Writer:-NEKNIKIE ZEWDIE (M.Sc.

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Contents
General Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 4
Unit 1 ...................................................................................................................................................... 5
Vector ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1. Scalars and vectors ................................................................................................................... 5
1.2. Vector addition and resolution ................................................................................................. 6
1.2.1. Geometrical method of vector addition ............................................................................ 6
1.2.2. Coordinate System ........................................................................................................... 7
1.2.3. Resolution of vector ......................................................................................................... 9
1.2.4. Analytic method of vector addition ................................................................................. 12
1.3. Decomposition of vector and unit vectors .............................................................................. 14
1.4. Products of vectors ................................................................................................................ 18
1.4.1. Scalar (dot) product ........................................................................................................ 18
1.4.2. Vector (cross) product .................................................................................................... 22
1.4.3. The scalar and vector triple products .............................................................................. 25
Unit 2 .................................................................................................................................................... 29
One dimensional motion ....................................................................................................................... 29
2.1. Distance and displacement..................................................................................................... 30
2.2. Speed and Velocity ................................................................................................................. 30
2.3. Average and Instantaneous Velocities .................................................................................... 31
2.4. Acceleration ........................................................................................................................... 33
2.5. Uniformly Accelerated Motion ............................................................................................... 33
2.6. Graphical Representations ..................................................................................................... 37
2.7. Free fall .................................................................................................................................. 38
Unit 3 .................................................................................................................................................... 42
Two dimensional motions...................................................................................................................... 42
3.1. Velocity and acceleration ....................................................................................................... 42
3.2. Projectile motion.................................................................................................................... 45
3.3. Uniform circular motion ......................................................................................................... 50
3.4. Motion of a particle on a vertical and horizontal circles .......................................................... 53
3.4.1. Motion of a particle on a vertical circle ........................................................................... 53

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 3.4.2. Motion of particle on Horizontal circle ............................................................................ 57

3.5. Oscillatory motion (pendulum …..) ......................................................................................... 61

Chapter 4 .............................................................................................................................................. 63
Newton’s law of motion ........................................................................................................................ 63
4.1. Force ...................................................................................................................................... 64
4.2. Newton’s first laws of motion................................................................................................. 64
4.3. Newton’s second law ............................................................................................................. 64
4.4. Newton’s third law ................................................................................................................. 65
4.5. Newton’s law of universal gravitation .................................................................................... 66
4.6. Mass and weight .................................................................................................................... 69
4.7. Application of Newton’s laws of motion ................................................................................. 69
4.7.1. Projectile motion ............................................................................................................ 69
4.7.2. Friction force .................................................................................................................. 70
4.8. Hook’s law ............................................................................................................................. 72
4.8.1. Force Constant of a Spring .............................................................................................. 73
4.9. Equilibrium ............................................................................................................................ 77
Chapter 5 .............................................................................................................................................. 82
Work, Energy, and power ...................................................................................................................... 82
5.1. Definition of work .................................................................................................................. 82
5.2. Work done by constant force ................................................................................................. 83
5.3. work done by variable force ................................................................................................... 83
5.4. Mechanical energy ................................................................................................................. 86
5.5. Work Energy theorem ............................................................................................................ 86
5.6. Law of conservation of Mechanical energy ............................................................................. 87
5.7. Conservative and non-conservative forces ............................................................................. 88
5.8. Power .................................................................................................................................... 89
UNIT 6 ................................................................................................................................................... 91
IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM .................................................................................................................. 91
6.1. Linear momentum.................................................................................................................. 91
6.2. Impulse .................................................................................................................................. 91
6.3. Conservation of linear momentum ......................................................................................... 93

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 6.4. Elastic and non-elastic collision .............................................................................................. 95
6.4.1. Elastic collision ............................................................................................................... 95
6.4.2. In elastic collision ........................................................................................................... 98
6.5. Application (recoil and propulsion) ....................................................................................... 100
Physical Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 101
Rocket in a Gravitational Field...................................................................................................... 104
UNIT 7 ................................................................................................................................................. 107
FLUID MECHANICS............................................................................................................................... 107
7.1. Fluids at rest ........................................................................................................................ 108
7.1.1. Pascal’s principle .......................................................................................................... 112
7.1.2. Archimedes' principle ................................................................................................... 114
7.2. Fluid dynamics ..................................................................................................................... 116
7.2.1. Flow characteristics ...................................................................................................... 117
7.2.2. Continuity Equation...................................................................................................... 119
7.2.3. Bernoulli's principle and applications ............................................................................ 119
7.2.4. Viscosity ....................................................................................................................... 126

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General Introduction
The most fundamental and obvious phenomenon we observe around us is motion. Blowing air,
waves in the ocean, flying birds, running animals, falling leaves—all these are motion
phenomena. Practically all imaginable processes can be traced back to the motion of certain
objects. The earth and the planets move around the sun; electrons move inside the atom, giving
rise to absorption and emission of light, or they move inside a metal, producing an electric
current; gas molecules move, giving rise to pressure. Our everyday experience tells us that the
motion of a body is influenced by the bodies that surround it; that is, by its interactions with
them. What the physicist and the engineer do, essentially, is to arrange things in such a way that,
under the mutual interactions of the particles, a certain kind of motion is produced. In a TV tube,
the electron beam must move
in a certain fashion to produce a pattern on the screen. In a thermal engine, the molecules of the
burnt fuel must move in such a way that a piston or a turbine moves in a desired direction. A
chemical reaction is the consequence of certain atomic motions resulting in a new arrangement,
forming new classes of molecules.
The role of the physicist is to discover the reasons for all these motions; and the role of the
engineer is to arrange things so that useful motions are produced, motions which will make our
life easier. There are several general rules or principles that apply to all kinds of motion, no
matter what the nature of the interactions. This set of principles, and the theory that underlies it,
is called mechanics.
To analyze and predict the nature of motions resulting from the different kinds of interactions,
some important concepts have been invented, such as momentum, force, and energy. If the
momentum, force, and/or energy are initially known, they can be expressed in a quantitative way
and rules can be established by which the resulting motions can be predicted. Momentum, force,
and energy are so important that we can rarely analyze a process without expressing it in terms
of them.
Mechanics, which is the science of motion, is also the science of momentum, force, and energy.
It is one of the fundamental areas of physics, and must be understood thoroughly before
beginning a consideration of particular interactions. In Galileo‘s time this basic role of
mechanics was already recognized, the idea being condensed in the statement, ―Ignoratomotu,
ignoraturnatural‖ Mechanics will be studied in Chapters 2 through 7.
The science of mechanics as we understand it today is mainly the result of the genius of Sir Isaac
Newton, who produced the great synthesis called Newton‘s principles. However, many more
people have contributed to its advance. Some of the more illustrious names are Archimedes,
Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, Huygens, Lagrange, Hamilton, Mach, and Einstein.

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 Unit 1
Vector
Introduction
This chapter will serve as an introduction to, or review of, the essential ideas associated with a
branch of mathematics most important to the physical scientist. Vector algebra is important
because it enables the scientist to write in a convenient, terse, shorthand notation some very
complicated expressions. Vectors will be needed throughout our study of physics to describe and
analyze physical quantities, such as velocity and force that have direction as well as magnitude.
LEARNING GOALS
By studying this chapter, you will beable to explain:
 The difference between scalars and vectors, and how to add and subtract vectors graphically.
 What the components of a vector are and how to use them in calculations.
 What unit vectors are, and how to use them with components to describe vectors.
 Two ways of multiplying vectors
 Apply analytical methods of vector algebra to find resultant vectors and to solve vector equations
for unknown vectors.
 Interpret physical situations in terms of vector expressions.
 Explain the difference between the scalar product and the vector product of two vectors.
 Determine the scalar product of two vectors.
 Determine the vector product of two vectors.
 Describe how the products of vectors are used in physics.

1.1. Scalars and vectors

Activity 1.1
1. What is a scalar quantity?
2. What is a vector quantity?

Many physical quantities are completely determined by their magnitude, expressed in some
convenient unit. These quantities are called scalars. For example, to specify the volume of a
body it is necessary only to indicate how many cubic meters or cubic feet it occupies. To know a
temperature it is enough to read a conveniently located thermometer. Time, mass, charge, and
energy are also scalar quantities.
Other physical quantities require, for their complete determination, a direction in addition to their
magnitude. Such quantities we call vectors. The most obvious case is displacement. The
displacement of a body is determined by the effective distance it has moved and the direction in
which it moved. For example, if a particle is displaced from O to A (Fig. 1-1), the displacement
is determined by the distance d = 5 and the angle 𝜃 = 37°. Velocity is also a vector quantity,
since the motion is determined by the rate of displacement and the direction of the displacement.
Similarly, force and acceleration are vector quantities. Other physical quantities that are vectors
will appear in succeeding chapters.

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 Figure 1-1Displacement is a vector quantity
1.2. Vector addition and resolution
1.2.1. Geometrical method of vector addition
Vector arithmetic can be done graphically, by drawing the vectors as arrows on graph paper, and
measuringthe results with a ruler and protractor. The advantages of the graphical methods are
that they give a goodintuitive picture of what‘s going on to help you visualize what you‘re trying
to do. The disadvantages are thatthe graphical methods can be time-consuming, and not very
accurate.
In practice, the graphical methods are usually used to make a quick sketch, to help organize and
clarifyyour thinking, so you can be clear that you‘re doing things correctly. The algebraic
methods are then used forthe actual calculations. When drawing vectors, you are free to move
the vector around the page however you want, as long as youdon‘t change the direction or
magnitude.
Addition
We‘ll begin with addition. There are two methods available to add two vectors together: the first
is called theparallelogram method. In this method, you draw the two vectors to be added with
their tail end points at thesame point. This figure forms half a parallelogram; draw two additional
lines to complete the parallelogram.Now draw a vector from the tail endpoint across the diagonal
of the parallelogram. This diagonal vector isthe sum of the two original vectors (Fig. 1.2(a)).
The second graphical method of vector addition is called the triangle method. In this method,
you firstdraw one vector, and then draw the second so that its tail is at the head of the first vector.
To find the sum of thetwo vectors, draw a vector from the tail of the first vector to the head of
the second (Fig. 1.2(b))
The triangle method can be extended to add any number of vectors together. Just draw the
vectors one byone, with the tail of each vector at the head of the previous one. The sum of all the
vectors is then found bydrawing a vector from the tail of the first vector in the chain to the head
of the last one (Fig. 1.2(c)). This iscalled the polygon method.
Subtraction
To subtract two vectors graphically, draw the two vectors so that their tail endpoints are at the
same point. Todraw the difference vector, draw a vector from the head of the subtrahend vector
to the head of the minuendvector (Fig. 1.2(d)).

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 Figure 1.2 Graphical methods for vector arithmetic. (a) Addition of vectors A and B using the
parallelogram method. (b) Addition of the same vectors A and B using the triangle method. (c)
Addition of vectors A, B, and C using a generalization of the triangle method called the polygon
method. The sum vector points from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last. (d) Vector
subtraction: A _ B points from the head of B to the head of A. (e) Multiplication of a vector A by
various scalars. Multiplying by a scalar greater than one makes the vector longer; multiplying by
a scalar less than 1 makes it shorter. The resulting vector will be in the same direction as A
unless the scalar is negative, in which case the result will point opposite the direction of A.

1.2.2. Coordinate System

A coordinate system is a system for associating a set of three numbers with points in space
uniquely. Two Special Cases of this are the one dimensional coordinate system and the two
dimensional system.

One dimensional coordinate system

A one dimensional coordinate system is also called a number line. It is a system that associates
single numbers with points on a line uniquely. A point is related with number that is equal to its
distance from a certain point that we call a reference point or origin.

Two dimensional coordinate system

A two dimensional coordinate system is also called a coordinate plane. It is a system for
associating pairs of numbers with points in a plane uniquely. There are two kinds of two
dimensional coordinate systems

1) The Cartesian coordinate system.

In this kind of coordinate system, a point is related with its perpendicular from two
reference lines that are perpendicular to each other.
 The vertical reference line is called the y-axis.
 The horizontal reference line is called the x-axis.
 The intersection point of these two lines is called the origin by the order pair (x,
y).
2) The polar coordinate
In this kind of coordinate system, a point is related to this distance from the origin and the
angle formed between the line joining the origin to point and the positive x-axis.
The angle taken positive if measured in a counter clock wise direction from the positive
x-axis and negative if measured in a clock wise direction from the positive x-axis,
The distance and the angle are customarily represented by r and 𝜃 respectively. The
coordinate of the point is represented by the order pair (r,𝜃).

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 Relation between Cartesian and polar coordinates

y=r sin𝜽, x= r
𝒚
cos𝜽, R= 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 and 𝜽 =arctan ( )
𝒙

Figure 1.3Cartesian components of a vector

Rectangular Form
One idea would be to keep track of the coordinates of the head and tail of the vector. But
remember that we are free to move a vector around where ever we want, as long as the direction
and magnitude remain unchanged. So let‘s choose to always put the tail of the vector at the
origin—that way, we only have to keep track of the head of the vector, and we cut our work in
half. A vector can then be completely specified by just giving the coordinates of its head.
There‘s a little bit of a different way of writing this, though. We begin by defining two unit
vectors (vectors with magnitude 1): i is a unit vector in the x direction, and j is a unit vector in
the y direction. (In three dimensions, we add a third unit vector k in the ‘direction.)
Referring to Fig. 1.3, let Ax be the projection of vector A onto the x-axis, and let Ay by its
projection onto the y-axis. Then, recalling the rules for the multiplication of a vector by a scalar,
Axi is a vector pointing in the x-direction, and whose length is equal to the projection Ax.
Similarly, Ayj is a vector pointing in they-direction, and whose length is equal to the projection
Ay. Then by the parallelogram rule for adding two vectors, vector A is the sum of vectors Axi and
Ayj (Fig. 1.3). This means we can write a vector A as

Or, if we‘re working in three dimensions,

The above two equations is called the rectangular or cartesian1 form of vector A.
Magnitude

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The magnitude of a vector is a measure of its total ―length.‖ It is indicated with absolute value
signs around the vector ( 𝐴 in type, or 𝐴 in handwriting), or more simply by just writing the
name of the vector in regulartype (A; no boldface or arrow). In terms of rectangular components,
the magnitude of a vector is simply given by the Pythagorean Theorem:

Polar Form
Instead of giving the x and y coordinates of the head of the vector, an alternative form is to give
the magnitude and direction of the vector. This is called the polar form of a vector, and is
indicated by the notation

Where A is the magnitude of the vector, and 𝜃 is the direction, measured counterclockwise from
the +𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥is.By convention, in polar form, we always take the magnitude of a vector as
positive. If the magnitudecomes out negative (as the result of a calculation, for example), then
we can make it positive by changing it assign and adding 1800to the direction.
Converting between the rectangular and polar forms of a vector is fairly straightforward. To
convert from polar to rectangular form, we use the definitions of the sine and cosine to get sin
𝜃=opp./hyp. =Ay/A, and cos𝜃=adj./hyp.=Ax/A. Therefore to convert from polar to rectangular
form, we use

To go the other way (rectangular to polar form), we just invert these equations to solve for A and
𝜃. To solvefor A, take the sum of the squares of both equations and add; to solve for 𝜃, divide
the Ay equation by the Ax equation. The results are

and

1.2.3. Resolution of vector

Any vector V can always be considered as the sum of two (or more) vectors, and the number of
possibilities is infinite. Each set of vectors which, when added, give V are called the components
of V.
The ones most commonly used are the rectangular components; i.e., the vectoris expressed as
the sum of two mutually perpendicular vectors (Fig. 1.4). Then, as we see from the figure,
V = Vx+ Vy, with

…………….. (1.7)

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Fig.1.4Rectangular components of a vector in a plane Fig.1-5Components of a vector in a certain
direction
Defining unit vectors u x and uyin the directions of the X –and Y-axes, we notethat
Vx= 𝑂𝐴=uxVx,Vy = 𝑂𝐵 = uyV
Therefore we have
V = uxVx + uyV y. ………………………………….(1.8)
This equation expresses a vector in terms of its rectangular components in two-dimensions.
Using Eq. (1.7), we may also write for E q . (1.8) V = u xVcos𝛼 +UyVsin𝛼 = V (u x cos𝛼+ u y
sin𝛼).

