandria. The word museum has classical
origins. In its Greek from ‘Mouseion’, it mean “Seat of muses” and designated a philosophical institution
or a place of contemplation. The word museum was revived in 15th century. Europe to describe the
collection of Lorenzo de Medici in Florence, but the term conveyed the concept of comprehensiveness
rather than denoting a building. Although there is some ambivalence in the use of museum of museum in
the legislation , drafted in 1753, foundation the british Museum, nevertheless the idea of an institution
called a museum and established to preserve and display a collection to the public was well established in
the 18th century, Indeed, Denis Diderot outlined a detailed scheme for a national museum for france in the
ninth volume of his Encyclopaedia, published in 1765.

PURPOSE
 Favour education over conservation or vice versa.
 The museum collected replicas, as well as replica coastumes.
 Museum favoured education over preservation of their object.
 Museum display object as well as their function.
 The natural history museums are specially helpful in providing visual experiences for science subjects.
PRINCIPLES
 Engage the community and serve the Museums Audiences.
 Reflects the need and complexities of changing society.
 Shape content and interpretation toward relevant issue and create a broad dialogue.
 Address and Employ a Diversity of perspective.
 Promote the elimination of physical, socio economics and cultural barrier to museum.

ADVANTAGES OF MUSEUM
 Museum enable people to explore collections of inspiration, learning and enjoyment.

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 They are institutions that collect, safeguard and make accessible artifacts and specimens, which they
hold in trust for society.

DISADVANTAGES
 There have been controversies recently regarding artifacts being damaged or being exposed to high risk
of damage whilst on loan.

STORAGE
 Storage area should be clean, well ventilated and properly illuminated.
 Temperature and humidity levels and air quality must be monitored regularly.
 Appropriate fire protection should be installed.
 Illumination should allow staff acess to the collection without causing damage to the collection. While
stored, items should be in dark at all times.
 Exhibition furniture, office records , publications and other non collection material should be kept in a
separate storage area or both safety and convencies.
SPECIFIC POINTS TO BE REMEMBER
 A museum can work as effective teaching resource if the visit has reference to the certain lesson topics
for which the teacher has to preplan and extend the classroom experience to the museum collections.
 Before a teacher takes a group of student to museum, he must visit the museum before hand and collect
all the literature, talk to the curator and guides to collect important information.

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 CCTV (CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION)

DEFINITION: Closed circuit television is the use of video cameras to transmit a signal to a specific
place, on a limited set of monitor. It differs from broadcast television in that the signal is not openly
transmitted through it may employ point to point, point to multipoint, or mesh wireless link.

HISTORICAL ASPECTS
The first CCTV system was installed by Siemens AG at Test stand vii in Peeneminde Germany in 1942,
for observing the launch of v-2 rockets. The noted German engineer Walter Bruch was responsible for the
technological design and installation of the system. In the US the first commercial closed circuit television
system became available in 1949, called vericon. One of its first appearance was in 1973 in times square
New York city. The NYPD installed it in order to determine crime that was occurring in the area however
crime rates did not appear to drop much due to cameras.

OBJECTIVES
 Preventive : To stop or intervene in criminal or antisocial behaviour.
 Detection: To gather evidence for the police and courts.
 Monitoring: To able to view what is going on in your business at a glance for your own management
purpose.

TYPES
● INDOOR CAMERA: Indoor camera as its name suggest used for indoor security mechanism. These
are suitable for security in homes, schools, office, hotel e.t.c.
● OUTDOOR CAMERA: outdoor camera is used for outdoor place. They are mostly used for entry and
exist points with limited night lighting. There cameras have hard shell vandal proof casings.
● NIGHT CAMERA: Night camera are used for high alert security areas where surveillance needs to
happen day and night. These cameras’ are used by military personals in parking lots and high security
zones.
● DOME CAMERA: Dome camera are installed inside a dark dome and are designed in way that they go
unnoticed by visitors. This cameras can be rotated and tited manually. Dome camera s are used in
public places like railway stations, bus terminals and other areas where there is huge gathering of
people.

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● VANDAL PROOF CAMERA: Vandal proof camera are used as outdoor security cameras. These
camera are sheltered within soiled material and covered by a “hub” of breakproof quality of the vedio.
It difficult to break this cameras and this makes them perfect for high security.
● HIDDEN CAMERA: Hidden camera are compact in size and are used for secret monitoring. They are
usually installed in public places like department stores, theatres, club e.t.c. Hidden cameras have a
built in recorder that records and broadcast simultaneously.
● PAN TILT ZOOM CAMERA: Pan tilt zoom camera offers the ability to view and zoom in all
direction. We can set the camera to automatically rotate to different field of vision.

GUIDELINES
● Basic principle of cctv system.
● Choice and selection of equipment.
● Legal and privacy issues.

ADVANTAGES
● Helps maintain Record: The images and videos captured by a CCTV camera system are often
recovered and stored into a database.
● For evidence in lawsuits: In legal cases of theft and other forms of crime, videos and images provided
by the cctv camera system can serve as a valid proof and evidence against the defaulter.

DISADVANTAGE
● Do not work always: cctv camera system cannot monitor every area of your office or home at all time.
● Privacy concern: invasion of the privacy is the major issue when it comes to in any security system. It
lowers the employee morale and hampers productivity at times.
SPECIFIC POINT TO BE REMEMBERED
● CCTV has become commonplace as a tool to prevent and detect criminal and antisocial behaviour in
the last few years.
● It is important to understand what you want to achieve by installing a CCTV system in your premise,
this will dictate the number of cameras and where you place them, the location of monitoring
equipment and the style of operation you choose.

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 PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM

DEFINITION:
Apublic address system is an electronic sound amplification and distribution system with a microphone,
amplifier and loudspeakers, used to allow a person to address a large public, for example for announcement
of movements at large and noisy air and rail terminals.

HISTORICAL ASPECT

Edwin Jenson and Peter Pridham of Magnavox begin experimenting with sound reproduction in the
1990,working from laboratory in Napa, California, they field the first patent for moving coil loudspeaker in
1911. Four years latter , in 1915, they built a dynamic loudspeaker with a 1inch voice coil, a 3inch
corrugated diaphragm and a horn measuring 34 inches with a 22inch aperature. They then placed
loudspeaker on the laboratory roof and claims say that the amplified human voice could be heard 1 mile
away. Jensen and Pridham refined the systemand connect a phonograph to the loudspeaker.

PURPOSE

● Public address system is to amplify sound and project it with sufficient quality ,volume, and
direction to later for all members of the assemble audience.
● Public address system cab be employed at any event where the volume of performance is not
sufficient for the entire audience to hear.
● Public address system working our way through the system from the start point of the audience to
the final reproduction of the sound to the audience.

PUBLIC ADDRESS EQUIPMENT INCLUDE

● Microphones
● Amplifier
● Loud speaker

MICROPHONE: Microphone absorb sound waves and convert them into electrical impulses, each of
which has a distinctive pattern according to the sound absorbed.