Note that the component of a vector in a particular direction is equal to the projectionof the
vector in that direction (Fig. 1-4). From the figure, we see that V// = Vcos𝛼. Also from Fig. 1-4,
we seethatBC is that component of V perpendicular to the chosen direction AN,andwecan see that
V⊥=BC = V sin ∝. Thus

There are three rectangular components in space: Vx,Vy, Vz(Fig. 1-4). The student may verify
from the figure that they are computed according to

………….. (1.10)
Figure 1-6 Rectangular components of a vector in three dimensions
From which it follows, by direct computation, that

…………………………………... (1.11)
Defining three unit vectors ux, uy and uz parallelto the X-, Y-,and Z-axes, respectively, we
Have

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 ……………………….. (1.12)
Note that if we designate by ∝and 𝜷the angles the vector V makes with the X and Y-axes,
respectively, we also have, by similarity with the third of Equation. (1.10),

…………….. (1.13)
Using these two and Vz= V cos𝛽in Eq. (1.11), we obtain the relation

…………………………….. (1.14)
The quantities cos𝛼, cos𝛽, and cos 𝜃are called the direction cosines of a vector.
An important case of a three-dimensional vector is the 'position vector r = 𝑶𝑷of a point P
having coordinates (x, y,z). From Fig. 1-5 we see that

Fig.1.7(a) Position vector Fig. 1.7. (b)

……………………… (1.15)
The relative position vector of two points P1and P2 is r12 = 𝑃1 𝑃2 (Fig.1-7(b)).
From the figure we note that 𝑂𝑃2 = 𝑂𝑃𝑥 +𝑃1 𝑃 2 , sothat

……….. (1.16)
Note that 𝑃2𝑃1 = - 𝑃1𝑃2. It should be observed that, by applying to Eq. above, we obtain the
expression of analytic geometry for the distance betweentwo points:

Example 1:-Find the components of the vector that is 13 units long and makesan angle 𝜃of 22.6°
with the z-axis, and whose projection in the xy-plane makes an angle∅ of 37° with the +x-axis
(Fig. 1-6). Find also the angles with the x- and y-axes.
Solution:-
Using Fig. 1-6as our figure for the problem, we say that
V = 13 units, 𝜃= 22.6°, cos𝜃 = 0.923, sin𝜃= 0.384, ∅= 37°, cos ∅= 0.800, sin ∅= 0.600
Now a simple application of Eq. (1.10) yields

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Vx= 13(0.384) (0.800) = 4.0 units,
Vy= 13(0.384) (0.600) = 3.0 units,
Vz= 13(0.9.23) = 12.0 units.
In terms of Eq. (1.14) we may write:
V = ux (4) + uy(3 ) +uz (12) .
For the angles 𝛼and 𝛽 that V makes with the x- and y-axes, we have

1.2.4. Analytic method of vector addition

To understand the rule for addition of vectors we shall consider first the case of displacements.
If a particle is displaced first from A to B (Fig. 1-8), representedby vector d1and then from B to
C or d2, the result is equivalent to a single displacementfromA to C or d, which we write
symbolically as d = d1+ d2. Thisexpression must not be confused with d = d1+ d2which refers
only to the magnitudesand does not hold in this case. The procedure can be generalized to fit
any kind of vectors. Therefore we say that V is the sum of V1and V2 if it is obtained as indicated
in Fig.1-9. We can also see in the figure that the vector sumis commutative, the result being the
same if the order in which the vectors areadded is reversed; this is a direct consequence of the
geometry of the method. Thegeometrical relation of Fig. 1-9 is expressed algebraically by

Fig.1.8 Addition of vectors Fig. 1-9 Vector Addition is comutative

Fig.1-10

……………………………………………. (1.17)
To compute the magnitude of V we see from Fig.1-10that (AC) 2 = (AD) 2+(DC) 2. But AD = AB
+ BD = V 1 + V 2 cos𝜃and DC = V2sin 𝜃Therefore
V 2 = (V 1+ V 2 cos𝜃)2+ (V2sin𝜃) 2= V12 + V22 + 2V1V2cos𝜃} or

……………….. (1.18)
To determine the direction of V, we need only find the angle 𝛼. From the figure we see that in
triangle ACD, CD = AC sin a, and in triangle BDC, CD = BC sin𝜃.Therefore V sin 𝛼 ~ V 2sin𝜃or

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 Similarly, BE = V1sin 𝛼= V 2sin 𝛽 or

Combining both results, one gets the symmetrical relation

……………………………………… (1.19)
We have thus derived two fundamental trigonometric expressions, the Law of Cosines and the
𝜋
Law of Sine. In the special case when V1and V2are perpendicular (Fig. 1-11), 𝜃 = 2 — and the
following relations hold:

………………………… (1.20)

Fig 1.11 Fig.1-12 Vector difference is not

commutative
The difference between two vectors is obtained by adding to the first the negative(or opposite) of
the second (Fig. 1-12); that is,

………………………….. (1.21)
Note that V2 - V1= D; that is, if the vectors are subtracted in the reverse order, the opposite
vector results; i.e., vector difference is anti-commutative. The magnitude of the difference is

or ….
(1.22)
Example 1:-Refer to figure below. In terms of vector A and B, express the vector E, D-C, and
E+D-C.

Figure 1.12
Solution: - from the figure. Clearly –E=A+B or E=-(A+B) =-A-B.
D-C=D+ (-C) =A
And E+D-C=E+D=-B

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Example 2:-A displacement D of 100m from the origin at an angle of 370 above the x-axis is
the result of three successive displacement: d1, which is 100m long the negative x-axis; d2,
which is 200 m at angle of 1500 above the x axis; and a displacment d3. Find d3.
Solution:-
D=d1+d2+d3
Dx=d1x+d2x+d3x=100cos370=-100+200cos1500+d3x
d3x=353m (Note:-cos1500=-cos300)
Dy=d1y+d2y+d3y=100sin370 =0+200sin1500 +d3y
d3y=-40m (Note: sin1500=sin300)
2 2
d3= 𝑑3𝑥 + 𝑑3𝑦 =355m
𝑑 3𝑦
∅ =tan-1 =6.50 below +x-axis
𝑑 3𝑥
1.3. Decomposition of vector and unit vectors
Unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of exactly 1 (one) and points in a
particulardirection. It lacks both dimension and unit. Its sole purpose is to point—thatis, to
specify a direction.The unit vectors in the positive directions of the x, y, andz-axes are
labeled𝑖, 𝑗, and𝑘 , where the hat ∧ is used instead of an overhead arrowas for other vectors
(Fig. 1-13).The arrangement of axes in Fig. 1-13 is said to be aright-handed coordinate
system.

Fig.1.13 Unit vectors𝑖, 𝑗and𝑘defines the directions of a right-handed coordinate system.

Unit vectors are very useful for expressing other vectors; for example, we canexpress 𝑎 and 𝑏 of
Figs. 1.14(a) and 1.14(b) below as

………………………………… (1.23)

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Fig.1-14(a) The vector componentsof vector𝑎 . (b) The vector componentsof vector𝑏
These two equations are illustrated in Fig. 1-14.The quantities ax and ay are vectors, called the
vector components of .The quantities ax and ay are scalars, called the scalar components of :a
(or, as before, simply its components).
Example 1:- Find the resultant of the three displacement vectors in Fig. below by means ofthe
component method. The magnitudes of the vectors are A = 5.00m, B = 5.00mand C = 4.00m.

figure 1.15
Solution:-
First find the individual components of each of the vectors. Note, the angles given in thefigure
are measured in different ways so we have to think about the signs of the components.
Here, the x component of vector A is negative and the y component of vector C (which isall it‘s
got!) is also negative.Using a little trig, the components of the vectors are:
Ax = − (5.00m) cos(20.00) = −4.698m
Ay = + (5.00m) sin (20.00) = +1.710m
Bx = + (5.00m) cos(60.00) = +2.500m
By = + (5.00m) sin (60.00) = +4.330m

figure 1.16
and
Cx= 0, Cy= −4.00m
The resultant (sum) of all three vectors (which we call R) then has components
Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx = −4.698m + 2.500m + 0m = −2.198m
Ry = Ay + By + Cy = +1.710m + 4.330m − 4.000m = 2.040m
This gives the components of R. The magnitude of R is

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 =3m
If the direction of R (as measured from the +x axis) is 𝜃 then

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and naivety pushing the tan− θkey on the calculator would have you believe that 𝜃 = −42.90.
Such vector would lie in the ―fourth quadrant‖ as we usually call it. But we have found that the
x- component of R is negative while the y component is positive and such a vector must lie in the
―second quadrant‖, as shown in Fig. above. What has happened is those calculate or returns an
angle that is wrong by 1800so we need to add 1800to the naive angle to get the correct angle. So
the direction of R is really given by

Example 2:- Vector𝐴 has a magnitude of 6.00 units and points due east, Vector 𝐵 pointsdue
north. (a) What is the magnitude of B, if the vector A+B points 60.0 0northofeast?
(b) Find the magnitude of A+ B.
Solution:-

Figure 1.18
(a) Vectors A and B are shown in Fig. above. The components of A areAx = 6.00 Ay = 0
and we also know that Bx = 0, but we don‘t know By. But if the sum of A and B is R:

Then the components of ―R‖are given by

Rx=Ax +Bx=6 +0=6 andRy= Ay +By=0+By =By
But we are given the direction of R, namely 𝜃 = 60.00, so that

But then this tells us:

Solve for By:

By = (6.00)(1.732) = 10.32
(b) The magnitude of A + B(that is, R) is
=11.94
Example 3:-The Cartesian coordinates of a point in the xy-plane are(x, y) = (3.50, 2.50) m, as
shown in Figure below. Find thepolar coordinates of this point.

16
 Figure 1.17

Figure Finding polar coordinates when Cartesian coordinates are given.

Solution

=4.30m

= 0.714

𝜃 = 2160
Note that you must use the signs of x and y to find that thepoint lies in the third quadrant of the
coordinate system.That is, 216° and not 35.5°
Example 4:-A rural mail carrier leaves the post office and drives 22km. in a northerly direction.
She then drives in a direction 600 south of east (as shown the figure below). What is her
displacement from the post office?

Figure 1.18

Solution:- Resolve each displacement vector into its component. Since 𝐷 1x=0 and 𝐷1y=22Km 𝐷2
has both x and y components

Notice that D2y the negative because this vector component points along the negative y-axis. The
resulatant vector, D, has componetes

17
This specifies the resultant vector completely:

We can also specifies the resultant vector by giving its magnitude and angle

=-38.50

the negative sign means 𝜃 =38.50 below the x-axis. So the resultant displacmnet is 30km dircted
at 38.50 I southeasterly direction

1.4. Products of vectors

1.4.1. Scalar (dot) product
The scalar product of the vectors and in Fig. 1-15a is written as 𝑎. 𝑏 anddefined to be

…………………………………………… (1.24)
Whereais the magnitude of𝑎, b is the magnitude of 𝑏, and 𝜙 is the angle between𝑎and𝑏 (or,
more properly, between the directions of 𝑎and𝑏)
Note: -If the angle𝜙 between two vectors is 0°, the component of one vector along theother is
maximum, and so also is the dot product of the vectors. If, instead, 𝜙 is 90°, the component of
one vector along the other is zero, and so is the dot product.
The commutative law applies to a scalar product, so we can write
…………………………………. (1.25)
When two vectors are in unit-vector notation, we write their dot product as

Which we can expand according to the distributive law: Each vector component of the first
vector is to be dotted with each vector component of the second vector. By doing so, we can
show that

…………………………………… (1.26)

18
Figure 1.19a) Two vectors 𝑎 and𝑏, with an angle 𝜙 between them. (b) Each vector has a
component along the direction of the other vector.
Component Form
suppose we have two vectors in rectangular form. What is the dot product of the two in terms of
their components? To answer this, we begin with the definition of the dot product

Figure 1.20
Figure 1.16 the two vectors A and B are to be multiplied using the dot product to get A.B.
where ˛𝛼 is the angle vector A makes with respect to the x axis, and 𝛽is the angle vector B
makes with respect to the x axis, so that 𝛽 − 𝛼 is the angle between the two vectors (Fig. 1.20).
We now use a trigonometric identity to expands the argument of the cosine:

………………… (1.27)
Now making use of the relations cos𝜃 = adj/hyp. and sin 𝜃 = opp/hyp, we have

Making substitution in the above equation, we have

This result can be generalized from two to three dimensions to get

……………………. (1.28)
Projections
The dot product is defined as it is because it gives the projection of one vector onto the direction
of another. For example, dotting a vector A with any of the Cartesian unit vectors gives the
projection of A in that direction:

, and
In general, the projection of vector A in the direction of unit vector𝒖is A.𝒖.
Orthogonally
Another useful property of the dot product is: if two vectors are orthogonal, then their dot product is zero.
For example, for the Cartesian unit vectors:

…………………… (1.29)
The converse is also true: if the dot product is zero, then the two vectors are orthogonal.

19
The Cartesian unit vectors i, j, and k are orthonormal, so that

…………………………. (1.30)
Derivative
The derivative of the dot product is similar to the familiar product rule for scalars :

………………………. (1.31)
Example 1:-Find the x and y components of a 25-m displacement at an angle of 210°.
Solution:-

Figure 1.21
The vector displacement and its components are shown in Fig. above. The components are
x-Component = - 25 cos 30°= - 21.7 m and y-component = - 25 sin 30°= -12.5 m
Note in particular that each component points in the negative coordinate direction and must
therefore betaken as negative.
Example 2:-What is the angle ∅between𝑎 = 3.0 𝑖-4.0 𝑗and𝑏 = −2.0𝑖+3.0𝑘 ?
Solution: -The angle between the directions of two vectors is included in the definition of their
scalar product

……………………….. (1.32)
ais the magnitude of 𝒂 , or

and b is the magnitude of 𝑏, or

Or
Example 2:- Find the component of a displacement which added to displacement of 7𝑖-4𝑗m will
give a resultant displacement of 5𝑖 -3𝑗 m
Solution:- we have Ax+7=5 and Ay-4=-3
So Ax=-2m and Ay=1m
Example 3:-Let F1 =10𝑖-15𝑗-20𝑘 , F2=6𝑖+8𝑗-12𝑘. Find their dot product and the angle between
them.
Solution:-

20
Example 4:-Find the projectionof any vector along a straight line.
Solution:- The projection of vector A=(Ax,Ay,Az) along the line determind by the raduis vector,
r=(x,y,z) isd Ar=A cos𝜃, where 𝜃 is the angle between r and A. From the definition of dot
𝑟
product, A.r= Arcos𝜃= Arr. Hence, Writing 𝑟= 𝑟 =(l,n,m)-aunit vector along rwe have
Ar=A.𝒓=Axl+Ayn+Azm. The expression for Arremains valid when the line dose not pass throgh
the origin.
Eample 5:-Find the projection of A=10𝑖+8𝑗-6𝑘 along r=5𝑖+6𝑗+9𝑘.
Solution:-
Here, 𝒓 = 52 + 62 + 92 =11.92
Ar =Axl+Ayn+Azm
5 6 9 44
=10(11.92 ) +8(11.92 )-6(11.92 )=11.92 =3.69
Example 4:-Find the angle between the two vectors 𝐴 =2𝑖+3𝑗+𝑘 and 𝐵= -4𝑖+2𝑗-𝑘
Solution:-

Figure 1.22 Two vectors in three dimentions.

the above figure shows the two vectors. The scalar product of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 is related by
the angle ∅ between them and to the magnitude by
A= 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧 and B= 𝐵𝑥2 + 𝐵𝑦2 + 𝐵𝑧2
If we are given the componenets of the vectors, we fiirst determine 𝐴.𝐵 and the values of A and
B, and the determine the target value of ∅
𝐴 .𝐵 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 +𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 +𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
Cos∅ = =
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵
This formula can be used to find the angle between any two vectors 𝐴and 𝐵
𝐴.𝐵= 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 =(2)(-4)+(3)(2)+(1)(-1)=-3
And A= 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧 = 22 + 32 + 12 = 14

B= 𝐵𝑥2 + 𝐵𝑦2 + 𝐵𝑧2 = (−4)2 + 22 + (−1)2 = 21

21
 𝐴 .𝐵 𝐴 𝑥 𝐵𝑥 +𝐴 𝑦 𝐵𝑦 +𝐴 𝑧 𝐵𝑧 −3
Now, using Cos∅ = 𝐴𝐵
= 𝐴𝐵
= 14 21 =-0.175
−1
∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (-0.175)=1000
As a check on this result, note that the scalar product 𝐴. 𝐵 is negative. This means that ∅ is
between 900 and 1800, in agreement with our answer.
EXAMPLE 5:- Find the angle between the vectors A=2ux+ 3uy-uzandB=-ux +uy,+ 2uz.
Solution:-We first compute their scalar product
A.B = (2) (-1) + (3) (1) + (-1) (2) =-1
Also magnitude of each vector:-
𝐴 = 22 + 32 + (−1)2 = 14 and 𝐵 = (1)2 + 12 + 22 = 6
Now, we have
𝐀.𝐁 −𝟏
Cos 𝜃= 𝑨 𝑩 = 𝟏𝟒 𝟔= -0.109Corresponding to𝜃 = 96.30

1.4.2. Vector (cross) product

The vector product of two vectors AandB,represented by the symbol A x B(read ―A cross B ‖), is
defined as the vector perpendicular to the plane determinedbyA and B and in the direction of
advance of a right-handed screw rotated fromAto B (Fig. 1-23(a)). A right-handed screw is one
that, if one‘s right hand is placedas shown in Fig. 1-23(a), with the fingers pointing in the
direction of rotation, thescrew advances in the direction of the thumb. Most ordinary screws are
righthanded.

Figure 1.23 (a) Vector relations in Figure 1.23(b) Right-hand rule for the
the vector product. Vector product

The magnitude of the vector product A X B is given by

Another simple rule useful in establishing the direction of A x B is as follows:-Place the thumb,
forefinger, and middle finger of the right hand in the position shown in Fig. 1-23(b). If the
forefinger and the middle finger point in the directions of A and B, respectively, the thumb points
in the direction of A X B. Actually, the rule is more general, and the vectors A, B, and A x B can
be sequentially assigned to the fingers by starting at any finger, so long as the following cyclic
order is maintained.

22
From the definition of the vector product, we conclude that
……………………………….. (1.33)
because the sense of rotation of the screw is reversed when the order of the vectors is changed,
so that the vector product is anti-commutative. If two vectors are parallel, 𝜃 =0°, sin 00 = 0, and
the vector product is zero. Therefore the conditionof parallelism is expressed by A X B=0.
Obviously A x A = 0………………………. (1.34)
Note that the magnitude of the vector product is equal to the area of the parallelogram formed by
the two vectors, or is equal to twice the area of the triangle made with their resultant. This can be
seen as follows (Fig. 1-24). The magnitude of A x B is A B sin𝜃. But B sin 𝜃 = h, where h is the
height of the parallelogram formed with A and B as sides. Thus

Fig. 1-24.The vector product is equivalent Fig. 1-25. The vector product is
to the area of the parallelogram - distributive.
defined by the two vectors.
The vector product is distributive relative to the sum; that is,

We obtain finally,
…. (1.34)
Equation (1.14) may also be written in the more compact determinant form,

………………………………………. (1.35)
Example 1:- Vector 𝐴 has magnitude 6 units and is in the direction of the +x-axis. Vector 𝐵 has
manitude 4units and lies in the xy-plane, maknig an angle of 300(see figure below). Find the
vector prduct 𝐶 =𝐴x𝐵.
Solution:-

Figure 1.26
The magntuide of vector product is:- ABsin∅ = (6)(4)sin 300=12

23
By the right hand rule, the direction of 𝐴x𝐵 is along the +Z-axis, (the direction of the unit vector
𝑘), so we have 𝐶 =𝐴x𝐵=12𝑘
Example 2:-Find the distance between the two points (6, 8, 10) and (—4, 4, 10).
Solution:-We draw a set of rectangular axes and identify the two points (Fig. below).We see that
both points are in a plane parallel to the XF-plane, since they are both adistance (height) of 10
units in the Z-direction. From Eq. (1.16), we find that the vectorr21is

Figue 1.27 Figure 1.28

We find that the magnitude is:-
r21= 100 + 16 = 116 orr21 = 10.77 units.
Example 3:-Find the distance from point P (4, —I, 5) to the straight line passingthrough points
P1 (—1, 2, 0) and P2(1, 1, 4)
Solution:-The geometry of the problem is

Figure 1.29
It is seen that d = P1Psin 𝜃.We introduce the vectors
A=𝑃1 𝑃 and B=𝑃1 𝑃2
So that, using Eq. (1.14), we obtain

We then see that

Thus, using Eq. (1.15) to compute the vector product

24
 Then, 𝐴𝑥𝐵 = (−7)2 + (−102 ) + 12 = 150=12.25 and since 𝐵 = 22 + (−1)2 + 42 = 21
=4.528, we obtain
𝐴𝑥𝐵 12.25
d= 𝐵 =4.528 =2.674
1.4.3. The scalar and vector triple products
Many times we come across repeated products of vectors involving three or more
vectors. Among the many products the two are of physical interests. They are the
scalar and vector triple products.
The scalar triple product: - For any three vectors A, B and C the scalar triple product
is defined as,
A. (B x C) = Ax (ByCz-BzCy) +Ay (BzCx-BxCz) + Az(BxCy-ByCx)….. ……. (1.36)
The following relations are valid for the scalar triple products.
a) A. (B x C) = B. (CxA) = C.(Ax B)
b) A. (BxC) = -B (AxC) = -C.(BxA)= -A.(CXB)
c) A. (BxC)=C. (A x B) = (A x B).C
Geometrically the scalar triple product represents the volume of a Parallelepiped formed
by the three vectors.
A scalar triple product
Let the three vectors𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 from a parallelepiped as shown in figure below

Figure 1.30
Then, if B and C be the magnitude of vectors 𝐵and 𝐶 . We have area of the base of the
parallelepiped=BC sin ∅ = 𝐵𝑥 𝐶 . Thus, the magnitude of the vector product 𝐵 x 𝐶 is the
area of the base of the parallelepiped, and its direction perpendicular to this area, as
shown.
If 𝜃 be the angle that the direction of the vector (B x C) makes with vector A (forming one
edges of the parallelepiped), we have altitude of the parallelepiped, h=A cos𝜃 , where A is
the magnitude of vector A. And, therefore, A. (B xC) =A cos𝜃 (BxC) = vertical height of
parallelepiped X area of its base= volume of the parallelepiped, V. the sign of V being
positive if 𝜃 be an acute angle, i.e., if A, B, and C form a right-handed system of vectors.
Thus, we see that the scalar triple product A. (B x C) represents the volume of a
parallelepiped, with three vectors forming its three edges. Obviously, science any one of

25
the face of the parallelepiped may be taken to be its base, its volume is also given by
B.(C x A) and C. ( A x B), with the cyclic order of A, B and C maintained.
In case this cyclic order be altered, the sigh of the product is changed since, as we
know,
B x C = -C x B
Further, since the order of the terms in a scalar product is quite immaterial, we have

The vector triple product: - The vector triple product is defined as.
Ax (B x C) =B (A.C) -C (A.B) =E………………….. (1.37)
The result vector E= Ax (B x C) is perpendicular to both vectors A and (B x C).

Figure 1.31

26
Example 1:-Prove that 2𝑖-𝑗+𝑘 ; B= 𝑖+2𝑗+3𝑘 and c=3𝑖-4𝑗+5𝑘 are co-planar

Example 2:- The vectors defining the three edges of a parallelepiped are given by
A= -4i +3j +5k, B= -5i+ 4j +2k and C= 4i +5j-3k, Find the volume of the
parallelepiped if the coordinates are expressed in meters?
Solution: The vectors are shown in Figure below

z
y
B C Figure 1.30
x
A
Figure 1.20 the parallelepiped formed by the vectors
The volume of the parallelepiped is given by
V= A. (B x C) m3
V= {-4(-12-10) +3(8-15) +5(-25-16)} m3
V= -138 m3

27
Questions and Problems
1. Show that, no matter what 𝐴and 𝐵are,𝐴. (𝐴X𝐵) (Hint: Do not look for an elaborate
mathematical proof. Rather look at the definition of the direction of the cross product.)
2. (a) If 𝐴 .𝐵 =0, does it necessary follow that 𝐴 =0 or 𝐵 =0? Explain. (b) If 𝐴 X 𝐵 =0,
does it necessarily follow that A=0 or B=0? Explain.
3. Define the term ‘unit vector’ and explain its use
4. Justify the statement; addition of vectors is associative as well as commutative.
5. Show that the scalar product of two vectors is commutative.
6. How will you use the concept of scalar product to find the angle between two
vectors?
7. show that the cross product of two vectors is not commutative
8. Under what circumstances would a nonzero vector lyingin the xy-plane have components
that are equal in magnitude?
9. In what circumstance is the x component of a vector givenby the magnitude of the vector
times the sine of its direction angle?
10. Prove that A x ( B x C) = B (A.C) –C(A.B)
11. Find the area of a parallelogram defined by the vectors I +2j+3k and 3i-2j+ki in
arbitrary units
12. Prove that (A x B). (A x B) + (A.B) (A.B) = A2 B2.
13. Find the volume of a parallelepiped formed by the following vectors. Draw the
parallelogram. A= 4i +2j +4k, B = 6i +2j +8k and C= 2i +6j
14. A vector has magnitude 10 units and makes equal angle with the three
coordinates. Find its component along the three axes.
15. The polar coordinates of a point are r=5.50 m and𝜃 =240°. What are the Cartesian
coordinates of thispoint?
16. Two points in the xy- plane have Cartesian coordinates (2.00, -4.00) m and (-3.00, 3.00)
m. Determine (a) the distance between these points and (b) their polar coordinates.
17. If the Cartesian coordinates of a point are given by (2, y) and its polar coordinates are (r,
30°), determine y and r.
18. If A= (6.00𝒊-8.00𝒋) units, B = (-8.00𝒊+ 3.00𝒋) units, and C = (26.0ˆi + 19.0ˆj ) units,
determine a and b such that aA+ bB+ C =0.
4𝜋
19. The polar coordinates of a point are and 5.50 m. What are its Cartesian coordinates?
3
20. Vector 𝐵 is 5.0 cm long and vector 𝐴 is 4.0 cm long. Find the angle between these two
vectors. When 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 3 𝑐𝑚 and 𝐴 − 𝐵 =3cm
21. Prove that if the sum and the difference of two vectors are perpendicular, thevectors have
equal magnitudes.

28
 Unit 2
One dimensional motion
Introduction
We say that an object is in motion relative to another when its position, measured relative to the
second body, is changing with time. On the other hand, if this relative position does not change
with time, the object is at relative rest. Both rest and motion are relative concepts; that is, they
depend on the condition of the object relative to the body that serves as reference.
To describe motion, therefore, the observer must define a frame of reference relative to which
the motion is analyzed.
We will discuss in more detail this important concept in this chapter very detail. Our universe is
full of objects in motion. From the stars, planets, and galaxies; to the motion of people and
animals; down to the microscopic scale of atoms and molecules—everything in our universe is in
motion. We can describe motion using the two disciplines of kinematics and dynamics. We study
dynamics, which is concerned with the causes of motion, in Newton’s Laws of Motion; but, there
is much to be learned about motion without referring to what causes it, and this is the study of
kinematics. Kinematics involves describing motion through properties such as position, time,
velocity, and acceleration. A full treatment of kinematics considers motion in two and three
dimensions. For now, we discuss motion in one dimension, which provides us with the tools
necessary to study multidimensional motion. A good example of an object undergoing one-
dimensional motion is the maglev (magnetic levitation) train depicted at the beginning of this
chapter. As it travels, say, from Debre Birhan to A.A., it is at different positions along the track
at various times in its journey, and therefore has displacements, or changes in position. It also
has a variety of velocities along its path and it undergoes accelerations (changes in velocity).
With the skills learned in this chapter we can calculate these quantities and average velocity. All
these quantities can be described using kinematics, without knowing the train‘s mass or the
forces involved.
Learning objects
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Define position, displacement, and distance traveled.
 Calculate the total displacement given the position as a function of time.
 Determine the total distance traveled.
 Calculate the average velocity given the displacement and elapsed time.
 Explain the difference between average velocity and instantaneous velocity.
 Describe the difference between velocity and speed.
 Calculate the instantaneous velocity given the mathematical equation for the velocity.
 Calculate the speed given the instantaneous velocity.
 Calculate the average acceleration between two points in time.
 Calculate the instantaneous acceleration given the functional form of velocity.
 Explain the vector nature of instantaneous acceleration and velocity.
 Explain the difference between average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration.
 Find instantaneous acceleration at a specified time on a graph of velocity versus time
 Use the kinematic equations with the variables y and g to analyze free-fall motion.
 Describe how the values of the position, velocity, and acceleration change during a free fall.

29
  Solve for the position, velocity, and acceleration as functions of time when an object is in a free
fall.
Content
2.1. Distance and displacement
2.2. Speed and velocity
2.3. Average and Instantaneous Velocities
2.4. Acceleration
2.5. Uniformly Accelerated Motions
2.6. Graphical Representations
2.7. Free fall

2.1. Distance and displacement

Distance (S): Get in a vehicle and travel a distance, some length in space, which we‘ll
symbolize by the letter S. Suppose the trip meter subsequently reads 100 miles (i.e., 161
kilometers); that‘s how far you went along whatever path you took, with no particular regard for
hills or turns. Similarly, the bug in Fig. 2-1 walked a distance ―S‖ measured along a winding
route; S is also called the path-length, and it‘s a scalar quantity.(Incidentally, most people avoid
using d for distance because it‘s widely used in the representation of derivatives.)

P2

P1 Figure 2.1
The Displacement of an object from one location to another is a vector quantity. As shown in
Fig. 2-2, the displacement of the bug in going from P1to point P2 is specified by the vector (the
symbol 𝑠comes from the century-old usage corresponding to the ―space‖ between two points). If
the straight-line distance from P1 to P2 is, say, 2.0 m, we simply draw to be a convenient length
and label it 2.0 m. In any case, = 2.0 m—10° NORTH OFEAST.

Figure 2.2

2.2. Speed and Velocity

Speed (𝑣) is the time rate of change in position. It is a scalar quantity. From its definition, we
have

30
 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Speed=𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 , in symbol,
𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

𝑆
𝑣 = 𝑡 ………………….. (2.1)

Its SI unit is meter per second (m/s)

Velocity (𝒗) is the time rate of change in displacement (position in a specified direction). From
its definition, we have a mathematical expression,
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Velocity= ,
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

𝑆
𝑣 = ………………… (2.2)
𝑡

ItsSI unit is meter per second (m/s)

2.3. Average and Instantaneous Velocities
The motion of a body is rectilinear when its trajectory is a straight line. Let us take the OX-axis
of Fig. 2-3, coincident with the trajectory. The position of the object is defined by its
displacement x from an arbitrary point 0, or origin. In principle, the displacement can be
correlated with the time by means of a functional relation x=𝑓(𝑡).Obviously, x may be positive
or negative. Suppose that at time t the object is at position A, with OA = x. At a later time t’,itis at
B, with OB = x’.

Figure 2.3
The average velocity between A and B is defined by:-

……………………….. (2.3)
’
Where∆x = x — x is the displacement of the particle and ∆𝑡 = t' — t is the elapsed time. Thus the
average velocity during a certain time interval is equal to the average displacement per unit time
during the time interval. To determine the instantaneous velocity at a point, such as 𝐴,we must
make the time interval ∆𝒕 assmall as possible, so that essentially no changes in the state of
motion occur duringthat small interval. In mathematical language this is equivalent to computing
the limiting value of the fraction appearing in Eq. (2.3) when the denominator∆𝒕 approaches
zero. This is written in the form:-

But this is the definition of the time derivative of x; that is,

………………………….. (2.4)

31
So that we obtain the instantaneous velocity by computing the time derivative of thedisplacement
operationally, the instantaneous velocity is found by observing the moving body at two very
close positions separated by the small distance dx and measuring the small time interval dt
required to go from one position to the other. In the future the term ―velocity‖ will always refer
to instantaneous velocity. If we know v = f (t), we may solve Eq. (2.4) for x by the process of
integration. That is, from Eq. (2.4) we have dx = v dt; then, integrating, we have

Where x0is the value of x at time t0 and, since

…………………………………….. (2.5)
To understand the physical meaning of Eq. (2.5), the student should realize that vdt represents
the displacement of the body in the short time interval dt. Thus, dividing the time interval t — t0
into successive small intervals dt1, dt2, dt3, . . . , we find that the corresponding displacements are
V1dtl,, V2 dt2, V3dt3, . . . ,and the total displacement between t0and t is the sum of all these. It
should be noted that V1, V2, V3 . . . are the values of the velocity in each time interval. Then,
according to the meaning of a definite integral,

…. (2.6)
This displacement is of course x — x0, in agreement with Eq. (2.5). We must observe that the
displacement ∆x (or dx) may be positive or negative depending on whether the motion of the
particle is to the right or to the left, resulting in a positive or negative sign for the velocity. Thus,
the sign of the velocity in rectilinear motion indicates the direction of motion. The direction is
along + OX if the velocity is positive and along —OX if it is negative.
Sometimes the concept of speed is used, defined as distance/time. It is always positive, and is
numerically equal to the magnitude of the velocity; i.e., speed =\v\.However, in general, the
average speed does not have the same value as the average velocity.
Example 1:-A particle moves along the X-axis in such a way that its position at any instant is
given by x = 5t2+ I, where x is in meters and t is in seconds. Compute its average velocity in the
time interval between (a) 2 s and 3 s, (b) 2 s and 2.1 s, (c) 2 sand 2.001 s, (d) 2 s and 2.00001 s.
Also compute (e) the instantaneous velocity at 2 s.
Solution:-
We call to = 2 s, which is common for the entire problem. Using x = 5 t2+1 we have xo = 5(2)2 +
1 = 21 m. Therefore, for each question, ∆x = x — xo = x — 21and ∆t = t -to = t - 2.
(a) For t = 3 s, we have ∆t = 1s, x =5(3) 2 + 1 = 46 m, and ∆x = 46 m -21 m = 25 m. Thus

(b) For t = 2.1 s, we have ∆𝑡 = 0.1 s, x = 5(2.1)2 + 1 = 23.05 m, and ∆x = 2.05 m.Thus

32
 (c) For t = 2.001 s, we have ∆𝑡= 0.001 s, x = 5(2.001)2 + 1 = 21.020005 m, and ∆x =
0.020005 m. Thus

(d) The student may verify for himself that for t = 2.00001 s, vave = 20.00005 m s_1.
(e) We note then that as ∆t becomes smaller, the velocity approaches the value 20 m s -1.
We may thus expect that this is the instantaneous velocity at t= 2 s. In fact,

When we set t= 2 s, then we obtain v = 20 m s -1, which is the answer to (e).

2.4. Acceleration
Acceleration (𝑎) is the time rate of change in velocity. It is expressed in a meter per Second
Square (m/s2). From its definition we have a mathematical expression,

𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (∆𝑣)

Acceleration (𝑎) = ………………… (2.6)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (∆𝑡)

2.5. Uniformly Accelerated Motion

In general, the velocity of a body is a function of time. If the velocity remains constant,the
motion is said to be uniform. Again referring to Fig. 2- 4, suppose that at time tthe object is at
’
A with velocity v and at time t' it is at B with velocity v .
The average acceleration between A and B is defined by

……………………. (2.7)
Where,
, is the change in velocity and, as before,
, is the elapsed time. Thus:-
The average acceleration during a certain time interval is the change in velocity per unit time
during the time interval. The instantaneous acceleration is the limiting value of the average
acceleration when the time interval ∆t becomes very small. That is,

Resulting in

………………………………. (2.8)
So that, we obtain the instantaneous acceleration by computing the time derivative of the
velocity. Operationally, the instantaneous acceleration is found by observing the small change of
velocity dv that takes place in a very small time interval dt. In the future, whenever we say
―acceleration,‖ we shall mean the instantaneous acceleration. In general, the acceleration varies
during the motion.