AMPLIFIER: Amplifier is an electronic device that increases the power of a signal. It does this by
taking energy from a power supply and controlling the output to match the input signal shape but with a
large amplitude. In this sense, an amplifier modulates the output of the power supply.
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 LOUD SPEAKER: The loud speaker is a small sound driver fitted within a mobile phone , or other
communication device, which is used to produce sound.

GUIDELINES
● Note the special characteristics of microphone, amplifier, and speaker.
● Connect the microphone into amplifier.
● Connect loudspeaker to proper output terminal of amplifier.
● Connect amplifier to proper power supply.
● Switch on amplifier and see that its pilot lamp glows.
ADVANTAGES
● Project the speakers voice.
● Best when communicating to a crowd.
● Its light weight and easy to take around.
● Low maintenance.
STEPS INVOLVED IN ARRANGING A PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM
● Table or floor stands are used if hand held or neck microphones are not used.
● The amplifier is switched on.
● Loud speaker should not to be near the microphone of facing it.
● Loud speaker should be located near the windows.
● The speaker should talk or sing with lips about 20-30cms from the microphone.
● The tone controls may be used if necessary.

SPECIFIC POINTS TO BE REMEMBER

● The teacher should maintain regularly for good working condition.
● There should a register should be maintained for inventory.
● If any repair and damage needs to be corrected immediately.
● One person or electrician needs to be assigned separately for maintenance.

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 TELEVISION

INTRODUCTION

Television has invaded India in a big way. Television is being acknowledged as powerful medium of mass
education. It is being used for imparting information and distance education television can bring the real
outside world into the class room in the real sense. It has the ability to bring the events and happening to
the viewer in action. It has the ability to bring the events into reality pictures. Television is being
prescribed as an electronic chalkboard.

MEANING

Television is the electronic means by which sound and light energy are transmitted from one place to
another. It is an electromechanical system of covering the energy contained and light pattern into electrical
and electromagnetic energy whence it is then reconverted back into sound and light.

DEFINITION

Television is an instrument of encoding, transforming, transmitting or projecting, or retransforming and the

presenting the encoded patterns of meaningful information. (Year 1957)

HISTORICAL ASPECT OF TELEVISION

Television was not invented by a single person; instead many people working together and alone over the
years contributed to the evolution of television by experimented with researchers.

Early invention attempted to either build a mechanical television system based on the technology of Paul
nipkow’s rotation disc, or they attempted to build electronic television system using a cathode ray tube
developed independently in1907 by English inventor A.A.Campell Swinton and Russian scientist Boris
Rosin. Electronic television system worked better and eventual replaced mechanical system.

❖ Paul Gottieb Mechanical History

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German Paul Nipkow developed a rotating disc technology to transmit pictures over wire in 1984 called the
Nipkow disc. Paul Nipkow was the portion of an image is successively analyzed and transmitted.

PURPOSES OF TELEVISION

● It helps the people to know what is happening far away.

● In our home we watch television, films, or events taking place in other cities, countries and other
continents.
● The artificial satellites have made it possible to watch events in other countries directly.
● It is very fine medium of entertainment .It brings musicians, singers and singing acting close to us.
● Television can be used to teach uneducated people.
TYPES OF TELEVISIONS

There are two popular types of televisions.

● Tube-based television:- it is made of a glass tube placed in a plastic enclosure.

● Flat-screen: - It is made out of thin glass and liquid crystals.

TUBE-BASED TELEVISION

Tube based television begin with a series of parts.

● The materials required include: the plastic enclosure, audio and speaker system, a picture tube, and a
collection of electronics.
● The process begins with the construction of the television's enclosure/housing.
● Injection molding is used to shape the plastic casing to fit the television.
● After the mold is created it is trimmed, cleaned, and sanded to make sure the edges fit together perfectly.
● The next step is the construction of the picture tube.
● The CRT (cathode ray tube) is made of glass that is carefully shaped to have a slight curve.
● The sound portion of the television is usually manufactured as one part.
FLAT SCREEN

● First, a large sheet of glass is cut to the size of the television's screen.
● This sheet is usually made up from a much large sheet that is cut into several different pieces.
● Once the screen is complete, all of the additional components are added.
● The speakers, control modules (for the remote and inputs), and casing are placed together completing
the television set. Finally, the television goes through a testing process to ensure its quality.

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TELEVISION: BASIC PRINCIPLES
● The Sound and Light Spectrum
● Video is a combination of light and sound, both of which are made up of vibrations or frequencies.
● We are surrounded by various forms of vibrations: visible, tangible,
● Audible and many other kinds that our senses are unable to perceive.
● We are in the midst of a wide spectrum which extends from zero to many millions of vibrations per
second.
● Sound vibrations occur in the lower regions of the spectrum, whereas light vibrations can be found
in the higher frequency areas.
● The sound spectrum ranges from 20 to 20,000 Hertz (Hz). Light vibrations range from 370 trillion
to 750 trillion Hz. When referring to light, we speak of wavelengths rather than vibrations.
● The higher the vibration, the shorter the wavelength.
● The spectrum of visible light ranges from wavelength of 780 nm to a wavelength of 380 nm. We
perceive the various wavelengths as different colors.
● Visible light is only visible because we can see the source and the object being illuminated. The
light beam itself cannot be seen.
● The beams of headlights in the mist for instance, can only be seen because the small water drops
making up the mist reflect the light.
DISADVANTAGES
Children can be exposed to programming that is not appropriate for their age. A adults frequently spend
many hours each day watching television to the detriment of work or family life.
Television is often the main or only source of information about current events and biased or inadequate
reporting can deliver inaccurate or misleading information and opinion.
Because of violent news, such as killings and bombings, we may develop an inflated sense of danger the
more that television is watched; the less exercise people tend to get.

PREPARATION PROCESS OF TELEVISION

Housing

● Almost all television housings are made of plastic by the process of injection molding, in which
precision molds are made and liquid plastic is injected under high pressure to fill the molds.
● The pieces are released from the molds, trimmed, and cleaned. They are then assembled to complete
the housing.

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● The molds are designed so that brackets and supports for the various components are part of the housing.

Picture tube

● The television picture tube, or cathode ray tube (CRT), is made of precision glass that is shaped to have
a slightly curved plate at the front or screen.
● It may also have a dark tint added to the face plate glass, either during production of the glass or by
application directly to the inside of the screen. Darker face plates produce improved picture contrast.

Audio system

● The housing also contains fittings for speakers, wiring, and other parts of the audio system.
● The speakers are usually made by a specialized manufacturer to the specifications of the television
manufacturer, so they are assembled in the set as components or a subassembly.
● Electronic sound controls and integrated circuitry are assembled in panels in the set as it travels along
the assembly line.

Electronic parts

● when the picture tube and the audio speakers and attachments are assembled in the set, other electronic
elements are added to the rear of the set.
● The antennae, cable jacks, other input and output jacks, the electronics for receiving remote control
signals, and other devices are prepared by specialty contractors or as subassemblies else-where on the
assembly line. They are then mounted in the set, and the housing is closed.