33
If the rectilinear motion has constant acceleration, the motion is said to be uniformly accelerated.
If the velocity increases in absolute value with time, the motion is said to be ―accelerated‖; but if
the velocity decreases in absolute value with time, the motion is termed retarded or
―decelerated.‖ If we know the acceleration, we may compute the velocity by integrating
Equation (2.8). From Eq. (2.8) we have dv = a dt, and, integrating, we obtain

Where, v0-is the velocity at the time t0. Then, since

………………………………………. (2.9)
As in the case of displacement, the physical meaning of Eq. (2.9) is readily under stood. We
know that a dt gives the change in velocity during a short time interval dt. Thus, again dividing
the time interval t — t0into successive small time intervalsdt1, dt2, dt3, . .. we find that the
corresponding changes in velocity area1dt1, a2 dt2, a3dt3, . . . , where a1, a2, a3, . . . are the values
of the acceleration in each time interval, and the total change v — 𝑣 0of the velocity between
t0and t is the sum of these. That is,

The acceleration is also related to the position by combining Equations. (2.4) and (2.8).That is,

Or ……………… (2.10)
Another important relation between position and velocity can be obtained in the following way.
From Eq. (2.8) we write dv =adt. When we multiply the left-hand side of this equation by the
left-hand side of Eq. (2.4) and repeat for theright-hand sides, we have

…………………… (2.11)

Figure 2.4 Vector relation between velocity and acceleration in rectilinear motion.
Integrating, we obtain

34
 …….. (2.12)
This equation is particularly useful in computing the velocity when the relation between x and a
is known, so that the integral on the right-hand side may be computed.
Equations for Motion with Constant Acceleration (Table 2.1)

The acceleration is expressed in meters per second per second, or (m /s ) /s = m s —2, this being
the acceleration of a body whose velocity increases one meter per second in one second, with
constant acceleration. But the acceleration may also be expressed in other units, such as
(mi/3600s)/s .
Example 1:-A body moves along the X-axis according to the law, x = 2t3+ 5t2+ 5, where x is in
feet and t is in seconds. Find (a) the velocity and the acceleration at any time, (b) the position,
velocity, and acceleration at t = 2 s and 3 s, and (c) the averagevelocity and acceleration
betweent= 2 s and t = 3 s.
Solution:-
(a) Using Eqs. (1.2) and (1.5), we may write

(b) At t = 2 s, using the respective expressions, we have

Similarly, for t =3 s, the student may verify that

( c) To find the average velocity and acceleration between t = 2 s and t = 3 s, we have

At ∆𝑡 =-1s, and from (b) we have ∆x = 63 ft, ∆t; = 40 ft s-1. Thus

Example 2:- The acceleration of a body moving along the X-axis is a = (4x — 2) m s-2, where x
is in meters. Given that vo = 10 m s-1 at Xo= 0 m, find the velocity at any other position.
Solution:-Since the acceleration is expressed here as a function of position rather than as a
function of time, we cannot use the definition a = dv/dt for obtaining the velocity by integration.
Instead we must use Eq. (2.8), with VO=10 m s-1 and xo = 0. Thus

35
And thus,

Should we write a± 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 in front of the radical? If so, what would its meaning be?
We suggest that the student make a plot of the velocity v as a function of the position x.
Example 3:-A bullet is fired straight upward with a velocity of 98 m s -1 from the top of a
building 100 m high. Find (a) its maximum height above the ground, (b) the time required to
reach it, (c) the velocity it has when it reaches the ground, and (d) the total time which elapses
before the bullet reaches the ground.
Solution:-Referring to Fig. and using Equations (2.10) and (2.11),
With to = 0, vo = 98 m s-1, Xo=XA= 100 m (the origin
of coordinates Chas been placed at the street) and
a =-g =-9.8 m s-2, we have at any time t,

At the point of maximum height v = 0. Thus98 - 9.8t = 0

ort = 10 s. Replacing this valuein the expression for X,
we have

Figure 2.5
To obtain the time required to reach the ground (that is, point C), we set xc=0, since C is our
origin of coordinates.Then

This is a second-degree equation in t, whose roots are

The negative answer corresponds to a time previous to the shooting (t = 0) and must be
discarded, since it has no physical meaning in this problem (it may have in others).To obtain the
velocity at C, we introduce the value t = 20.96 s in the expression for vc, obtaining

The negative sign means that the bullet is moving downward. It is suggested that the student
verify the results for xB and Vc by using Eq. (5.12), which for this problem reads

Also the student should solve the problem by placing the origin of coordinates at A. Then

Example 4:-The motion of a particle is given by , x=t 2+3t-3, where x is distance in meter and t is
time in sec. a) Find the velocity of the particle after 10 sec. b) Find also acceleration of the
particle. State whether acceleration is uniform of variable .
Solution:-
We are given, for the particle:-x=t2+3t-3, equation of motion for a particle in 1-D.
To find the velocity of the particle at a certain time, we should take the differentiation of the
equation of motion:

36
 𝒗 = 𝟐𝒕 + 𝟑
We find the velocity equation of that particle. Then, for the 10second,

This is the velocity of the particle at time t=10 seconds. To find the acceleration of the particle,
we differentiate the velocity w.r.t. time t, then

A=2m/s2
In final equation, it is seen that the acceleration does not depend on time and has constant
value of a=2m/s2. Therefore the acceleration of the particle is uniform (constant) and not
variable.

2.6. Graphical Representations

We can interpret average and instantaneous x-acceleration by using a graph with instantaneous
velocity 𝑣𝑥 on the vertical axis and time t on the horizontal axis—that is, a 𝑣𝑥 -t graph

Figure2.6 A𝑣𝑥 − 𝑡 graph of the motion

Displacement-time graphs
These show the motion of an object very clearly and allow you to find position and velocity at any time. Any graph
that you see will be a combination of these sections

Figure 2.7

37
Velocity-time graphs
These fare similar to displacement-time graphs, but this time velocity is on the y-axis. Here are
the only possibilities that you'll come across at A-level.

Figure 2.8
You also need to know that the area under the line gives you the displacement of the object up to
that point.
Acceleration-time graphs
If acceleration is constant, a quicker way than drawing graphs to find acceleration, velocity or
displacement is to use some equations.
The symbols for displacement, initial velocity, etc. are shown on the diagram.

Figure 2.9

2.7. Free fall

If you tossed an object either up or down and could somehow eliminate the effects of air on its
flight, you would find that the object accelerates downward ata certain constant rate. That rate is
called the free-fall acceleration, and its magnitude is represented by g. The acceleration is
independent of the object‘s characteristics, such as mass, density, or shape; it is the same for all
objects. The value of g varies slightly with latitude and with elevation. At sea level in Earth‘s
mid-latitudes the value is 9.8 m/s2 (or 32 ft/s2), which is what you should use as an exact number
for the problems in this course unless otherwise noted.
The equations of above (Table 2-1) apply to free falling motion. The acceleration is always a= -
g= -9.8 m/s2, negative and thus downward.
Kinematic Equations for Objects in Free Fall

38
We assume here that acceleration equals −g (with the positive direction upward).

……………........................ (2.12)
Example 1:-Figure below shows the positions of a ball, at 1-s intervals, with an initial velocity
of 4.9 m/s downward, that is thrown from the top of a 98-m-high building. (a) How much time
elapses before the ball reaches the ground?
(c) What is the velocity when it arrives at the ground?

Figure 2.10
Solution: -Choose the origin at the top of the building with the positive direction upward and the
negative direction down ward. To find the time when the position is −98 m,
Given:-Y0=0, 𝑣0 =-4.9m/s and g=9.8m/s2
a. Substitute the given values into the equation:

This simplifies to

This is a quadratic equation with roots t=-5sec. and t=4sec. The positive root is the one we are
interested in, since time t=0 is the time when the ball is released at the top of the building. (The
time t=-5sec. represents the fact that a ball thrown upward from the ground would have been in
the air for 5.0s when it passed by the top of the building moving downward at 4.9 m/s.)
b. We have,

Example 2:-A batter hits a baseball straight upward at home plate and the ball is caught 5.0 s
after it is struck Figure below.(a) What is the initial velocity of the ball? (b) What is the
maximum height the ball reaches? (c) How long does it take to reach the maximum height? (d)
What is the acceleration at the top of its path? (e) What is the velocity of the ball when it is
caught? Assume the ball is hit and caught at the same location.

39
 Figure 2.11A baseball hit straight up is caught by the catcher 5.0 s later.
Solution:-
a. Gives,

,
Which gives, 𝑣𝑜 = 24.5𝑚/𝑠
b. At the maximum height, 𝑣 = 0. With 𝑣0 = 24.5𝑚/𝑠, the Equation above gives

c. To find the time when v=0, we use equation

This gives t=2.5sec. Since the ball rises for 2.5 s, the time to fall is 2.5 s .
d. The acceleration is 9.8 m/s2 everywhere, even when the velocity is zero at the top of the
path. Although the velocity is zero at the top, it is changing at the rate of 9.8 m/s 2
downward.
e. The velocity at t=5sec. can be determined with

Significance
The ball returns with the speed it had when it left. This is a general property of free fall for any
initial velocity. We used a single equation to go from throw to catch, and did not have to break
the motion into two segments, upward and downward. We are used to thinking that the effect of
gravity is to create free fall downward toward Earth. It is important to understand, as illustrated
in this example that objects moving upward away from Earth are also in a state of free fall.

Question and problems

1. The position of a particle moving along an x axis is given by x= 12t2- 2t3, where x is in meters
and t is in seconds. Determine (a)the position, (b) the velocity, and (c) the acceleration of the
particle at t= 3.0 s. (d) What is the maximum positive coordinate reached by the particle and (e)
at what time is it reached? (f) What is the maximum positive velocity reached by the particle
and (g) at what time is it reached? (h) What is the acceleration of the particle at the instant the

40
 particle is not moving (other than at t =0)? (i) Determine the average velocity of the particle
between t=0 and t= 3 s.
2. An electric vehicle starts from rest and accelerates at a rate of 2.0 m/s2 in a straight line until it
reaches a speed of 20 m/s. The vehicle then slows at a constant rate of 1.0 m/s2 until it stops.
(a)How much time elapses from start to stop? (b) How far does the vehicle travel from start to stop?
3. On a dry road, a car with good tires may be able to brake with a constant deceleration of 4.92
m/s2. (a) How long does such a car, initially traveling at 24.6 m/s, take to stop? (b) How far does
it travel in this time? (c) Graph x versus t and v versus t for the deceleration.

41
 Unit 3
Two dimensional motions
Introduction
In this chapter we continue looking at the aspect of physics that analyzes motion, but now the
motion can be in two dimensions. We can‘t answer these kinds of questions using the techniques
of Chapter 2, in which particles moved only along a straight line. Instead, we need to extend our
descriptions of motion to two- and three-dimensional situations. We‘ll still use the vector
quantities displacement, velocity, and acceleration, but now these quantities will no longer lie
along a single line. We‘ll find that several important kinds of motion take place in two
dimensions only—that is, in a plane. We can describe these motions with two components of
position, velocity, and acceleration.
By studying this chapter, you will learn:-
 How to represent the position of a body in two or three dimensions using vectors.
 How to determine the vector velocity of a body from knowledge of its path.
 How to find the vector acceleration of a body, and why a body can have acceleration even if
its speed is constant.
 How to interpret the components of a body‘s acceleration parallel to and perpendicular to its
path.
 How to describe the curved path followed by a projectile.
 The key ideas behind motion in a circular path, with either constant speed or varying speed.
 How to relate the velocity of a moving body as seen from two different frames of reference.
3.1. Velocity and acceleration
To describe the motion of a particle in space, we must first be able to describe the particle‘s
position. Consider a particle that is at a point P at a certain instant. The position vector of the
particle at this instant is a vector that goes from the origin of the coordinate system to the point P
(Fig. 3.1). The Cartesian coordinates x, y, and z of point Pare the x-, y-, and z-components of
vector Using the unit vectors, we can write
𝑟 =x𝑖+y𝑗 +𝑧𝑘……………………………………. (3.1)
During a time interval∆𝑡, the particle moves from P1 where its position vector is 𝑟1 to P2, where
its position vector is 𝑟2 . The change in position (the displacement) during this interval is 𝑟=𝑟2
-𝑟1 =(x2-x1)𝑖 + (y2-y1)𝑗 + (z2-z1)𝑘 .We define the average velocity Vav during this interval
in the same way we did in Chapter 2 for straight-line motion, as the displacement divided by the
time interval

………….. (3.2)

42
Figure 3.1 the position vector from the origin to point P has components x, y, and z. The path that
the particle follows through space is in general a curve
Instantaneous velocity is the limit of the average velocity as the time interval approaches zero,
and it equals the instantaneous rate of change of position with time. The key difference is that
position 𝑟 and instantaneous velocity 𝑣 are now both vectors:

…………. (3.3)
The components 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑧 of the instantaneous velocity 𝑣are simply the time derivatives of the coordinates x, y,
and z. That is,

……………. (3.4)
Acceleration
If a particle‘s velocity changes by ∆v in a time period ∆t, the average acceleration a for that
period is

......................................... (3.5)
But a much more interesting quantity is the result of shrinking the period ∆t to zero, which gives
us the instantaneous acceleration, ains. It is the time derivative of the velocity vector v:-

…………. (3.6)
Which can be written:-
…………………………………………. (3.7)
Where

………. (3.8)
Constant Acceleration in Two Dimensions
When the acceleration a (for motion in two dimensions) is constant we have two sets of
equations to describe the x and y coordinates, each of which is similar to the equations in Chapter
2. (Equations of table 2.1) In the following, motion of the particle begins at t = 0; the initial
position of the particle is given by
r0 = x0i + y0j

43
and its initial velocity is given by
v0 = v0xi + v0yj
and the vector a = axi+ ayjisconstant.

Though the equations in each pair have the same form they are not identical because the
components of r0, v0 and aare not the same.
Example 1:-The position of a particle moving on an x- axis is given by x=7.8+9.2t-2.1t2, with x
in meters and t in seconds. What is its velocity at t=3.5sec. ? Is the velocity constant, or is it
continuously changing?
Solution:-

Example 2: -A particle‘s position on the -axis is given by x=4-7t+t3, with x in meters and t in
seconds. (a) Find the particle‘s velocity function (𝑣𝑡 ) and acceleration (𝑎𝑡 ). (b) Is there ever a
time when= 0 ?
Solution:-

Example 3:-A particle moves so that its position as a function of time in SI is r= i+4t 2 j+tk. Write
the expression for (a) its velocity and (b) its acceleration as a function of time.
Solution:-
𝑑𝑣 𝑑(𝑖+4𝑡 2 𝑗 +𝑡𝑘 )
(a) V= 𝑑𝑡 = = 8tj+k. That is v=8tj+k. here, we mean that when we use the numerical
𝑑𝑡
value of t in seconds. We will get the value of v in m/s
(b) The acceleration (𝑎) is the time derivative of 𝑣 , so using our result from (a) we have
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 (8𝑡𝑗 +𝑘 )
𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 = 8j
So, a=8j, where we mean that the value of 𝑎 is in a unit m/s2.
𝑎 = 8𝑗𝑚/𝑠 2

44
3.2. Projectile motion
When a particle moves in a vertical plane during free–fall its acceleration is constant; the
acceleration has magnitude 9.80 sm2 and is directed downward. If its coordinates are given bya
horizontal x axis and a vertical y axis which is directed upward, then the acceleration of the
projectile is
ax = 0 ay = -9.80 m/s2= -g
For a projectile, the horizontal acceleration ax is zero; Projectile motion is a special case of
constant acceleration, so we simply use Equation. 3.9, with the proper values of ax and ay
An important example of two-dimensional motion under constant acceleration is the motion of a
projectile (e.g. a cannonball fired from cannon) at the surface of the Earth (Fig. 3.2). The
acceleration in this case is the acceleration due to gravity, so the constant-acceleration equations
apply. The position vector as a function of time is given by Eq. (3.1):

Figure 3.2 Parabolic path of a projectile launched with muzzle velocity v0 at angle𝜃. Here the x
axis is along the ground, R is the range, and h is the maximum altitude.