POINTS TO REMEMBER

The children who watch excessive television are more at risk for becoming obese because their resting
energy expenditure are lower than if they were doing nothing at all. Social interactions are less in the family.

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 FILMS & FILMSTRIP

Films are produced by recording people and objects with cameras or by creating them using animation
technique and special effect. They compromise a series of individual frames, but when these images are
shown rapidly in succession, the illusion of motion is given to the viewer.

DEFINITION

A form of entertainment that enacts a story by sound and sequence of images giving the illusion of
continuous movement
A BRIEF HISTORY OF FILM
● Experiments in motion pictures began in the United States and Europe during the late 19th century.
● American inventor Thomas Alva Edison patented the first movie machine, the Kinetoscope, in 1891.
● His highly successful The Birth of a Nation (1915) pioneered the idea of film as art.

PURPOSE OF MOTION PICTURE

 Selected learning situation

 Reproduction of knowledge
 Real learning situation
 Recreation
 Motivation
 Controls the time factors

TYPES OF FILMS

● Documented

● Narrative films
● Dramatic film

● Advertising film
● Evidential film
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● Drill film

PRINCIPLES OF FILM

● The first principle is Function. Most films have many different characters and storylines that serve a
certain function for the overall effect of the movie.
● The next Principle is Similarity and Repetition. This is central to all films because without it you would
not be able to focus the plot onto one character or general message.
● The fourth Principle we have is Development. Development is the “roller coaster” that writers and
directors take you on throughout the movie.
● Lastly we have Unity and Disunity. These are two approaches to a story one that follows a more
predictable and usually more wholesome story, one that leaves you with a sense of entertainment and
cohesion.

ADVANTAGES OF FILMS AND FILMSTRIP

● Films are considered to be an important part art form.

● Films entertain, educate, enlighten and inspire audience. Films help to spread knowledge
● It helps to develop a study habit and educational picture motivates the students.
● Through motion picture the learners can learn clearly and vividly.

DISADVANTAGES

● Recapitulation is not possible on the spot

● The whole process is expensive
● Generally the teachers are not trained to handle the projector and organize the show.
● It needs electricity therefore cannot be played in institution where generator is not available during
power shut down.

PROCESS OF PREPARATION

● Development — The first stage in which the ideas for the film are created, rights o books/plays are
bought etc., and the screenplay is written. Financing for the project has to be sought and green lit.
● Pre-production—Preparations are made for the shoot, in which cast and film crew are hired, locations
are selected, and sets are built.
● Production—the raw elements for the film are recorded during the film shoot.

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● Post-Production—The images, sound, and visual effects of the recorded film are edited.
● Distribution—the finished film is distributed and screened in cinemas and/or released on Home
entertainment.

MICROFILM

HISTORY

Pre 1920s

John Benjamin Dancer, an English scientist, known as the "Father of Microphotography," began to
experiment with and manufacture micro produced novelty texts as early as 1839.

● In 1853 he successfully sold microphotographs as slides to be viewed with a microscope. Utilizing

Dancer's techniques, a French optician, Rene Dagron, was granted the first patent for microfilm in
1859.
● He also began the first commercial microfilming enterprise, manufacturing and selling micro
photographic trinkets.

1940's

● The war also brought a threat of destruction to the records of civilization.

● This threat added the urgency for the microfilming of records, documents, archives and collections.
● During the closing war years and immediate post-war years, there was a flurry of microfilming by
occupying nations.

PURPOSES OF MICROFILM

● Copying records in order to destroy the original and reduce the space needed for records.
● Copying records to take advantages for technology and process.
● To provide standards for microfilming of public
● Records to assure that the film, photographing methods, processing ,handling and storage in accordance
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 with methods’ ,procedure and space fixation designed to protect and preserve such records on
microfilm

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TYPES OF MICROFILMS

Flat film

Flat film is used for micro image of every large engineering drawings .These may carry little of photograph
or written along one edge 2.80x2.80 meters that is 79x110in these films are started as microfiche.

Microfilm

16mmor 35mm to motion picture standard is used .Roll microfilm is stored on open reels or put into
cassette.

Aperture card

A hole has been cut .A 35mm microfilm chip is monitored in the hole inside of a clear plastic sleeve or
secured over the aperture an adhesive tape.

Microfiche

A microfiche is a flat film 105x148mm in size that is 150 Ab.It carries of micro images. The most commonly
used format is a portrait image of abou10x14mm.

Ultarfiche

It is a exceptionally compact version of microfiche, storing analog data at much higher density.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MICROFILM

1. Strength & Stability

● Microfilm is much stronger than traditional film as it is made of polyester instead of cellulose.
Therefore microfilm breaks less often, and thinner films can be used.
● The polyester is also more stable and will not change or react with time, humidity or temperature.

2. Permanent Records

 Many types of microfilm, including vesicular film and Diazo film will become damaged if exposed to
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 high temperature and high humidity.

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 High heat and pressure will damage the bubbles that create the image with vesicular film.
 Storage of the microfilm in a room with a controlled environment is extremely important

Data Retrieval

 Open reel microfilm can make data retrieval time consuming as you will need to search sequentially
through the reel.

 One advantage to this type of data retrieval is that you do not have to worry about the technology going
out of date.

 The system for microfilm data retrieval does not change with technology advances.

PREPARATION PROCESS OF MICROFILM

 Operation of microfilm equipment to produce copies of historical documents and related materials.
 35mm microfilm machine
 Material to determine best copy, repair materials for filming when necessary
 Loads camera

STORAGE

⮚ Store microfilm in cool, dry free of oxidizing glasses or vapor

POINTS TO REMEMBER

⮚ Microfilms are usable and legible reproduction of the original records.

⮚ Microfilm copies contain all significant details shown on the original records.

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 BLACK BOARD / CHALK BOARD

INTRODUCTION

The most commonly available aid in classroom situation is the blackboard. It is helpful in meetings and a
group discussion. It is the oldest and best friend of a teacher. It is the mirror through which students
visualize all about the teachers mind regarding as a while.

HISTORY

● In Indian schools since 11th century writing on slate has started.

● The blackboard was introduced into the US education system from Europe in 1810. This occurred at
west point, where George Baron, an English mathematician, used chalkboard for lecture.
● The origin of chalkboard traces back to 1823 when a minister and educator named Samuel reed hall
painted pine boards black. Chalk could then be used to write on board and then cleaned off.

USES OF CHALKBOARD.
● Used in conducting literacy classes, opportunity, and creativity.
● It makes group instruction more concrete and understandable.
● If it is properly used, it can set standards of neatness, accuracy and speed
● It can restore the attention of a group.
● For jotting down spontaneous thoughts, time saving.
● To work out formulate like drug and solutions, biochemistry equation etc
● For listing topics
● Initiates oral, visual sensation, helps in learning.
● It can be used for recording progress and status.
● It provides many educational opportunities in all curricular and co-curricular activities, e.g. we can
present the facts, principles, processes, procedure, making assignments etc.
● To state questions to cite examples of work desired to pose problems and to list sources for study.
● To illustrate forms of charting and to provide opportunity for nursing students to practice charting
● It provides lots of scope in creative and decorative work.
● Inexpensive and no electricity required.