…………………. (3.10)
Wherev0 is the initial velocity of the cannonball, called the muzzle velocity; let‘s take time t=0 to
be the instant the cannonball leaves the cannon. Then if we choose the origin to be at the cannon
(Fig. 3.2), thenr0 = 0. The acceleration in this case is in the -y direction, so a =-gj, and Eq. (3.10)
becomes

………….. (3.11)
where the initial velocity
…………… (3.12)
This vector equation actually represents two scalar equations: one for x (t) and one for y (t)

…………………… (3.13)

…………….. (3.14)
Typically in real life you will not know the Cartesian components of the velocity vector (vx0 and
vy0); instead you are more likely to know the magnitude of the muzzle velocity v0 and the launch
angle 𝜃. Converting themuzzle velocity vector from rectangular to polar form,

and ………………. (3.15)

Equations (3.8) and (3.9) then become

45
 ……………...................................... (3.16)

…………….................... (3.17)
These equations give the x and y coordinates of the projectile at any time t. Now let‘s consider a
few questions we can ask about the motion of a projectile
Range
The first question we‘ll look at is: how far will the projectile go? This is called the range, and is
shown as R in Fig. 3.1. How do we find this? We need to look at what conditions are unique to
the problem were trying to solve; in this case, what‘s unique about the range R is that it‘s the x-
coordinate of the projectile when y=0. So let‘s set y=0 in Eq. (3.12) and see what happens:

…………………………… (3.18)
What we‘re after is the value of x when y = 0, so let‘s try solving this for time t, then plugging
that into Eq.(3.14). Solving Eq. (3.17) for t by factoring out a t, we have

This means that for y = 0, either t = 0 (which it is at launch), or else -gt/2 + v0 sin 𝜃= 0. The
secondcase is the one we‘re interested in:

Or
This is the total time the projectile is in the air, and is called the time in flight (tf ). Substituting
this time into Eq. (3.18) gives the range:

………………….. (3.19)
Using the identity sin 2 sin 𝜃cos𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃, this becomes

…………………….. (3.20)
A related question is: at what launch angle 𝜃do you get the maximum range for a fixed muzzle
velocityv0? Examining Eq. (3.20), the largest value the sine can have is 1, so
Sin2𝜃=1
2𝜃=900
𝜃 = 450
So a projectile will go the farthest if launched at an angle of 450 from the horizontal. Another way
to arriveat the same result is to use the first derivative test: Eq. (3.20) gives R (𝜃), so to find the
value of 𝜃that givesthe maximum range R, we set dR/d𝜃=0:

or, using the chain rule,

46
Now cos2𝜃 =0 implies 2𝜃 =900or 2𝜃= 2700, and therefore 𝜃 =450or 𝜃 = 1350. We discard the
Solution𝜃 = 1350on physical grounds: it corresponds to pointing the cannon backwards at
450from the horizontal, which is a solution we‘re not interested in.
Maximum Altitude
Let‘s look at another question: what is the maximum altitude reached by the projectile? Let‘s
think about what is unique about the point where the projectile is at its maximum altitude: the y-
component of the velocity is momentarily zero at that point. Eq. (3.8) gives the velocity vector of
the projectile at any time t :
…………………………………………………………………. (3.21)
This is equivalent to the two scalar equations,

…………………………………………………………. (3.22)

…………………………. (3.23)
To find the maximum altitude, we want to set vy = 0:

Solving for time t,

…………………………………………………………………. (3.24)
This is the amount of time it takes the projectile to reach the point where vy = 0, which is the
point of maximum altitude. Note that this is half of the time in flight (Eq. (3.24)), so the
projectile reaches its maximum height half-way through its flight. (You could also arrive at this
same result by using Eq. (3.12) for y(t), then setting dy/dt=0 by the first derivative test.)
Plugging this time into Eq. (3.12) gives the maximum altitude h:

so the maximum altitude is

…………………………. (3.25)
Shape of the Projectile Path
What is the shape of the projectile‘s path in Fig. 3.2? To find out, we can solve Eq. (3.19) for the
time t andplug the resulting expression into Eq. (3.20) to eliminate t and get an equation for y(x).
First solve Eq. (3.19)fort:

………………………………………. (3.26)
Now substitute this into Eq. (3.12):

…………………… (3.27)
47
This is the equation of a parabola passing through the origin, so the projectile follows a
parabolic path. Actually, this is just an approximation, assuming the acceleration due to gravity
is a constant down ward in the -y direction. A more careful calculation would have to allow for
the curvature of the Earth, which would show the actual path is that of a highly eccentric ellipse.
But over relatively short distances where the curvature of the Earth is not important, the elliptical
path can be approximated as a parabola.
Hitting a Target on the Ground
Now let‘s look at the problem of using a projectile to hit a target on the ground at range R. We
could dothis by fixing the muzzle velocity and varying the launch angle, or by fixing the launch
angle and varying themuzzle velocity, or by varying both.
The less common situation is to fix the launch angle _ and allow the muzzle velocity v0 to vary.
Beginningwith Eq. (3.14),

We solve for muzzle velocity:

…………………………………… (3.28)
There will always be a solution to this equation unless 𝜃 ≥900, which corresponds to pointing
the cannon-backwards. In this case v0 will be imaginary, and there is no muzzle velocity that will
allow the projectile toreach the target.
Example: -Suppose we have a cannon fixed at an angle of 250and wish to hit a target at a
distance
OfR= 250 m. What muzzle velocity v0 is required?
Solution:-

Fixed Muzzle Velocity

The more common situation is trying to hit a target when the muzzle velocity is fixed and the
launch angle isallowed to vary. In this case we solve Eq. (9.14) for 𝜃:

…………………………. (3.29)
Example: - Suppose the muzzle velocity is v0 =40 m/s and the target is at a distance of R = 75
m. What launch angle is needed to hit the target?
Solution፡ -The launch angle is given by

Recall that the arcsine of a number returns two angles in the range [0,2𝜋] so there will generally
be twosolutions to Eq. (above). In this example, the ―calculator‖ solution is 13.670, and other
solution is 76.330. In general, there will be two complementary launch angles that will both hit
the target.
The important facts of projectile motion can be summarized as follows:

48
1. Provided air resistance is negligible, the horizontal component of the velocity vxremains
constant because there is no horizontal component ofacceleration.
2. The vertical component of the acceleration is equal to the free-fallacceleration-g.
3. The vertical component of the velocity vyand the displacement in their- direction are identical
to those of a freely falling body.
4. Projectile motion can be described as a superposition of two independent motions in the x -
and y - directions
Other Considerations
In our study of projectile motion, we have made a number of approximations:
1. We have assumed the acceleration due to gravity is a constant, so we‘ve ignored the
curvature of the Earth. If a projectile travels a long distances, then it would be important to
take this into account, and treat the motion as an ellipse.
2. We have assumed the projectile is in a vacuum—we did not account for air resistance. The
results we‘ve derived will be approximately correct, but to get answers that match reality
more closely we would need to allow for the effects of air resistance.
3. We have not allowed for the effects of wind. If a wind is blowing, it will alter the course of
the projectile.
4. If the projectile travels a long distance, then we would need to allow for the rotation of the
Earth by accounting for the Coriolis force.
Examples:-1.A particle is moving in XY- plane such that its velocity inx-direction remains
constant at 5 m/s and its velocity in y-direction varies with time as v = 3 t m/s, where t is
time in seconds. Find: - (a) Speed of particle after time t=10 s.
(b) Direction of motion of particle at the time
(c) Acceleration of particle at t=5sec. and its direction
(d) Displacement of particle at this instant.
(e) Equation of trajectory of particle if it starts at time t=0 from rest at origin
Solution:-
(a) At time t=10 sec. particles velocity in x and y directions are v x=5m/s and Vy=(3)(10)=30m/s
Magnitude of instantaneous velocity is
V= 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 = 52 + 302 =30.41m/s

(b) As we know that the direction of motion of particle is along the instantaneous velocity of it
thus we have the inclination of particle's velocity from horizontal is

(c) Acceleration of particle in x and y directions are

Thus net acceleration of particle is constant and is given as

49
(d) To find displacement of particle in x and y. direction, we used respective velocities as, we
have in x-direction particle velocity is constant v= 5 m/s, thus Displacement of particle along
x-direction is

In y-direction particle velocity is given as

Integrating within proper limits, we have

Note that here acceleration in y-direction is constant and is ay=3m/s2, so this can be obtained
directly g

Thus displacement of particle from starting point (origin) is

(e) For finding equation of trajectory we should require X-and y coordinates of particle as a
function of time, and here we have

Eliminating t from the above equation, we have

Give this equation the trajectory of the particle.

3.3. Uniform circular motion

When a particle moves in a circle with constant speed, the motion is called uniform circular
motion. A car rounding a curve with constant radius at constant speed, a satellite moving in a
circular orbit, and an ice skater skating in a circle with constant speed are all examples of
uniform circular motion
The acceleration vector is perpendicular (normal) to the path and hence directed inward (never
outward!) toward the center of the circular path. This causes the direction of the velocity to
change without changing the speed.

50
Figure 3.3 Velocity and acceleration vectors for a particle moving through a point P on a curved
path with (a) constant speed (When speed is constant along a curved path ...)
We can find a simple expression for the magnitude of the acceleration in uniform circular
motion. We begin with Fig. below, which shows a particle moving with constant speed in a
circular path of radius R with center at O. The particle moves from P1 to P2 in a time∆𝑡. The
vector change in velocity ∆𝑣 during this time is shown in Fig. below (b).

Figure3.4 finding the velocity change∆𝑣 average acceleration𝑎𝑎𝑣 and instantaneousacceleration

𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 or a particle movingin a circle with constant speed
The angles labeled in Figs.3.4 (a) and (b) are the same because is perpendicular to the line and is
perpendicular to the line Hence the triangles in Figs.3.4 (a) and (b) are similar. The ratios of
corresponding sides of similar triangles are equal, so

or
The magnitude of the average acceleration 𝑎𝑎𝑣 during ∆𝑡 therefore

............................. (3.30)
The magnitude a of the instantaneous acceleration𝑎 at point 𝑝1 is the limit of thisexpression as
we take point P2 closer and closer to point P1.

........................................
(3.31)
If the time interval ∆𝑡 is short, ∆𝑆 is the distance the particle moves along itscurved path. So the
∆𝑆
limit of ∆𝑡 is the speed 𝑣1 at point𝑃1 Also,P1 can be any point on the path, so we can drop the
subscript and let v represent the speed at any point. Then

51
 ...................................................... (3.32)
We have found that in uniform circular motion, the magnitude 𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 of the instantaneous
acceleration isequal to the square of the speed divided by the radius R of the circle. Its direction
is perpendicular to𝑣 and inward along the radius. Because the acceleration in uniform circular
motion is always directed toward the center of the circle, it is sometimes called centripetal
acceleration.

Figure 3.5 Acceleration and velocity for a particle in uniform circular motion
We can also express the magnitude of the acceleration in uniform circularmotion in terms of the
period T of the motion, the time for one revolution (onecomplete trip around the circle). In a
time T the particle travels a distance equal to2𝜋𝑅 the circumference of the circle, so its speed is

...................................... (3.33)
When we substitute this into Eq. above, we obtain the alternative expression

…………………….. (3.34)
Example 1:- An Aston Martin V8 Vantage sports car has a ―lateral acceleration ―of 0.96kg =
(0.96kg) (9.80m/s2)=9.4m/s2. This is the maximum centripetal acceleration the car can sustain
without skidding out ofa curved path. If the car is traveling at a constant 40m/s on level ground,
what is the radius R of the tightest unbanked curve it can negotiate?
Solution:-
The car is in uniform circular motion because it‘s moving at a constant speed along a curve that
𝑣2
is a segment of a circle. Hence we can use 𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 = then,
𝑅
𝑣2 (40𝑚 /𝑠)2
𝑅=𝑎 = =170m
𝑟𝑎𝑑 9.4𝑚 /𝑠 2
This is the minimum radius because 𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 is the maximum centripetal acceleration.
Example 2:-Passengers on a carnival ride move at constant speed in a horizontalcircle of radius
5.0 m, making a complete circle in 4.0 s. What is their acceleration?
Solution:-

The centripetal acceleration is then

52
 Example 3:- A 3Kg mass attached to a 1.5m-long string is whirled around in a horizontal circle
at a speed of 6m/s. (a) what is the centripetal acceleration of mass? (b) What is the tension in the
string? (Neglect gravity)
Solution:-
𝑣2 (6𝑚 /𝑠)2
(a) 𝑎= 𝑅 = 1.5𝑚 =24m/s2
(b) The Tension is the string exerts the centripetal force required to keep the mass in circular
motion. The force is T=ma=(0.3Kg)(24m/s2)

3.4. Motion of a particle on a vertical and horizontal circles

3.4.1. Motion of a particle on a vertical circle
Suppose a particle of mass m is attached to an inextensible light string of length R. The particle is
moving in a vertical circle of radius R about a fixed point O. It is imparted a velocity u in
horizontal
direction at lowest point A. Let v be its velocity at point B of the circle as shown in figure. Here,

Figure
h = R (1 - cos𝜃)………………. (*)
From conservation of mechanical energy

or ……(3.35)
The necessary centripetal force is provided by the resultant of tension T and mg cos𝜃

……. (3.36)
Now, following three conditions arise depending on the value of u.

Condition of Looping the Loop (u  5𝑔𝑅)

The particle will complete the circle if the string does not slack even at the highest point ().
Thus, tension in the string should be greater than or equal to zero (T 0) at In critical case
SubstitutingT0 and in Eq. (3.36), we get

(At the highest point)

53
Substituting in Eq. (3.34), h=2R
Therefore, from Eq. (ii), we have

Thus, if u≥ 5𝑔𝑅, the particle will complete the circle. Atu= 5𝑔𝑅, velocity at highest point is
v = 𝑔𝑅and tension in thestring is zero.
Substituting0and v  5𝑔𝑅in Equation (3.36); we get T6 mg or in the critical condition
tension in the string at lowest position is6 mg. This is shown in Fig. below.

If u 5gR, following two cases are possible

Condition of Leaving the Circle ( 2𝑔𝑅u  5𝑔𝑅)
If u  5𝑔𝑅, the tension in the string will become zero before reaching the highest point, from
Equations (3.36), tension in the string becomes zero (T 0). Where,

Substituting this value of cosin Eq. (3.35), we get

………………. (3.37)
or we can say that at height h1 tension in the string becomes zero. Further, if u 5gR, velocity
of the particle becomes zero when

…………………..(3.38)
i.e., at height h2 velocity of particle becomes zero.
Now, the particle will leave the circle if tension in the string becomes zero but velocity is not
zero orT0 but v 0. This is possible only when

54
 ………………………(3.39)
Therefore, if 2𝑔𝑅u  5𝑔𝑅, the particle leaves the circle;From Eq. (3.37), we can see
thathR if u 22gR. Thus, the particle willleave the circle when h R or 90180. This
situation is shown inthe Fig. below

Figure 3.6
2𝑔𝑅 u  5𝑔𝑅or 90180
Note:-After leaving the circle, the particle will follow a parabolic path as the particle comes
under gravity.
Condition of Oscillation (0 u  2𝑔𝑅)
The particle will oscillate, if velocity of the particle becomes zero but tension in the string is not
zero.orv0, but T 0. This is possible when

……… (40)
Moreover, ifh1 h2 , u  2𝑅𝑔 and tension and velocity both becomes zero simultaneously,
Further, from Equation (3.37), we can see that h R if u  2𝑅𝑔. Thus, for0 u  2𝑔𝑅,
particle oscillates inlower half of the circle (090).
This situation is shown in the figure.

Figure 3.7

55
Note:-The above three conditions have been derived for a particle moving in a vertical circle
attached to a string. The same conditions apply, if a particle moves inside a smooth spherical
shell of radius R. The only difference is that the tension is replaced by the normal reaction N.
Condition of Looping the Loop is u 𝟓 𝒈 (𝒇𝒊𝒖𝒈𝒓𝒆 𝟑. 𝟖)

Figure 3.8
Condition of Leaving the Circle is 𝟐𝒈𝑹u 𝟓𝒈𝑹

Figure 3.9
Condition of Oscillation is 0u 𝟐 𝒈𝑹

Figure 3.10
Example 1:-A stone tied to a string of length L is whirled in a verticalcircle with the other end of
the string at the center. At a certain instant of timethe stone is at its lowest position and has a
speed u. Find the magnitude of thechange in its velocity as it reaches a position, where the string
is horizontal.
Solution:-

figure3.11

56
3.4.2. Motion of particle on Horizontal circle
In circular motion, linear speed of the particle may or may not be constant but direction of linear
velocity continuously keeps on changing. So, velocity is continuously changing. Therefore,
acceleration cannot be zero. But of course we can resolve the linear acceleration into two
components:
(i) Tangential acceleration (at)
(ii) Radial or centripetal acceleration (ar)
Component of linear acceleration in tangential direction is called tangential acceleration (at).
This component is responsible for change in linear speed. This is the rate of change of speed.
Thus,

…………………. (3.41)
If speed of the particle is constant, then atis zero. If speed is increasing, then this is positive and
in the direction of linear velocity. If speed is decreasing, then this component is negative and in
the opposite direction of linear velocity.
Tangential component of the linear acceleration and angular acceleration have following relation :

………………………… (3.42)

Component of linear acceleration in radial direction (towards Centre) is called radial or

centripetal acceleration. This component is responsible for change in direction of linear
velocity. So, this component can never be zero, as the direction continuously keeps on changing.
Value of this component is

…………………………………… (3.43)

These two components are mutually perpendicular. So, the net linear acceleration is the vector
sum of these two, as shown in figure.

57
 𝑎𝑟
And tan𝜃 = ………………………. (3.44)
𝑎𝑡
Example: -Estimate the force a person must exert on a string attached to a 0.150 kg ball to make
the ball revolve in a horizontal circle of radius 0.600m. The ball makes 2.00 revolutions per
second (T=0.500 s). Ignore the string‘s mass.
Solution: -We apply Newton‘s second law to the radial direction, which we assume is horizontal:
Where

Thus,

Example 2:-The speed of a particle moving in a circle of radius r = 2m varies with time t as v =
t2, where t is in second and v in m/s. Find the radial, tangential and net acceleration at t = 2 s.
Solution:-Linear speed of particle at t = 2s is
v = (2)2 = 4 m / s
4𝑚 2
𝑣2 ( )
Radial acceleration, 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑅 = 2𝑚 = 8𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑠

The tangential acceleration is a=dv/dt=2t

Tangential acceleration at t = 2s is
at= (2)(2)=4m/s2
Net acceleration of particle at t = 2s is

𝑎 = 80𝑚/𝑠 2
Note On any curved path (not necessarily a circular one) the acceleration of the particle has two
components atand an in two mutually perpendicular directions. Component of aalongvis at and
perpendicular to v is an.Thus,

Horizontal Circular Motion

when you revolve a stone tied with a string over your head is the most common example of
horizontal circular motion. Insuch cases gravity acts perpendicular to the circular path, hence it
can not affect the speed of the path but for vertical equilibrium there must be a balancing force
against gravity. Figure below shows the case we were discussing. In this case the balancing force
is the vertical component of tension in string T cos𝜃. Here horizontal component of tension T
sin𝜃 is acting toward centre of the circle. It is the required centripetal force for circular motion.

Figure

58
Along radial and vertical directions, we have

And

Dividing equations, we get

𝜋
Above relation shows that 𝜃can never be 2 ;It can be ifandonly if𝑣 → ∞.Squaring and adding the
above equations, we get
Tension in string

……………………. (3.45)

Example1: -A particle of mass ‗m‘ is attached to one end of a weightless and inextensible string
of length ‗L‘. The particle is on a smooth horizontal table. The string passes through a hole in the
table and to its other end is attached a small particle of equal mass ‗m‘. The system is set in
motion with the first particle describing a circle on the table with constant angular velocity𝜔1 and
thesecond particle moving in the horizontal circle as a conicalpendulum with constant angular
velocity𝜔2 . Show that the lengthof the portions of the string on either side of the hole are in the
ratio𝜔22 :𝜔12 .
Solution:-Situation is shown in figure below

Here tension in string remains same as there is no friction between the thread and the edge of the
hole in the table. For the two circular motions of upper mass and the lower mass m we have

59
If lengthof the thread is taken as L, as shown in figure, radius r2 can be given as

From above equations, we have

Example 2:-A particle describes a horizontal circle on the smooth innersurfaceofa conical
funnelasshownin figure-below. If the heightof the plane of the circle above the vertex is 9.8 cm,
find thespeed of the particle.

Solution: -Let the speed of particle be v, with which it is revolving in acircleofradius r, where r
is given as

Due to its circular motion we have

Dividing above equations, we have

Substituting the value of r we get

Example 3:-A hemispherical bowl of radius R is set rotating about its axis of symmetry which is
kept vertical. A small block kept in the bowl rotates with the bowl without slipping on its

60
 surface. If the surface of the bowl is smooth and the angle made by the radius through the block
with the vertical is𝜃, find the angularspeed at which the bowl is rotating.
Solution:-Let we take the bowl is rotating with an angular velocity𝜔. Theblock will be in a
circular motion with radius R sin𝜃, as shownin figure-below. As the block is in equilibrium, we
have along
horizontal and vertical directions

From above equations we get

3.5. Oscillatory motion (pendulum …..)

Questions and Problems

1. Which of the following objects can‘t be accelerating?
(a) An object moving with a constant speed;
(b) An object moving with a constant velocity; or
(c) An object moving along a curve.
2. Consider the following controls in an automobile: gas pedal, brake, steering wheel. The controls
in this list that can cause an acceleration of the car are
(a) All three controls, (b) the gas pedal and the brake,
(c) Only the brake, (d) only the gas pedal
3. Suppose you are carrying a ball and running at constant velocity on level ground. You wish to
throw the ball and catch it as it comes back down. Neglecting air resistance, should you
(a) Throw the ball at an angle of about 45° above the horizontal and maintain the same speed,
(b) Throw the ball straight up in the air and slow down to catch it, or
(c) Throw the ball straight up in the air and maintain the same speed.

61
4. As a projectile moves in its parabolic path, where are the velocity and acceleration vectors
perpendicular to each other?
(a) Everywhere along the projectile‘s path,(b) at the peak of its path,
(c) Nowhere along its path,(d) not enough information is given.
5. There motion of a particle is given by a= t3-3t2+5. Where a is the acceleration in m/s2and t is the
time in seconds. The velocity of the particle at t=1 second is 6.25m/s and the displacement
is8.30meters. Calculate the displacement and the velocity at t=2 seconds.
6. A stone is projected from the point of a ground in such a direction so as to hit a bird on the top of
a telegraph post of height h and then attain the maximum height 2 h above the ground. If at the
instant of projection, the birds were to fly away horizontally with a uniform speed, find the ratio
between the horizontal velocities of the bird and the stone, if the stone still hits the bird while
descending.
7. A cannon fires successively two shells with velocity 250 m/s. The first atan angle 60° and
the second at the angle 45° to the horizontal, the azimuth being the same. Find the time
interval between their firing so that the two shells collide in air. Assume no air friction.
8. A particle is thrown over a triangle from one end of a horizontal base and grazing the vertex falls
on the other end of the base. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 be the base angles and 𝜃 be the angle ofprojection, prove
that tan 𝜃= tan 𝛼 + tan 𝛽.

62
 Chapter 4
Newton’s law of motion
Introduction
In Chapter 2 & 3, which dealt with kinematics, we discussed the elements that enter in to the
―description‖ of the motion of a particle. Let us now investigate the reasons why particles move
the way they do.
Activity 4-1
1. What makes things to move?
2. Why do bodies near the surface of the earth fall with constant acceleration?
3. Why does the earth move around the sun in an elliptical orbit?
4. Why do atoms bind together to form molecules?
5. Why does a spring oscillate when it is stretched?

We want to understand these and many other motions that we continually observe around us.
This understanding is important not only to our basic knowledge of nature, but also for
engineering and practical applications. Understanding how motions in general are produced
enables us to design machines and other practical devices that move as we desire.
The study of the relationship between the motion of a body and the causes for this motion is
called dynamics .From daily experience we know that the motion of a body is a direct result of
its interaction s with the other bodies around it. When a batter hits a ball, he is interacting with it
and modifying its motion. The path of a projectile is but a result of its interaction with the earth.
The motion of an electron around a nucleus is the result of its interactions with the nucleus and
perhaps with other electrons. Interactions are conveniently described by a mathematical concept
called force. The study of dynamics is basically the analysis of the relation between force and the
changes in motion of a body. The laws of motion which we shall present in the following
discussion are generalizations arising from a careful analysis of the motions we observe around
us and the extrapolation of our observations to certain ideal or simplified experiments.
LEARNING GOALS
By studying this chapter, you will be able to explain:
 What the concept of force means in physics, and why forces are vectors.
 The significance of the net force on an object, and what happens when the net force is
zero.
 The relationship among the net force on an object, the objects mass and its acceleration.
 How the forces that two bodies exert on each other are related
 Distinguish between kinematics and dynamics
 Understand the definition of force
 Identify simple free-body diagrams
 Define the SI unit of force, the Newton
 Describe force as a vector
 Describe Newton's first law of motion
 Recognize friction as an external force
 Define inertia
 Identify inertial reference frames
 Calculate equilibrium for a system

63
  Distinguish between external and internal forces
 Describe Newton's second law of motion
 Explain the dependence of acceleration on net force and mass
 Explain the difference between mass and weight
 Explain why falling objects on Earth are never truly in free fall
 Describe the concept of weightlessness
 State Newton‘s third law of motion
 Identify the action and reaction forces in different situations
 Apply Newton‘s third law to define systems and solve problems of motion

4.1. Force
In everyday language, a force is a push or a pull. A better definition is that a force is an
interaction between two bodies or between a body and its environment.
To describe a force vector we need to describe the direction in which it acts as well as its
magnitude, the quantity that describes ‗how much‘ or ‗how hard‘ the force pushes or pulls. The
SI unit of the magnitude of force is the Newton; abbreviated N.A common instrument for
measuring force magnitudes is the spring balance.
Dynamics is the study of the forces that cause objects and systems to move. To understand this,
we need a working definition of force. An intuitive definition of force—that is, a push or a
pull—is a good place to start. We know that a push or a pull has both magnitude and direction
(therefore, it is a vector quantity), so we can define force as the push or pull on an object with a
specific magnitude and direction. Force can be represented by vectors or expressed as a multiple
of a standard force.

4.2. Newton’s first laws of motion

Galileo concluded that object in motion, If not obstructed, will continue to move with a constant
speed along a horizontal line. Therefore, there would be no change in motion of an object,
unless an external agent acted on it to cause the change. That was Galileo‘s version of inertia.
Inertia resists changes, not only from the state of rest, but also from motion with a constant
speed along a straight lin. Therefore, the interest shifted from the causes of motion to the causes
for changes in motion. Galileo‘s version of inertia was formalized by Newton in a form that
comes to be known as Newton‘s first law of motion
This law states-―If a body is at rest then it will remain at rest or if it is moving along a
straight line with a uniform speed then it will continue to move as such unless an external
force is applied on it change its present state‖. This property of bodies showing a reluctance to
change their present state is called ―Inertia‖. Hence, Newton‘s first law is also known as the
―Law of inertia‖. This law is called ‗Galileo law‘. Newton‘s first law makes no distinction
between a body at rest and one moving with a constant velocity. Both states are ‗natural‘ when
no external force or interaction acts on the body.

4.3. Newton’s second law

Newton‘s second law tells us what happens to the state of rest or of uniform motion a body
when a net external force acts on the body i.e. when the interact with other surroundings bodies.
This law states-―The time rate of change of linear momentum of a particle is directly proportional to
the force applied on the particle and it takes place in the direction of force”.
64
 Mathematically,
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
𝛼 𝐹 Or 𝑑𝑡 =k𝐹 , where 𝐹 is the applied force and k is a constant of proportionality. The
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
differential operator indicates the time rate of change.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑃
𝐼𝑛 SI system, k=1. Therefore, = 𝐹 or simply,
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑃
F= 𝑑𝑡 ……………………………………... (4.1)
But linear momentum of the particle 𝑃= m𝑣 , where m is the mass of the particle and 𝑣 is the
velocity of particle.
𝑑 (𝑚𝑣 ) 𝑑𝑣
Therefore, 𝐹 = = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 . Thus, Newton‘s second law can be written as
𝑑𝑡
𝐹=m𝑎 …………………………………… (4.2)
In scalar form, it can be written as F=ma………………………... (4.3)
Thus, force is equal to mass times acceleration, if the mass is constant. The force has the same
direction as the acceleration. This is an alternative statement of second law. Newton‘s second
law is also known as ‗law of change in momentum‘.
If the position vector of a particle is 𝑟 at time t then its velocity 𝑣 can be expressed as-
𝑑𝑟
𝑣= ……………………………………………. (4.4)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑟
and its acceleration 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 ………………… (4.5)
Therefore, Newton‘s second law can be written as-
𝑑2 𝑟
𝐹= 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 ………………………………. …………. (4.6)
If the unit of mass m is kg and the unit of acceleration ‗a‘ is meter/second 2, then the unit
of force is called Newton.
1 Newton= 1kgm/s2

4.4. Newton’s third law

Force acting on a body arises as a result of its interaction with another body surrounding it. Thus,
any single force is only one feature of a mutual interaction between two bodies. We find that
whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body always exerts on the first
which is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and has the same line of action. A single
isolated force is therefore impossibility.

The two force involved in every interaction between the bodies are called an ‗action‘ and a
‗reaction‘. Either force may be considered the action and the other the reaction. This fact is made
clear in Newton‘s third law of motion. This law state-―To every action there is always an equal
and opposite reaction”
Here the words ‗action‘ and ‗reaction‘ mean force as defined by the first and second laws.
If a body A exerts a force 𝐹𝐴𝐵 on a body B, then body B in turn exerts a force 𝐹𝐵𝐴 on A, such
that

𝐹𝐴𝐵 =-𝐹𝐵𝐴 ……………………….. (4.7)

65
So that, 𝐹𝐴𝐵 + 𝐹𝐵𝐴 = 0

Notice that Newton‘s third law deals with two forces, each acting on a different body. This law is
also known as ‗law of action-reaction‘. There are two important points regarding Newton‘s third
law:-First, we cannot say that this particular force is action and other one is reaction. Any one
may be action and the other reaction.
Secondly, Action and reaction act on different bodies. Out of three laws, Newton‘s second law is
most general as first and third may be derived second law.
𝑑𝑚
Example 1:- A satellite in a force-free space sweeps stationary interplanetary dust at a rate 𝑑𝑡 =
𝛼𝑣, calculate the acceleration of the satellite.
𝑑𝑚
Solution: - Given 𝑑𝑡 = 𝛼𝑣,
𝑑𝑃 𝑑(𝑚𝑣 ) 𝑑 (𝑣) 𝑑(𝑚 )
Using Newton‘s second law of motion F= 𝑑𝑡 = =𝑚 +𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 (𝑣) 𝑑(𝑚 )
Since force F=0 (for force-free space), therefore 0=𝑚 +𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
=ma + v (𝛼𝑣) [since = 𝑎 and putting for 𝑑𝑡 ]
𝑑𝑡
=ma+𝛼𝑣 2
α𝑣 2
Or =- m

4.5. Newton’s law of universal gravitation

Everybody in the universe attracts every other body. This tendency of bodies to move toward one
another is called gravitation, and the ―stuff‖ that is involved is the mass of each body. If the
myth were true that a falling apple inspired Newton to his law of gravitation, then the attraction
is between the mass of the apple and the mass of Earth.
Newton‘s force law between two particles
Let the masses be m1 and m2 and r be their separation. Then the magnitude of the gravitational
force acting on each due to the presence of the other is given by:-

…….. (4.8)

G is the gravitational constant:-G= 6.67 x 10-11 N.m2/kg2

In Fig. 4.1a, is the gravitational force acting on particle 1 (mass m1) due to particle 2 (mass m2).
The force is directed toward particle 2 and is said to be an attractive force because particle 1 is
attracted toward particle 2. The magnitude of the force is given by Eq. 4.8.We can describe as
being in the positive direction of an r axis extending radially from particle 1 through particle 2
(Fig. 4-1b).We can also describe by using a radial unit vector rˆ (a dimensionless vector of
magnitude 1) that is directed away from particle 1 along the r axis (Fig. 4-1c).From Eq. 4.8, the
force on particle 1 is then

66
Figure 4.1

(a) The gravitational force 𝐹 on particle 1 due to particle 2 is an attractive force because particle
1 is attracted to particle 2.
(b) Force 𝐹 is directed along a radial coordinate axis r extend from particle 1 through particle 2
(c) F is in the direction of a unit vector 𝑟 along the r axis.

……………………….. (4.9)

The gravitational force on particle 2 due to particle 1 has the same magnitude as the force on
particle 1 but in the opposite direction. These two forces form a third-law force pair, and we can
speak of the gravitational force between the two particles as having a magnitude given by Eq.
4.8. This force between two particles is not altered by other objects, even if they are located
between the particles. Put another way, no object can shield either particle from the gravitational
force due to the other particle.

Example 1:-A satellite of mass 300 kg is in a circular orbit around the Earth at an altitude equal
to the Earth‘s mean radius (See Fig. below.) Find (a) the satellite‘s orbital speed, (b) the period
of its revolution, and (c) the gravitational force acting on it. Use: REarth = 6.37 × 106 m and MEarth
= 5.98 × 1024 kg.

Figure 4.2

67
Solution:-

We are told that the height of satellite above the surface of the Earth is equal to the Earth‘s
radius. This means that the radius of the satellite‘s orbit is equal to twice the radius of the Earth.
Since the mean radius of the Earth is R = 6.37 × 106 m, then the orbit radius is

The satellite is always at this distance from the center of the Earth; Newton‘s law of gravitation
tells us the force which the Earth exerts on the satellite:

This force is always directed toward the center of the Earth. Since this is the only forcewhich
acts on the satellite, it is also the (net) centripetal force on it:-

We can now find the speed of the satellite. It is:

Which gives: -v = 5.60 × 103 m/s. So the satellite‘s orbital speed is 5.60 × 103m/s
(b) Recall that the speed of an object in uniform circular motion is related to the period and
radius by:-

From this we get the period of the satellite‘s orbit:

The period of the satellite is 3.96 hr.

(c) The answer to this part has been found already! The gravitational force acting on the satellite
is 7.42 × 102 N.

68
4.6. Mass and weight
The weight of a body is simply the gravitational force exerted by earth on the body. It is a
vector quantity whose direction is the direction of gravitational force i.e. towards the centre of
the earth.
Let us understand the concept of weight in a better way. When a body of mass m falls freely,
its acceleration is g and the force acting on it its weight w. Thus, by using Newton‘s law,
F=ma, we get, w=mg since w weight and acceleration due to gravity g are directed towards the
centre of the earth, we can write w=mg.
The mass m of the body is an intrinsic property of the body while the weight of a body is
different in different localities because acceleration due to gravity g varies from point to point
on the earth. The unit of mass is kg while that weight is kg.m. /s2or Newton.

4.7. Application of Newton’s laws of motion

4.7.1. Projectile motion

The motion of a bullet fired by a gun and that of a ball thrown by a fieldsman to another are the
example of projectile motion. Let us consider such a particle of mass m. It is thrown from a point
O with an initial 𝑣0 along OP making an angle 𝜃 with the horizontal (figure 4. 3). Let the article
at a point Q (𝑂𝑄 =𝑟 ) at time t. Neglecting air resistance, Let us determine the particle‘s path.
The only force acting on the particle is the weight mg of the particle which is constant
throughout the motion.