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 TYPES OF CHALKBOARD

1. Fixed black board

2. Black board or easel
3. Roller black board
4. Graphic board
5. Magnetic board
● Fixed black board: fixed in the wall facing the class and normally made of wood or concrete
cement.
● Black board or easel: a portable and adjustable black board put on a wooden easel can be taken
out in the classroom while taking classes in the open.
● Roller black board : made of thick canvas wrapped on a roller mostly used for teaching higher
classes
● Graphic board: it has graphic lines and is used for teaching mathematics, science, and statistics,

● Magnetic board: a board which enable teacher to make three dimensional demonstrations with
objects on a vertical surface. Small magnet are used to hold suitable objects fixed whether hold
suitable objects fixed whether they are put on this vertical surface

Sr.no Color of chalk board color of chalk

1 Green chalk board White or yellow chalk

2 Gray board Yellow

3 Red chalk board Green, yellow

4 Orange chalk board Blue or light green

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 5 Yellow chalk board Blue

6 Rose chalk board Purple, dark blue

7 Black chalk board Any color

CHALK BOARD OF DIFFERENT COLOR AND COLOR

CHALK

GUIDELINES

● Avoid spelling mistakes

● Use colored chalk if necessary, e.g. To draw the diagrams and different parts can be drawn by using
different colors like anatomy diagrams.
● Use pointer if necessary
● You may prepare, a diagram, a figure etc in advance to save time it may be very motivating for the
children in creating reading readiness.
DISADVANTAGES

 No illustrate moving part

 Limited for small group of audience
 Prone for chalk dust allergy.

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146
ADVANTAGES
 It is cheap
 It is easily erasable
 Chalkboard requires no special care
 Chalk is an order of magnitude cheaper.
PREPARATION PROCESS

● Material Required:
● A piece of board
● Matte dark paint(usually green or black)
PREPARATION STEP:
● Writing should be in a straight line.
● Extreme lower corner should not be used, as total member cannot see.
● Do not stand in front of board stand to one side so that learner may see what and how you are writing.
● Do not talk while writing
● Board should be kept clean always and uniform strokes with eraser can be made to clean the board.
● Write the letter and drawing should be in large or bold size, legible, so that learner can be able to see it.
● Writing should start from top to left corner.
● Duster and not hand or handkerchief should be used to clean the board.

WHEN USING WHITE BOARD (GUIDELINES...)

 Include a whiteboard plan in your lesson outline that determines which aspects of the lesson will be
illustrated on the board list of concepts to be learned, timelines outline, for the day’s presentation.
 Bring plenty of spare markers to the class.
 Use different color marker to highlight important aspects of lesson.
 Write neatly and horizontally, making certain your handwriting is large enough for students to read.
 Give students time to copy what was been written
 Talk to student, not to board.

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 BULLETIN BOARD

INTRODUCTION

The bulletin board display one of the device used for teaching. It may be used for both informational and
educational purposes. It may be used for both informational and educational purposes. It can motivate,
supplement and enrich learning stimulants thought. It employs intrinsic motivation through the medium of
interest, curiosity and desire for knowledge.

ITEMS GENERALLY USED IN BULLETIN BOARD:

● Photograph
● Publication
● Drawing or art
● Specimens
● Posters
● Newspaper
● 2Pasting up of announcements, assignments, and achievements.
EDUCATIONAL USES OF BULLETIN BOARD:
 It can act as a source of motivation and means of arousing curiosity and interest in the learners.
 It is valuable as it provides suitable place and attractive platform for the display of all types of creative
work of the statement.
 The specific announcements concerning the school’s curricular and co-curricular activities
 Bulletin boards provide visual information and guidance for carrying out individual or group project.
PURPOSES:

● To motivate the learner, for example it could be used in learning projects by a group of students to
share learning experience.
● To add variety of classroom activity
● To promote information
● To save time, material that cannot be presented during the class hour can be used on the bulletin board.
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TYPES OF BULLETIN BOARD:
● Flannel board/ felt board
● Magnetic board
● Fixed board
● Movable board
● Folded board
PRINCIPLES TO USE BULLETIN BOARD:
 The board for posting notices should be kept separate from those for current events and study.
 The appearance should be neat, orderly and attractive.
 All material should be appropriately clarified and labeled for further reference.
 Materials should be changed frequently and systematically.
 Everyone should be held responsible for reading and knowing what is on the board.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BULLETIN BOARD:

● The board should be at a place where it will be seen by most of the people for whom it is meant.
● The type and size used will depend on the purpose for which it is used.
● The size of board should be a little longer in length than in width.
PREPARATION PROCESS
MATERIAL REQUIRED:

● A board of plywood
● A sponge cloth
● Glue.
PREPARATION
● Teacher must also classify and file the material beforehand.
● Arrange material in an interesting manner.
● Crowding of display material should be avoided.
● Teacher must put a title and give a brief description.
SPECIFIC POINTS TO REMEMBER:
● There are certain things which have an interest for a day only and these must be removed from the
bulletin board at the end of the day.
● Achievements of the individual pupil and that the school may be advertised
● New arrival in the library may be exhibited in the notice board.
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 PEG BOARD

INTRODUCTION
Perforated hardboard is tempered hardboard which is pre-drilled with evenly spaced holes. The holes are
used to accept pegs or books to support various items such as tools in workshop.
It is commonly used in retail settings along with the steel rods sticking out to hold peggable products as
such as bagged potato chips, printer ink and action figure.

HISTORY OF PEGBOARD:
Perforated hardboard was first seen at the beginning of the 20th century and has been used for tool storage
ever since.
PURPOSE
● The activity has logic and reasoning focus.

● It is used in problem of mathematics to solve them.

ADVANTAGES
● It helps student to think critically.
● It makes maths easy.
DISADVANTAGES
● It is very costly
PREPARATION PROCESS
⮚ MATERIAL USED
● Perforated hard board
● Linseed oil to apply on board
● Drill
PREPARATION:
● Perforated board is more intensive and tempered by coating with a thin layer of linseed oil and baking
at a high temperature to polymerize the oil.
● Holes are made by drill machines.

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 CARTOON

INTRODUCTION
The medium of cartoon is very old one. A famous palette from the down of phrenic Egypt shows king
Warmer (Menes) Stirling what appears to be a defeated enemy in front of a falcon, symbols go the god
Horus.

DEFINITION
A cartoon is humorous caricature which gives a suitable message .In a cartoon the features of the objects
and the people are extra created along with generally recognized the symbols. Cartoon has an instantaneous
visual appeal and tickling message.