Figure 4.3
Let us determine the path of the particle. We know by Newton‘s second law
𝑑2𝑟
𝐹=𝑚 ………………………………………….. (4.9)
𝑑𝑡2
𝑑2 𝑟 𝑑2 𝑟 𝑑 𝑑𝑟
But here 𝐹= m 𝑎 Therefore, 𝑚 𝑑 𝑡 2 = m 𝑎or 𝑑 𝑡 2 = 𝑔or 𝑑𝑡 ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = g …… (4.10)
Integrate with respect to time t,
𝑑𝑟
=gt +A…………………………….. (4.11)
𝑑𝑡
Where A is the constant of integration, Applying initial conditions, at t=0

69
 𝑑𝑟
=𝑣0 , therefore from equation (4.11)
𝑑𝑡
𝑣0 =g(0) +A=A
Putting for A in equation (4.11), we get,
𝑑𝑟
=gt +𝑣0 ………………………………. (4.12)
𝑑𝑡
Integrating equation (4.12) with respect to time t, we get
1
𝑟 =𝑣0 t +2 𝑔𝑡 2 +B……………………….. (4.13)
Where, B is constant of integration. Applying initial condition, at t=0 , r=0, we get from equi.
(4.13)
1
0=𝑣0 (0) +2 𝑔(0)2 +B or B=0
Putting for B in equation (4.13), we get
1
𝑟 =𝑣0 t +2 𝑔𝑡 2 ………………………….. (4.14)
𝑑𝑟
We have to applied two initial conditions; 𝑑𝑡 =𝑣𝑜 and 𝑟 =0 at t=0. Since 𝑣𝑜 is along OP and t is
scalar, we understand that 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 is along OP. Again acceleration due to gravity g is directed
vertically down ward and ½ t 2 is a scalar, therefore 1/2gt 2is directed vertically down wards i.e.
along PQ (figure 4.3). We use the law of vector addition-
𝑂𝑄=𝑂𝑃+𝑃𝑄……………………. (4.15)
In this way, we get the location of the particle. As time advances OP is lengthened and therefore
is PQ, and we get the location of the particle by adding 𝑂𝑃 and 𝑃𝑄

4.7.2. Friction force

A heavy block is kept on a horizontal rough floor. You apply a force to pull it still does not
move, Is it a contradiction of Newton‘s law? Let us discuss the motion of block.
The block is acted upon by two forces:-
a) Its weight mg actin vertically down ward at its centre of gravity and
b) It reactionary-force P exerted on it by the floor directed vertically upward and passes
through its centre. Since the block is equlibrium, P=mg. In figure 4.4, lines of action of
mg and P are shown slightly displaced for clarity.

When we apply a small horizontal force F, say towards right (figure 4.54), and the block does not
move. The force P exerted on the block by the floor is now so inclined towards left that P., mg

70
and F may form a closed triangle (since block is still in equilibrium), The force P can be resolved
into two components ; parallel and perpendicular to the contact surfaces. The component
parallel to the contact surface is called ―force of static friction, F s‖ which balances the applied
force F (F=Fs). The component perpendicular to contact surfaces is ‗normal reaction‘ R exerted
on the block which balance the weight mg of the block(R=mg)

Now, if the applied force F is slightly increased, the block does not still begin to move. This
means that the force P is further inclined towards left so that the force of static friction F s also
increases to become equal to the new value of F. Thus, as the applied force F increased, the force
of static friction fs also increases, but after a certain limit, fscannot increase any more. At this
moment the block is just to move (figure 4.6). This maximum value of static frictional force f s is
called ‗limiting frictional force‘ (it is equal to the smallest force required to start motion). Now,
as the applied force is further increased, the block begins to move.
The limiting (maximum) static frictional force depends upon the nature of the surface in contact.
It does not depend upon the size or area of the surfaces. For the given surfaces, the limiting
frictional force fs is directly proportional to the normal reaction R i.e
fs𝛼𝑅or fs =𝜇𝑠 𝑅 for limiting frictional f is force)………………(4.16)
Where,the constant proportionality 𝜇𝑠 is called the coefficient of static friction. The above
formula holds only when fs have its maximum (limiting) value (figure 4.6). Before this
stage;fs<𝜇𝑠 R, (figure 4.5). Hence, usually fs≤ 𝜇𝑠 R
If the direction of the applied force is reversed, the direction fs also reveres, while the direction
of R remains unchanged. In actual facts, fs is always opposite to FOnce, the motion starts, the
frictional force acting between the surface decreases, so that a smaller force is required to
maintain uniform motion (figure 4.5). The force acting between the surfaces in relative motion is
called ‗dynamic frictional force‘ fk which is less than the limiting force friction fs. You know
from daily experience that a lesser force is required to maintain the motion of a body than the
force required tostart the body from rest.
Thus, when the block is in uniform motion, the force of dynamic (or Kinetic) friction is
Fk=𝜇𝑘 R………………………………. (4.17)
Where 𝜇𝑘 is the coefficient of dynamic (Kinetic) friction and its value is less than 𝜇𝑠
Let us see some examples based on these applications.
Example 1:- A block of mass 2kg is placed on a rough floor. The coefficient of static friction is
0.4. A force F of magnitude 2.5N is applied on the block as shown. Calculate the force of friction
between the block and floor.

71
 Solution: - Given mass of block, m=2kg, coefficient of static friction 𝜇𝑠 =0.4, f=2.5N
We know the limiting (maximum) force of static friction:-
fs=𝜇𝑠 𝑅
= 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔 since, R=mg = (0.4)(2kg) (9.8m/s2)=7.48N
Obviously, the applied force F is less than the limiting frictional force. Hence, under the force F,
the block dose not moves. Therefore, as long as the block does not move, the (adjustable)
frictional force is always equal to the applied force. Thus, the frictional force is 2.5N
Example 2:- A box of mass m is being pulled across a rough floor by means of mass less rope
that makes an angle 𝜃 with the horizontal. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the box and
the floor is 𝜇𝑘 . What is the tension in the rope when the box moves at a constant velocity?
Solution: - let the tension in the rope be T. All forces acting on the box are shown in the figure.

R is the normal reaction and correspondingly the magnitude of the force of kinetic friction 𝑓𝑘 is
equal to 𝜇𝑘 R. It is in a direction opposite to the tendency of motion. Since there is no motion in
the vertical direction, the resultant of the forces along vertical direction must be zero. Also, as
the body moves with a uniform velocity, the resultant force along the horizontal direction is zero.
Resolving all the forces along the horizontal and vertical direction, we have-
T sin𝜃 +R-mg=0 …………….. (i)
𝜇𝑘 R –T cos 𝜃 =0 ……………… (ii)
From equation (i), we have R=mg-T sin𝜃 Putting for R in equation (ii), we get
𝜇𝐾 (mg-Tsin𝜃 )-T cos𝜃 =0
𝜇 𝑘 𝑚𝑔
T=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝜇 𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

4.8. Hook’s law

We know that the more force we apply to a spring, the more it stretches. For a spring that obeys
Hooke's law, the extension of the spring is proportional to the applied force. Figure-below shows
a spring in its equilibrium length. If we stretch it by a distance x from its equilibrium position, it
applies a restoring force F, towards its equilibrium position, which is proportional to x, given by

..................................... (4.19)
Here k is proportionality constant, known as spring constant.
A spring has a tendency of restoring its equilibrium position, thus whether we stretch it or

72
compress, it always opposes the external force in the direction towards its equilibrium position,
One more point is to be noted that a spring applies the restoring force equally at both of its ends,
doesn't matter whether an end is fixed or not.

As shown in figure-above, an end of the spring is fixed to wall and other is pulled by applying a
force. As the restoring force is directly proportional to the stretch! of compression in it, for
stretching it by x, we apply a force F on it and for stretching itto double the length to 2x, we
have to apply a force double of the previous value.
4.8.1. Force Constant of a Spring
In previous section we have discussed about the force exerted by a spring when stretched or
compressed. The spring exerts a force due to its elastic properties. When a spring is stretched or
compressed from its natural (relaxed) state, its potential energy increases and the work done in
stretching or compressing is stored in it in the form of its elastic potential energy. As every
system tend to retain its minimum energy state for greater stability, spring tries to restore its
natural state, hence applies the restoring force on the external agent pulling or pushing the
spring. Already we know that the restoring force which is proportional to the deformation length
6f the spring as F = kx,
where k is the force constant of the spring which depends on the spring shape, material and its
elastic properties. If we cut a spring in two equal halves, what will be the k for each part of
the spring? Or if two springs of force constantsk1 and K2 are connected in series, what will be the
equivalent force constant of the spring.
For answering above questions, we must know how k depends on length and shape of spring.
First we discuss different configurations of spring combinations.
Spring in series
Look at figure-the right side. Two light springs of force
constantsK1 andK2 are connected in series and a mass m.
is hanging from them. Other end of the spring is rigidly
connected to the ceiling.-. 'We know that the stretch in a spring is
proportional to the tension in it. As springs are light, in both
the springs, tension remains same as mg.
Thus if x1 andx2 are the stretch in the two
springs, we have tension in them.

………………. (4.20)
If is considered as the equivalent force constant of the combined spring, we have

………………. (4.21)
73
Substituting the value of x, and.x2 from equation-(4.20), to equation-(4.21), we get

……………………………. (4.22)
Equation-(4.22) can be generalized for more than two springs connected in series as

……………….. (4.23)
Where k1, k2, k3.... are the spring force constants of the respected springs.
Springs in parallel
As shown –in 'figure below, if: two springs are connected in parallel and a mass m is hanging
from, the combination, than both the springs, are stretched by equal amounts say x and for
equilibrium of mass m we have,

Figure

…………. (4.24)
If keq be the equivalent force constant of the combination, we have

………….. (4.25)
From equationsabove, we have

……… (4.26)
Above equation can be generalized for more than two springs

…………. (4.27)
Parts of a spring: -If a spring of force constant k of length L is cut in two parts, say of L1 and
L2, let us assume that new force constants are k1 and k2for the two parts. If we connect these two
parts in series, the equivalents force constant must be initial k. Thus we have

…………………. (4.28)
According to the molecular properties of a spring, the force constant of a part of the spring is
inversely proportional to its length, which gives us

………….. (4.29)

74
Where, c is a positive constant. Substituting the above values of new force constants k 1 and k2 in
the previous equation, we get

………………… (4.30)
Using value of c in equation above, we have

…….. (4.31)
Example 1:-When a mass M hangs from a spring of length L, it stretches the spring by a
distance x. Now the spring is cut in two parts of lengths L/3 and 2L/3, and the two springs thus
formed are connected to a straight rod of mass M which is horizontal in the configuration shown
in figure-below. Find the stretch in each of the spring.

Solution:-
As it given that the mass M stretches the original spring by a distance x, we have
(k)(x)=Mg

………………….. (4.32)
The, new force constants of the two springs .can be given by using equation (4.31) as

Let we take the stretch in the two springs be x1, andx2, we have for the equilibrium of the rod

From equation-(2*), we have'

................. (4.33)
As the rod is horizontal and in static equilibrium, we have net torque acting on the rod about any
point on it must be zero. Thus we have torque on it about end A are

75
 𝑥
Using this value of x2 in equation-(4.33) we have x1 =
6
This can also be directly obtained by using torque zero about point B on the rod as

Example 2:-Find the stretch in the springs shown in figure-below. The respective data are given
in the figure. The friction and masses in pulleys are negligible.

Solution:-
(a) As mass M is, in equilibrium, the tension in the string with which it is hanging will be Mg.
As pulley is mass less the tension in the upper string must be half of the lower string, Mg/2.
The stretch in the spring must be such that the restoring force in the string is equal to the
tension in it. Thus we have

(b) Here again mass M is in equilibrium, thus the tension in the string connected to it must be
equal to Mg and hence the restoring force in the lower spring will also be Mg. Ifx1 be the
extension in this spring, we have

76
As pulley is light, the tension in upper string must be twice that of the lower string, 2 Mg which
is equal to the restoring force in the upper spring. If x2 is the extension in the upper spring, we
have

4.9. Equilibrium
An important part of physics has to do with objects and systems that are at rest and remain at
rest, which is known as static equilibrium. In this section we discover that two basic conditions
must be satisfied if an object it to remain at rest. Also we'll discuss how to use these conditions
to different
situations.

Figure
To start with static equilibrium considers figure-above, an object supported by a hand. We all
know why the object does not fall, but we'll first examine this simple situation in detail so that
we may easily understand more complicated situations.
What are the forces acting on the object? We know that if we release, it will fall. This
shows that a force is pulling down ward on it, the force of gravity. To support the object, the
hand must push it upward. Let the upward push is P. As the object is a motionless, means the
weight of the object Mg and the upward push P are equal in magnitude. In other words, the
vertical forces acting on the object must balance if equilibrium is to be achieved.
In the analysis of objects at equilibrium, it is helpful to sketch afree body diagram, and balancing
all the forces acting on the body in two perpendicular directions, in which the forces are
resolved. This is the first condition of equilibrium, stated as-"The vector sum of all the forces
acting on a body is equal to zero."We take few examples to explain the concept of static
equilibrium
Example 1: - The object in figure below weighs 40 kg and hangs at rest. Find the tensions in the
three cords that hold it.

77
Solution:-Because the object is at equilibrium, the vector sum ofthe forces
acting directly on it must be zero. There are only two such
forces, the tension in the lower cord and the pull of gravity,
400 N. Therefore, the tension in the lower cord must be 400 N. It
is the tension that supports the object
Figure-above shows the junction where the three cords meet. As the system is in equilibrium, net
sum of all the forces at the junction must be zero. For this we resolve the tensions in horizontal
and perpendicular direction as
In horizontal direction,

In vertical direction

On solving the above equations we get

and the tension in third cord we already have

Example 2:-A cubical block is experiencing three forces as shown in figure-below. Find the
friction force acting on the block if it is at rest. Given that F1= 30N; F2= 50 N and F3= 42 N.

𝐹1
Solution:- As shown in the figure F1 is having three components, one along vertical . Other
2
𝐹 1 𝐹 1
along force F2 ( + ) and against F3( + ) . Here the net horizontal force acting on the block is
2 2 2 2
given by

78
As it is given that block is in static equilibrium, thus sum of all horizontal forces acting on it is
must be zero. Sum of given external horizontal forces is 70.384 N and is in a direction𝜃=tan-1
(65/67) from the direction of force F3 We can state that friction force acting on block must be
exactly opposing this force so as to keep the block in static equilibrium.
Example 3:-A chain of mass m is attached at two points A and B of two fixed walls as shown in
figure-below Due to its weight sag is there in the chain such that at point A and B it makes an
angle 𝜃 with thenormal to the wall. Find the tension in the chain at: (Assumetension is always
along the length of chain)
(a) Point A and B
(b) Midpoint of the chain

Solution:-
(a) Let the tension in the chain at point.4 and B is T, so at these point chain will pull, the wall
hinges with the same force and wall hinges will also exert same force on chain in tangential
direction as shown in figure-below.

Now for vertical equilibrium of chain we have

(b) Let tension at the midpoint of chain is 7-g. It must be along horizontal direction as at mid
point slope is zero. For horizontal equilibrium of chain we can state that at every point
horizontal component of the-tension in the chain must be equal as no other external force is
acting on it in horizontal direction. Thus we have

Example 4:-The uniform 20 kg ladder hinged at the bottom in figure-below leans against a
smooth wall. If a 40 kg person stands on the ladder shown, how large the forces are at the wall
the ground. (Take, g= l0m/s2)

79
 Solution:-Consider figure-below all the forces acting on the ladder are shown. For horizontal
and vertical equilibrium, we use

In x-direction, H-P = Q
In y-direction, V- 200 -400 = 0on solving we get V= 600 N
For rotational equilibrium about points, we have 𝜏= 0, whichcan be given as

On solving it give

Problems & questions

1. Only two horizontal forces act on a 3.0 kg body that can move over a frictionless floor. One
force is 9.0 N, acting due east, and the other is 8.0 N, acting 62° north of west. What is the
magnitude of the body's acceleration?
2. A 0.150 kg particle moves along an x axis according to x (t) = -13.00 + 2.00t + 4.00t2- 3.00t3,
with x in meters and t in seconds. In unit-vector notation, what is the net force acting on the
particle at t = 3.40 s?
3. A 2.0 kg particle moves along an x axis, being propelled by a variable force directed along
that axis. Its position is given by x =3.0 m + (4.0 m/s) t+ ct2- (2.0 m/s3) t3, with x in meters
and tin
seconds. The factor c is a constant. At t = 3.0 s, the force on the particle has a magnitude of
36 N and is in the negative direction of theaxis. What is c?
4. In Figure at the right side,
let the mass of the block be 8.5
kg and the angle 𝜃 be 30°. Find
(a) the tension in the cord and
(b) the normal force acting on
the block. (c) If the cord is cut,
find the magnitude of the resulting
acceleration of the block

5. An elevator cab and its load have a combined mass of 1600kg. Find the tension in the
supporting cable when the cab, originally moving downward at 12 mis, is brought to rest with
constant
acceleration in a distance of 42 m.

80
6. In Fig. below, a crate of mass m = 100 kg is pushed at constant speed up a frictionless ramp
𝜃 =300 by a horizontal force 𝐹.What are the magnitudes of (a) F and (b) the force on the
crate fromthe ramp?

7. The velocity of a 3.00 kg particle is given by v = (8.00t 𝑖 + 3.00t2𝑗) m/s, with time t in
seconds. At the instant the net force on the particle has a magnitude of 35.0 N, what are the
direction (relative to the positive direction of the x axis) of (a)the net force and (b) the
particle's direction of travel?

81
 Chapter 5
Work, Energy, and power
Introduction
Energy is a very important concept that is heavily used in everyday life. Everything around us,
including ourselves needs energy to function. For example, electricity provides home appliances
with the energy they require, food gives us energy to survive, and the sun provides earth with the
energy needed for the existence of life! Experiments show that energy is a scalar quantity related
to the state of an object. Energy may exist in various forms:-mechanical, chemical, gravitational,
electromagnetic, nuclear, and thermal. Furthermore, energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can
only be transformed from one form to another. In other words, if energy were to be exchanged
between objects inside a system, then the total amount of energy (the sum of all forms of energy)
in the system will remain constant.
A transformation of energy occurs due to the action of a force known as work or due to heat
exchange between objects (or between an object and its environment). If energy is transferred
due to work then it may be defined as the capacity of doing work. This book is concerned with
mechanical energy
which involves kinetic energy (associated with the object‘s motion) and potential energy
(associated with the position of the object in space).
Specific objectives:-
By the end of this section, trainee will be able to:
 Represent the work done by any force
 Evaluate the work done for various forces
 Apply the work-energy theorem to find information about the motion of a particle, given
the forces acting on it
 Use the work-energy theorem to find information about the forces acting on a particle,
given information about its motion
 Relate the work done during a time interval to the power delivered
 Find the power expended by a force acting on a moving body

5.1. Definition of work

Activity 4.1
1. What it means to Do Work?
2. How do you calculate the work done by the constant force?
3. How do you calculate the work done by variable force?