PURPOSE OF CARTOON
● The purpose of cartoon is to entertain viewer, they can also teach the viewer.
● Depending on why the cartoon was made ,the purpose will be different .For one example ,
● It’s most easy and funny indirect way to learn kids and teens what should they learn in life.

ADVANTAGES OF CARTOONS
1. A cartoon can be effectively used to initiate certain lesson.
2. A Cartoon can be used to motivate students to start lesson distribution.
3. A cartoon a can be used for mailing lesson lively interesting.
USES OF CARTOONS
1. These are very good attention capturing devices and motivate the students.
2. Useful in modifying behaviour and developing positive attitude interest and a characters of learners.
3. These are capable of creating humour and interest among the viewers and explaining various concepts.
PREPARING CARTOONS

● Cartoons can provide information and knowledge about various and current issues in an interesting way.
● It should be suitable to the age, class experience and level of students.
● The writing and graphics used to cartoons should be meaniful and intelligent to them.

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 FLASH CARD

DEFINITION
Flash cards are a set of pictures with suitable captions or a write up prepared on any theme each one will
reprentad a particular sequence so as to send out the message to the audience small compact cards which
flashed before the class to bring any idea.
PURPOSE
(i) It is used to attract a group’s attention.
(ii) Children & persons who cannot read.
PRINCIPLES
(i) For effective use the group size can range from 5-15 but also can used for smaller number of people.
(ii) The message should be in brief to the point on the card.
(iii) A brief introduction has to be given
METHOD OF USING FLASH CARD
(i) Flash card is stacked in the correct sequence in which we want to show them.
(ii) The presenter shows each one of them in turn and leads a discussion about them.
(iii) we need to make sure that the message we want to convey is clear and is understand.
PREPARATION OF FLASH CARD
(i) Select a theme & prepare the message.
(ii) Collect the articles needed, charts, paper, cards, pencil, colouring materials, lettering, stencils etc
(iii) Use cards 12cm 17cm for small group &37cm 50cm for larger group.
(iv) Make drawing or use cut out pictures for each card.
(v) Numbers the card.
(vi) Height of the writing on the flash card should be 5cm approximately for easy visualization.
ADVANTAGES
(i) Inexpensive &easily transportable.
(ii) Can be handmade with local materials.
DISADVANTAGE

● It should be attractive.
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 OPAQUE PROJECTOR

DEFINITION

The projection of magnified images on a screen directly on papers is called opaque projection .Opaque
projection is done oyan optical other graphic material from books, magazine, periodicals,as well as those
drawn on glossy paper can be straight away projected on a screen in a darkroom. It is worthwhile to know
more about episcope in terms of its principle of working construction and operation.

PRINCIPLE OF EPISCOPE

The light reflected from the strongly illuminated picture is reversed by means of a mirror at 45 degree and
then it is projected on a screen using a convex lens. The illuminated picture lies between the focus and
twice the focus of the convex lens to produce a magnified real image.

ADVANTAGES OF EPISCOPE

● The opaque projection has all the advantages of graphic aids as these are projected with magnification
on a screen.
● An episcope provides a method of tracing enlarged images on chart papers or blackboard.
● There is no need of clipping pictures from book resources as they can be straight away projected.
● Flat specimen like coins, cloth, pieces, leaves, etc can also be projected during lessons.
● Software used with episcope is inexpensive.
USING EPISCOPE FOR CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION

● The teacher must select the pertinent material and keep on cataloguing it lesson wise.
● Cut picture from various book resources and mount them on thick chart paper pieces.
● While using an episcope Make sure that the darkroom is properly ventilated and with an exhaust fan.
● Sealing arrangement should be semicircular with in a space of 60 angles from the centre of screen.
● Do not allow students to sit very close to the screen.
● Every picture should be presented with a commentary.
● Use episcope for introducing, reviewing and testing the lesson topics.
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 COMIC

INTRODUCTION

The comic strips can be very effective a large number of comic strips depicting long continuous episodes
are published in the book number of comic books and magazines are available in India .Amar ChitraKatha,
diamond comics, indrajal comics etc.

DEFINITION

Comic strip is the graphic depiction in a series of pictures or sketches of some characters and events full of
action this medium of communication is found very interesting and exciting by children. For telling stories,
historical events, life histories, scientific processes etc.

ADVANTAGES
● Comic strips fire the imagination of children.
● Comic strips make communication detailed and vivid.
● Comic strip stimulates reality and involvement.
PREPARATION FOR MAKING COMIC
● Develop the characters-sketch your characters or character ideas.
● If this is your first comic story don’t put in too many characters.
● Introduce a key character.
● Introduce an element that starts the action.
STEPS
● Make a thumbnail for the story
● Cut out the good panels.
● Lightly write in the lettering
● Sketch in the drawings.
● Finish up your pencils
● Set your type or ink your letters in.
● Find a title for your story.
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 FLIP CHART
INTRODUCTION
Flip charts are quick, inexpensive visual aids for briefings small roups. The charts felt up markers &
graphic materials are readily available and with a modest ability at lettering the presenters can compose the
desired visual aid in house

PURPOSES
● To show continuity in process.
● To increase motivation in the student.
● To summarize information.
● To show development of structures.
GUIDELINES FOR USING FLIP CHARTS
● The teacher know the content well
● He/she should explain the pictures to the audience keeping the flipchart facing them.
● Should go in an organized and sequential manner.
● Simple explanations can be given and the message should be conveyed properly.
METHOD
● Each sheet of paper should contain one idea, sketch or theme.
● Words charts diagrams and other symbols must be penned in a large
● Enough size to be seen by people farthest from the speakers.
● The size of the chart should be at least 21cm×27cm.
● In general make each letter at least 1/32 high for each foot of distance from the material for example
● An inch letter is legible from 32 feet and a 2-inch letter from 64 feet divide the distance from the back
of the room to the visual by 32 to determine the minimum size of letters.
● Avoid using light colours as yellow orange and pink.
ADVANTAGES OF FLIP CHARTS
● It gives a continuous visual stimulus, which increases learning experiences.
● It is economical.
● It stimulates interest of students.
DISADVANTAGES OF FLIP CHARTS
● Only a limited audience can be accommodated.
● Artistic ability is required to prepare the charts
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 EPIDIASCOPE

INTRODUCTION

The Opaque Projector, Epidioscope, Epidiascope or Episcope is a device which

displays opaque materials by shining a bright lamp on to the object from above .A
system of mirrors, prisms and/or imaging lenses is used to focus on image of the
material on to a viewing screen. Opaque projectors are typically used to project,
images of book pages, drawings, mineral specimens etc.

MEANING
“The projection of real magnified images on a screen directly from pictures and
drawings on paper is called Opaque Projection. Opaque Projection is done by an
optical instrument called Epidiascope” (B.T. Basavanthappa, 2003)

HISTORICAL ASPECT
The invention of the ‘Epidiascope’ by Carl Zeiss of Leipzig in 1899, which allowed
the vertical projection of miniature negatives lit by electricity.
The Opaque Projector is a predecessor to the overhead projector. The Light source in
early Opaque Projectors was often lime light. Incandescent light bulbs and halogen
th
lamps are most commonly used today. In the early and middle parts of the 20
century, low-cost opaque projectors were produced and marked as toys for children.
PURPOSES
 The Epidiascope is an instrument which can project images or printed matter or
small opaque objects on a screen or it can project images of a 4” × 4”slide.
 With the help of Epidiascope, any chart, diagram, map, photograph and picture
can be projected on the screen without tearing it off from the book .
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TYPES
TWO MAIN CLASSES OF OPAQUE PROJECTORS THUS EXISTED;

 The Episcope, which solely projected images of opaque objects.

 The Epidiascope, which was capable of projecting images of both opaque and
transparent images.

PRINCIPLES
Epidiascope works on the principle of horizontal straight line projection with
lamp, plane mirror and projection lens.
↓
A strong light from the lamp falls on the opaque object.
↓

A plane mirror placed at an angle of 45°over the object reflects the light.

It passes through the projection lens.

Forming a magnified image on the screen.

ADVANTAGES
 The Opaque Projection has all the advantages of graphic such as these are
projected with magnification on a screen.

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 An Epidiascope provides a method of tracing enlarged images on chart paper or
black board.
 There is no need of clipping pictures from book resources as they can be straight
away projected.
 Software used with Episcope is inexpensive.
 Episcope can be used for flat non-transparent learning material from the sharp size
to that of 20cm ×250cm size pictures.
DISADVANTAGES
 Demands total darkness for clear projection (expect with very expensive models).
 Bulky machine, difficult to transport.
 Electricity required.
MODEL PREPARATION PROCESS
MATERIALS REQUIRED
 Epidiascope can be made with a Good projector lens, surface mirror and a fan and
a box to hold them.
 Bright light is used to illuminate the pages and a fan is therefore used to regulate
the amount of heat in the box.
 A surface mirror is important as it prevents from one getting a ghost reflection.

PREPARATION STEPS

STEP 1

 An Episcope consist of a light tight metal box with a slideable lens arranged at the
top.
 The picture placed on a platform near the bottom of box which lever handle and
then closed.

STEP 2

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 A 1000 watt straight- filament bulb with a concave, reflector illuminates the
picture strongly.
 A mirror at 45° near the top corner reverses the light reflected from the picture
making it pass through the lens system which can be slided.
 A small exhaust fan blows out the heat of the high intensity bulb.
USE OF EPIDIASCOPE IN TEACHING-LEARNING

Epidiascope can play an important role in the teaching and learning of various school
subjects in the following manner.

A. Various slides related to the subject material can be easily shown by projecting on
screen in their enlarged forms with the help of this device. Thus, if the figure or
illustration is very small and it is required that whole class should see it clearly; a
transparent slide of this small figure can be prepared by the subject teacher with
the involvement of his students (for projecting on the screen in its enlarged size
through the help of an epidiascope).
B. The major advantage of Epidiascope lies in its ability to directly project the non
transparent or opaque objects available in their real form (without converting them
into their slides) on the screen in an enlarged size. Consequently, various types of
useful material related to teaching contents may be successfully presented for the
proper view of the entire class. Such material may include :
 Graphic and pictorial materials like pictures, charts, maps, diagrams, timelines,
cartoons, posters, graphs etc.
 All types of printed material.
 Hand written material, drawing and sketches.
 Stamps, coins, stone minerals, remain of historical or cultural interests, fossils,
bones etc.
 Specimen of living and non-living objects.
 Models, dioramas, pieces of arts, figures etc

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 PHOTOGRAPHS AND PICTURES

DEFINITION

A Photography or photo is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive

surface usually photographic film or an electronic image such as a CCD (Charge-
Coupled Device) chip. Most photographs are created using a camera, which uses a
lens to focus the scene’s visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the
human eye would see.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
The word “Photograph” was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the
Greek. Photo, meaning “light”and Graphic, meaning “drawing, writing” , together
meaning “drawing with the light”.
The first permanent photograph was made in 1822 by a French inventor, Joseph
Nicephore Niepce, building on a discovery by Johann Heinrich Schultz (1724): that a
silver and chalk mixture darkens under exposure to light. Niepce and Louis Daguerre
refined this process. Daguerre discovered that exposing the silver first to iodine
vapour, before exposure to light, and then to mercury fumes after the photographs
was taken, could form a latent image, bathing the plate in a salt bath then fixes the
image. These ideas led to the famous daguerreotype.
Colour photography is almost as old as black-and-white, with early experiments
dating to John Herschel’s experiments with Anthotype from 1842, and Lippmann
plate from 1891.Colour photography became much more popular with the
introduction of Autochrome Lumiere in 1903, which was replaced by Kodachrome,
Ilfochrome and similar processes.

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OVERALL PURPOSES

 Scientists have used photography to record and study movements, such as

Eadweard Muybridge’s Study of human and animal locomotion in 1887.
 Military, Police, and security forces use photography for surveillance,
recognition and data storage.
 Photography is used by amateurs to preserve memories to capture special
moments, to tell stories, to send messages, and a source of entertainment.
 High speed photography allows for visualizing events that are too fast for the
human eye.
TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHS
Non-digital photographs are produced with a two-step chemical process. In the two-
step the light-sensitive film captures a negative image (colours and lights/ darks are
inverted). To produce a positive image, the negative is most commonly transferred
(printed) onto photographic paper. Printing the negative onto transparent film stock
is used to manufacture motion picture films.
Originally, all photographs were monochromatic or hand-painted in colour. Although
methods for developing colour prints were available as early as 1861, they did not
became widely available until the 1940s or 50s, and even so, until the 1960s most
photographs were taken in black and white. Since then, colour photography has
dominated popular photography, although black and white is still used, being easier
to develop than colour.
Panoramic format images can be taken with cameras like Hasselblad Xpan on
standard film. Since the 1990s, panoramic photos have been available on the
Advanced photo system film. APS has became less popular and is being discontinued

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 CAMERA PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

Lens –It draws the light into the camera and focuses it on the film plane.
Shutter release-The button that releases or “trips” the shutter mechanism.
Film Advance Lever or Knob-It transports the film from one frame to the next on the
roll of film.
Aperture-It dilates and contracts to control the diameter of the hole that the light
passes through, to let in more or less light. It is controlled by the f-stop ring.
Viewfinder-The “window” through which look to frame picture.
Film Rewind Knob-This knob rewinds the film back into the film cassette.
Camera Body-The casing of the camera which holds the encloses the camera parts.
Flash Shoe-This is the point at which the flash or flash cube is mounted or attached.
Self Timer-This mechanism trips the shutter after a short delay –usually 7 to 10
seconds, allowing everyone to be in the photograph.
Shutter Speed Control-This knob controls the length of the time the shutter remains
open. Typical shutter speeds are measured in fractions of a second, such as: 1/3 1/60
1/125 1/250 1/500 1/1000 of a second.
PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Simplicity-Simplicity is the key to most good pictures .The simpler and more direct a
picture is, the clearer and stronger is the resulting statement. There are several things
to be considered when discuss simplicity:
Cropping-Do this with the camera first. Capture the most important part of the
picture-the part that makes the story and cutting these pictures in small or big photo
sheets needed.

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 Perspective –Try to get interesting perspective that other photographers have not
tried, or that have not often seen. Bend knees, and tippy-toe whenever necessary.
Standing on a bench, chair, ladder etc. Can be an excellent helper to capture clear
photographs.
Lighting –Use natural lighting whenever want to create a mood with lighting. Watch
where have shadows. Any indoor picture may need a flash.
Action-Place ourselves close to the action. Try to get people in action. Capture their
daily activities. When photographing sports, try to get as many faces as possible.
Contrast –Try to get black as black as possible and whites as white as possible.
Contrast small shapes with large shapes.
Consistency –Be as consistent as possible. At first this will be difficult, but it will
slowly start to make an impression, when do certain things the same that give good
pictures. Follow that, the pictures are best possible.
ADVANTAGES
● Promotes correlation of information.
● Assists organization of material.
● Photographs nearer to reality than drawings, but association often valuable.
● Usually easily produced and duplicated (black and white photos).
● Easy to store, catalogue, and retrieve.
DISADVANTADES
● It is used for small audiences only (unless projected with Epidiascope).
● Effective use of photography needs good duplicating equipment and trained staff.
PREPARATION PROCESS
MATERIALS REQUIRED
I. Film
Modern film is made by coating light-sensitive ingredients onto a flexible plastic
surface.
II. Developing and printing materials

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 The chemicals used in developing are designed to grow the microscopic silver atoms
into silver centers that are larger enough to be visible to the unaided eye.
III. The developer solutions are composed of reducing agents, restrainers, and
preservatives.
Hydroquinone is one common reducing agent used for black and white film.
Bromide ions are commonly used as restrainers, which move the reaction in the
opposite direction.
Preservatives are added to the mixture to prevent premature oxidation. Sodium
sulfite is typically used in this regard.
IV. Printing images requires special paper, which is coated with light-sensitive materials.

V.In addition to the materials described above, developing and printing operations
require a variety of equipment such as trays, measuring glass ware, thermometers,
drying screens, timers, mixing pails and stirring paddles and paper cutters.

10.SPECIFIC POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED

● It is best to leave photographs lying flat on the table when viewing them.
● Do not pick it up from a corner, or even from two sides and hold it at eye level.
● Every time the photograph bends, even a little this can break down the emulsion.
● As long as a photo is in its folder, there is no need to touch it, simply remove the
folder from the box, lay it flat on the table, and open the table.
● If for some reason the researcher does need to handle the actual photo perhaps to
examine the verso for writing, he or she can use gloves if there appears to be a risk
from oils or dirt on the hands.

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 PICTURES

DEFINITION

A Picture is simply a photo of objects or persons on a piece of card, paper etc. A

picture can sometimes be something to treasure memories or simply just a decoration.
A picture can be in books, albums and frames which we can look at whenever would
like. In present scenario can be seen through power point, through LCD.
PURPOSE
● Some pictures serve primarily to show the appearance of objects, persons or
images.
● Illustrations with labels, highlighted components, or other selective or stylized
attributes often serve the purpose of demonstrating the structure of something.
● Pictures often serve to illustrate a concept. Some pictures may be used primarily
to demonstrate abstract conceptual material in a visual way.

SPECIAL TYPES OF PICTURES

Moving pictures
If people take a lot of pictures, and show them one at a time, very fast, they can make
a picture that looks like it is moving. This is called a “moving picture”, or a movie.
Three Dimensional pictures
Some people can make pictures that do not look flat, by taking two regular flat
pictures at the same time or pictures projected from front and sides. People have to
move their eyes in a special way or use a stereoscope so they can see both pictures
together. When they look at the pictures the right way, the picture does not look flat.
This is called ‘3D’ or three ‘dimensional’.

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ADVANTAGES

● It stimulates reading and writing.

● Enable students to dramatize a specific point.
● Providing an atmosphere for learning.
● Attract participation.
● Creating centres of interest.
● Helpful in introducing topic of study.
● Assist in reviewing and summarizing the lesson.
● Broadening of knowledge.
● Enhance understanding regarding subject.
● To create enthusiasm and enjoyment in learning by observing pictures.
DISADVANTAGES
● In some cases pictures can get lost.
● It can be torn.
● It can be fade and has effect of environmental gradually years by years.
● It can burn easily.
● If not unique, can seem uninteresting to pupils.
● Depicting a specific purpose might be difficult to locate.
MAKING PICTURES

Most pictures today are ‘Photographs’. ‘Photographs’ are made with cameras.

A camera makes a picture that looks very real. When there are no cameras, people
made pictures by using paint, brushes, pencils, crayons, pens, and other things that
people can write or draw with.
Pictures made with paint and brush are called ‘Paintings’. Sometimes pictures made
with pencil or pen are called ‘Sketches’. If they are made quickly and only look a
little bit like the real thing.

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Usually pictures are placed on paper. Pictures made with paint are usually painted on
a strong, rough fabric called ‘Canvas’.

PRINCIPLES
Appeal: The picture should capture interest and imagination of all students in the
group.
Relevance : The picture should be appropriate for the purpose of the lesson. It must
contribute directly to the aim of the lesson. Do not use a picture just because it is
attractive or that students find it fascinating.
Recognition: The significant features of the picture should be within student’s
knowledge and cultural understanding.
Size : If the picture is shown to the whole class, it must be large enough to be seen
clearly by all. For pair and group work, the picture can of course be smaller.
Clarity : Avoid crowded pictures. They can confuse and distract the students. The
relevant details must be clearly seen. Choose pictures with strong outlines and
contrast in tone and colour to avoid ambiguity. If painted pictures, colours
combination should be realistic for better understanding.

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 ILLUSTRATED BOOK

DEFINITION
(Illustrated books) an illustration is a displayed visualization form presented as a
drawing, painting, photograph or other work of art
HISTORY

Medieval codices’ illustrations were called illuminations. Johannes Guttenberg

invented the printing press and independently developed a movable type system in
Europe, along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and hand mould.
He also added illustrations to his printed books, usually wood cuts. During the 15 th
century, books illustrated with wood cut illustrations became available. The main
processes used for reproduction of illustrations during the 16th and 17th centuries were
engraving and etching. At the end of the 18 th century, lithography allowed even better
illustrations to be reproduced.
PURPOSE
● By viewing picture books and engaging in illustrator studies, students develop an
awareness of visual text, and identify the expressive elements in visual texts.
● Students become aware of how visual elements are used by illustrators to result in
great expressive ranges and numerous potentials.
● Students even viewing and reading books develop awareness of connections
between visual texts and accompanying written texts.
TYPE OF PICTURE BOOKS

Toy books/Board books

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These books usually feature more interactive elements like cloth, pop up and plastic.
As they are for babies words are less important and it’s more about the way they are
played with or read by adults. They often feature a lot of actions and noises the adult
does as reading them.
Toddler /Concept books
These books start to introduce basic learning of alphabet, numbers, colours and shape
etc. They have more of an emphasis on words than the toy books; however images
are still the main attention as this audience cannot read yet. They average around 300
words and often are board books with interactive elements.
Early picture books
These are the next step up from the previous books they have a higher word count up
to 2000 words. They are written so the child can read them all by themselves. They
have simple language and usually are told through action and dialog. They still feature
illustrations on every page.
Early chapter books/Transition books
These books are the transition from picture books to chapter books. They still feature
illustrations but not as many and a lot of time only black and white. They feature a lot
more words and can have chapters.
PONITS TO BE REMEMBER
● Interesting illustrations-Illustration should appeal to the students. It is well-
known that bright colour and simple design appeal to students.
● Simple but comprehensive illustrations-Illustrations should be so simple that they
can be easily comprehended by the students and should needs little comments and
explanations as far as possible. Illustrations like diagrams and tables can be
worked out in the presence of students in the class room itself while teaching.
● Exact illustrations-They should be very accurate and exact defective illustrations
are likely to distort learning.

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● Relevant to the topic-Illustrations should be related to the subject-matter in hand.
Illustrations should not be used for the sake of using illustration as essential
instruments of teaching.
● Subordinate to the topic-Illustrations should not be used in such a way as the
students remember only the illustrative material and not the subject matter.
● Not too many illustrations-Too many illustrations are likely to distract the
attention of students from real subject-matter. They should be used rationally.
● Collection of illustrative material-Every skillful teacher will try to have his own
collection of illustrative material from different sources i.e. journals, magazines,
picture, post-card etc.
ADVANTAGES

● Enables students to work at his own pace.

● Facilitates self-evaluation.
● Makes mass teaching possible with high efficiency.
● High availability.
● Facilitates decision-taking (solution of complex problems).
● Reduces risk (for patient or society).
● Avoids bias transmitted by “bad teachers”.
DISADVANTAGES

● Necessitates special educational competence.

● High additional investment costs (in teacher’s time and money).
● No group dynamics.

PREPARATION PROCESS

Material required
● Coloured pencils
● Sketch pad
● Desktop publishing software
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● Glossy computer paper
● Colour printer
● Scanner
● Book cover

STORAGE

● Good storage significantly prolongs the life and usability of books and includes:
● A cool room temperature or below, (relatively dry about 35% relative humidity),
clean and stable environment.
● Minimal exposure to all kinds of light, no exposure to direct or intense light.
● Distance from radiators and vents.
● Regular dusting and housekeeping.
● Keeping upright shelved books straight and not leaning (storing books lying flat is
also good).

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 ACTIVITY AIDS
There are certain learning situations in which student participation through direct experiences can be easily
incorporated, these are called activity aids. The activity teaching aids are really of great value as they put
students in a role of active seekers of knowledge. There are five important activity teaching aids, which are
listed below:-
1) Field trips
2) Demonstrations
3) Experiments
4) Dramatizations

FIELD TRIPS
DEFINITIONS
According to Hedger ken Field trip may be defined as “an educational procedure by which the student
studies firsthand objects and materials in their natural environment.”
Types of field trips
a) Local school trips
b) Community trip
c) Educational trips
d) The natural hunt
Advantages of field trip:
● It provides accurate information objects, process, and systems in their real life setting.
● It provides meaningful direct experience and hence results in lasting learning.
● The students learning can be easily diverted towards effective learning.
● Field trips are valuable aids to what students are curious about the natural and man-made process and
objects.
Limitations of field trip:
1) A field trip may be occasional activity which at best supplement some learning segments of the syllabus.
2) They can be expensive and out of reach for many disadvantaged and poor students.

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 DEMONSTRATIONS
Demonstration method is a concrete visual aid, because of its wide use in the teaching of nurses. In nursing
education, it is used for this purpose and also for clinics, conferences, laboratory classes, symposia,
autopsies, and teaching of health to patients. The demonstration method teaches by explanation and
exhibition. In short, it is a performance to show a process or activity to others. When a teacher
demonstrates, students observe and imitate to learn
Advantages of demonstration:-
The following are the advantages of demonstration method.
1) It activates several senses. This increases learning, because it gives a better opportunity for
observational learning.
2) It clarifies the underlying principles by demonstrating the ‘why’ or ‘how’ of the procedure.
3) It provokes interest by use of concrete illustrations.
4) It correlates theory with practice engages student’s attention and concentration.
5) It encourages student’s participation in learning through questions and answers as the teacher performs.

EXPERIMENT
An experiment is a learning activity in which students collect and interpret observations using measuring
instruments to reach some conclusions. In science subjects experiments are used invariably used as
instructional aid as they encourage learning by doing. While giving a lesson on an experiment, the teacher
should organize the instruction so as to make the students aware of the following steps of the experiments:
1) Objectives of the experiments
2) Apparatus required
3) Procedure or methodology
4) Observations of data
5) Computation (totaling) of the observations made.
6) Results or conclusion
7) Precautions
8) Ideas for future work
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 DRAMATIZATION
Dramatization is a very potent method of keeping the class room instruction lively and interesting. When a
teacher dramatizes a lesson, the students become both the spectators and participants. This makes learning
easy and permanents.
Types of dramatizations suitable for class room instruction:-
1) Role-play
2) Play lets
3) Pageant
4) Pantomime
5) Tableaux

Advantages of dramatization:
1) Dramatization gives an added advantage of students working as both observers (spectators) and doers
(participants) unlike in experiment where there are just doers and in demonstration where there are just
observers.
2) Dramatization makes learning a pleasure children love to act and show off.
3) Dramatization involves students totally and they appreciate the lessons remember it better
4) Dramatization develops the social skills required for them such as cooperation, co-ordination,
punctuality, and human relations etc.
5) Dramatization makes students creative, sensitive, and alert.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

❖ BOOK REFERENCE
1. Agarwal, C. (2008). Principles, Methods and Techniques of teaching. New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing house.
2. Basavanthappa, T. (2003). Nursing Education. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers.
3. Basavanthappa, T. (2011). Communication and Educational Technology for Nurses. New
Delhi: Jaypee Brothers.
4. Clement, I. (2010). Text Book on Communication and Educational Technology. Bangalore:
Emmess Medical Publishers.
5. Heidgerken, E . (2002).Teaching and Learning in Schools of Nursing. New Delhi: knonark
Publishers.
6. Neeraja , P. (2003). Text Book of Nursing Education. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers.
7. Neeraja , P. (2011). Text Book of Communication and Educational Technology for Nurses.
New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers.
❖ NET REFERENCE
1. en. m.wikipedia.org.
2. www. ask.com.

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