Work may have many meanings. Sometimes, work is said to be done when a muscular activity is
performed. Work may also refer to mental activity (mental work). In physics, the definition of
work is different. Work is said to be done if a force is applied to an object while it is moving, i.e.,
if there is no resulting displacement, no work is done. Suppose that a person holds a heavy box
for some time and then starts to feel tired. The reason he/she feels tired is because chemical
energy in his/her body is converted into internal microscopic motions of the muscles. Since the
energy is not transferred tothe box being carried (the box did not move), the work done on the
box is equal to zero.

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5.2. Work done by constant force

Figure 5.1 An object exposed to a constant force F and undergoes a displacement of s

Consider an object exposed to a constant force F (see Fig. 5.1).If the object is displaced through
a displacement s, then the work done on the object is a scalar quantity defined as
W = Fscosθ= F ・s
Where θ is the smaller angle between F and s,
The component of F in the direction of s (F cosθ) is the only effective component that produces
motion. The work done represents energy transferred to or from the object via that force. If (θ =
0), the work done on the object is positive, i.e. energy is transferred to the object. If (θ = 180o),
the work done is negative, i.e., energy is transferred from the object. The SI unit of work is
Newton meter (N.m.) also named as the Joule.
1 Joule= 1 J = 1kg.m2/s2
Note that energy and work have the same units.

Work Done by Several Forces

Figure 5.2 an object exposed to several forces undergoes a displacement of s

Consider an object exposed to several forces as in Fig. 5.2. The work done by all of these forces
is the sum of the individual amounts of work done by each force:
W = F1 ・s + F2 ・s + F3 ・s+・・・
W = W1 + W2 + W3+…

Another method to find the work is by considering the resultant of these forces:

Where
5.3. work done by variable force
Previously, the work done in the special case of a force that is constant in both magnitude and
direction was discussed. The object there moved along a straight line. In many situations, the
force may vary in magnitude or in direction or in both, and the object may move along a curved
path. To find the work done in this case, consider a particle moving along the curved path shown
in Fig. 5.3. While it is moving, a force F that varies in both magnitude and direction with the
position of the particle acts on it. Let us divide the path into a large number n of very small

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displacements where each is tangent to the path. For each displacement, the force can be
approximated to be constant in both magnitude and direction. The total work done as the particle
moves from P to Q is the sum of the individual amounts of work done along each displacement,
that is

By dividing the path into more displacements we have

Figure 5.3 a particle moving along a curved path. While it is moving, a force F that varies
in
both magnitude and direction with the position ofthe particle acts on it

or

Each component of F (Fx,FyorFz) may be a function of x, y, and z, and the curve can be
determined by its equations that relates x, y, and z to each other. The component form of the
above equation is

Now consider the case in which the particle moves along a straight line (for example the positive
x-axis) and in which the force acting on the particle has a constant direction along the x-axis and
a magnitude that varies with x. Equation above is then reduced to

This equation represents the area under the curve in Fig. 5.4.If F(x) is constant then we have

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 Figure 5.4- The area under the curve represents the work
Examples1:-A particle of mass 0.5 kg is moving along the curve given by r = (1/3t4i − t3j) m
where t is time. Find the work done by the force in moving the particle during the time interval
from t = 0 tot = 1 s.
Solution: - The work done from t = 0 to t = 1 s is
𝑡=1 𝑡=1 4 3 𝑡=1 16 5
W= 𝑡=0
𝐹. 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑡=0
4𝑡 2 𝑖 − 6𝑡𝑗 𝑡 𝑖 − 3𝑡 2 𝑗 𝑑𝑡 = ( 𝑡
𝑡=0 3
+ 18𝑡 3 )𝑑𝑡
3
16𝑡 6 18𝑡 3 𝑡 = 1𝑠𝑒𝑐. 52
=( + = J=2.9J
18 3 𝑡 = 0 18

Example 2:-A ball that is suspended from a ceiling by alight rope is displaced a small distance
to the position shown in Figure below. If it is released from rest at B, find the work done by the
tension force and the force of gravity as the ball moves from B to A.

A ball suspended by a light rope and displaced a small distance from the position of equilibrium
Solution: -Because the tension force is always perpendicular to the displacement, the work done
by it is zero at all times. The only component of the gravitational force that does work is its
tangential component. Therefore,

Since s = Rθ, then ds = Rdθ, and we have

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5.4. Mechanical energy
In physics, mechanical energy is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy. It is the energy
associated with the motion and position of an object. The principle of conservation of
mechanical energy states that in an isolated system that is only subject to conservative forces, the
mechanical energy is constant. If an object is moved in the opposite direction of a conservative
net force, the potential energy will increase and if the speed (not the velocity) of the object is
changed, the kinetic energy of the object is changed as well. In all real systems, however, non-
conservative forces, like frictional forces, will be present, but often they are of negligible values
and the mechanical energy's being constant can therefore be a useful approximation. In elastic
collisions, the mechanical energy is conserved but in inelastic collisions, some mechanical
energy is converted into heat. The equivalence between lost mechanical energy (dissipation) and
an increase in temperature was discovered by James Prescott Joule.

5.5. Work Energy theorem

Consider a particle that is exposed to a net field force and is moving along a curve in space.
Suppose that the particle is at P at ti and at Q at tf and that its velocity at P and Q is viand vf,
respectively. The net work done on the particle as it moves from P to Q is then given by

The quantity 1/2mv2 is the energy associated with the motion of the particle called the kinetic
energy (KE). Thus, if a particle of constant mass m is moving with a speed v, its KE is a scalar
quantity defined as:-

It also can be written as K =1/2m (v·v). Hence, the total work done by the net force in displacing
the particle is equal to the change in the KE of the particle

Similar to work, the SI unit of kinetic energy is the Joule. Note that the work–energy theorem is
applied only if the object is treated as a particle.

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Example 1:-A 5 kg block resting on a surface is given an initial velocity of 5 m/s. If the
coefficient of kinetic friction of the surface is μk= 0.2, find the distance the block would move
before it stops.

Solution: -the change in the kinetic energy of the block due to friction is K = - fks, where s is the
displacement of the block.

d=6.4m

5.6. Law of conservation of Mechanical energy

The total mechanical energy of a system is defined as the sum of all of the kinetic energies of the
objects within the system plus all of the potential energies of the system.
Etot= Ktot+ Utot
Now, consider an isolated system in which there are no external forces acting on it, or the net
external force is zero. The only forces acting on the system will be the internal forces within the
system. These forces may be conservative or non-conservative. If only internal conservative
forces exist, then the work done by any of these forces on an object in the system will transform
its kinetic energy into potential energy (associated with that force), or vice versa. The internal
conservative force can also transform one form of potential energy in to another. The work done
by such a force on an object in the system is
W = ∆K
The change in potential energy due to this work is
W = -∆U

Thus, ∆K = -∆U or∆K + ∆U = 0or Ki + Ui= K f + U f. If more than one conservative force acts,
there will be a potential energy associated with each force. That is

Therefore we have, Ei= EforE = 0

From the previous discussion, we conclude that for an isolated system in which only
conservative forces act, the total mechanical energy of the system remains constant (conserved).
Example 1:-A 0.2 kg apple falls from a tree at a distance of 3m above the ground. Find: (a) the
velocity of the apple at an altitude of 2m and at the instance just before it hits the ground; (b) the
altitude of the apple when its velocity is 4m/s.
Solution: -a) Consider the system to be the earth and the apple. By neglecting air resistance (the
apple is in free-fall), the only internal force that acts within the earth–apple system is the force of
gravity. Because the gravitational force is a conservative force, the total mechanical energy of
the system is conserved. Therefore as the apple falls its gravitational potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy such that at any instant the total mechanical energy of the system is
constant.

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Applying the law of conservation of energy to the system and by taking y = 0 at the earth‘s
surface and the gravitational potential energy to be zero at y = 0, we have

K f + U f = Ki + Ui
1
mvf2+ mgy= 0 + mgh
2

Where h is its initial altitude. That gives

At, y=2m

At, y=0

B)

5.7. Conservative and non-conservative forces

In nature, there are two kinds of forces: conservative and non-conservative forces. A
conservative force is a force that conserves the energy of a system when acting upon it. The
action of this force results in changing the kinetic energy of any object in the system. This
change will be stored in the system in the form of potential energy. For every conservative force,
there is a certain potential energy that is associated with it. Such potential energy can be
retransformed into kinetic energy. Thus, the total energy of the system would not be dissipated,
and instead it would be conserved. A force that does not act in this way is said to be a non-
conservative force. Properties of a conservative force are given as follows:
1) The net work done by a conservative force on a particle moving from one point to another is
independent of the path taken by the particle;
2) The net work done by a conservative force in moving a particle through any closed path is
equal to zero.
A force not meeting these conditions is a non-conservative force. Examples of conservative
forces in mechanics are the gravitational and spring forces. The work done in each case depends
only on the initial and final positions of the object. Therefore, the work done by any of these
forces is independent of the path joining the initial and final positions. Furthermore, if (xi = xf)in
the case of the spring or (yi= yf)in the case of the gravitational force the net work done is zero.
Hence, these forces are conservative.
The force of friction is an example of a non-conservative force. To show that, consider a block
sliding on a rough surface. Figure below shows two possible paths connecting two points. The

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 longer the path the more interaction between the block and the surface and the more the force of
friction will act and do work on the block. Thus, the work depends on the path taken between the
two points and therefore the frictional force is a non-conservative force.

5.8. Power
Power is a quantity that defines how much work is done over a period of time, i.e., power is the
time rate of doing work, or more generally, it is the time rate of energy transfer. If an external
force F does work W on an object for a time interval∆t, then the average power during that time
is

The instantaneous power is

Our concern in this book is the mechanical power since it involves mechanical work. If y is the
velocity of the object, we have

For a constant force, or P=F.v

The SI unit of power is joules per second (J/s) and is called the watt (W).
1J/s=1 watt=1Nm/s=1Kgm2/s3
Another unit of power that is often used is the horsepower:-1 hp= 746 W

Review Problems and Questions

1. A 10.0 kg block is released from point A in Figure below. The track is frictionless except for the
portion BC, of length 6.00 m. The block travels down thetrack, hits a spring of force constant k =
2250 N/ m, and compresses it 0.300 mfrom its equilibrium position before coming to rest
momentarily. Determine thecoefficient of kinetic friction between surface BC and block.

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2. The coefficient of friction between the 3.0 kg mass and surface in Figure below is0.40. The
system starts from rest. What is the speed of the 5.0 kg mass when ithas fallen 1.5 m?

3. A 1.50 kg snowball is shot upward at an angle of 34.0◦ to the horizontal withan initial speed
of 20.0 m/s . (a) What is its initial kinetic energy? (b) By how muchdoes the gravitational
potential energy of the snowball–Earth system change asthe snowball moves from the launch
point to the point of maximum height? (c)What is that maximum height?
4. A crate of mass 10.0 kg is pulled up a rough incline with an initial speed of1.50 m/s. The
pulling force is 100 N parallel to the incline, which makes an angle of20.0◦ with the
horizontal. The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.400, and the crate is pulled 5.00 m. (a) how
much work is done by gravity? (b) How much energy is lost due to friction? (c) How much
work is done by the 100 N forces? (d) What is the change in kinetic energy of the crate? (e)
What is the speed of the crate
after being pulled 5.00 m?

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 UNIT 6
IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
Learning objectives:-
At the end of this chapter, trainee will be able to:-
 Describe momentum, what can change momentum, impulse, and the impulse-momentum
theorem
 Describe Newton‘s Second law in terms of momentum
 Solve problems using the impulse – momentum theorem
 Describe the application of conservation of momentum when the mass changes with time,
as well as the velocity
 Calculate the speed of a rocket in empty space, at some time, given initial conditions
 Calculate the speed of a rocket in Earth‘s gravity field, at some time, given initial
conditions
 Explain the principle involved in propulsion of rockets and jet engines.
 Derive an expression for the acceleration of the rocket and discuss the factors that affect the
acceleration.

6.1. Linear momentum

The linear momentum (or quantity of motion as was called by Newton) of a particle of mass m is
a vector quantity defined as:-
p = mv...............................(6.1)
Where v is the velocity of the particle and m is the mass of moving body
A fast moving car has more momentum than a slow moving car of the same mass. Another
example is that a bowling ball has more momentum than a basketball moving at the same speed.
The SI unit of linear momentum is kg.m/s. In terms of components, we may write px= mvx, py=
mvy, and pz= mvz. Newton‘s second law can be expressed in terms of momentum for a particle-
like object of constant mass as

............ (6.2)
That is, the rate of change of the linear momentum of an object is equal to the resultant force
acting on the object and is in the same direction as that force.

6.2. Impulse
Impulse is a quantity that defines how certain force acting on a particle changes the linear
momentum of that particle. Now, consider time-dependent force acting on a particle. From
Newton‘s second law (F = dp/dt), we have

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 dP=Fdt

................... (6.3)
The right side of the equation is a vector quantity known as the impulse I

....................... (6.4)

Hence,
................... (6.5)
Which is known as the impulse–momentum theorem. In component form, we have Ix = ∆px, Iy=
∆py, and Iz= ∆pz. That is, the impulse of a force that acts on a particle during a time interval is
equal to the change in the momentum of the particle during that interval. The direction of the
impulse is in the same direction as the change of momentum. If F has a constant direction, the
variation of its magnitude with time may be of the form as shown in Fig below.

Figure 6.1 One example of the variation of F over time

The average of F is given by

.................... (6.6)

And thus, I can be written as

................. (6.7)

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That is, F is a constant force that gives the same impulse as F. In the case of a collision between
two bodies, the variation of the impulsive force that each body exerts on the other during the
collision time takes the form as shown in Fig.6.1.
6.3. Conservation of linear momentum
The law of conservation of linear momentum states that if the net external force acting on a
system equals zero (isolated) and if there is no mass exchange with the surroundings of the
system (closed), then the total linear momentum of the system remains constant. To show that,
consider an isolated system consisting of two particles where the only forces that act in the
system are internal forces (see Fig.6.2).

Figure 6.2 An isolated system consisting of two particles where the only forces that act in the
system are internal forces
The total linear momentum of the system at any particular time is given by

ptot= p1 + p2......................(6.8)

If the net force exerted on particle 2 by particle 1 is F21, then from Newton‘s third law, the net
force exerted on particle 1by particle 2 is F12, That is
F12 = -F21.............................(6.9)
Differentiating Eq.5.1 with respect to time and by using Newton‘s second law, we have

That is, ptot= constant

or
pi = p f............................ (6.10)
That is, the linear momentum of each particle may change, but the total linear momentum of the
system is the same at all times. This statement is known as the law of conservation of linear
momentum: If the net external force on a system is zero, the total linear momentum of the system
remains unchanged (constant). In terms of components, we have pix = p f x, piy= p f y, and piz=
p f z. In solving problems involving collisions, pi and p f refers to the total momentum of the
system immediately before and immediately after the collision, respectively. For a two-particle
system, we have

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 p1i+ p2i= p1 f + p2 f.................................... (6.11)

From the principle of invariance, the law of conservation of momentum is valid with respect to
any inertial frame of reference. Furthermore, as the law of conservation of energy, the law of
conservation of momentum is valid in relativity and quantum mechanics

Example 1:-A 3.00 kg particle has a velocity of (3.0i - 4.0j) m/s. Find its x and y components of
momentum and the magnitude of its total momentum.
Solution:-Using the definition of momentum and the given values of m and v we have:
p = mv = (3.00 kg)(3.0i - 4.0j) m/s = (9.0i - 12.j) kg ·m/s
So the particle has momentum components

The magnitude of its momentum is

Example 2:-A child bounces a super ball on the sidewalk. The linear impulse delivered by the
1
sidewalk is 2.00 N · s during the 800 s of contact. What is the magnitude of the average force
exerted on the ball by the sidewalk.
Solution:-The magnitude of the change in momentum of (impulse delivered to) the ball is |∆p| =
|I| = 2.00 N · s. Since the time over which the force was acting was

Then from the definition of average force we get:

Example 3:-A 3.0 kg steel ball strikes a wall with a speed of 10 ms at an angle of 60◦ with the
surface. It bounces off with the same speed and angle, as shown in Fig. below. If the ball is in
contact with the wall for 0.20 s, what is the average force exerted on the wall by the ball?

Solution:-The average force is defined as F = ∆p/∆t, so first find the change in momentum of
the ball. Since the ball has the same speed before and after bouncing from the wall, it is clear that
its x velocity (see the coordinate system in Fig. above) stays the same and so the x-momentum
stays the same. But the y momentum does change. The initial y velocity is

and the final y velocity is

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so the change in y momentum is

The average y force on the ball is

Since F has no x component, the average force has magnitude 2.6 × 102 N and points in the
y direction (away from the wall).

6.4. Elastic and non-elastic collision

As discussed previously, when two bodies collide, they exert large forces on one another (during
the time of the collision) called impulsive forces. These forces are very large such that any other
forces(e.g., friction or gravity) present during the short time of the collision can be neglected.
This approximation is known as the impulse approximation. For example, if a golf ball was hit
by a golf club, the change in the momentum of the ball can be assumed to be only due to the
impulsive
force exerted on it by the club. The change in its momentum due to any other force present
during the collision can be neglected. That is, the force in the expression I =∆ p = F∆tcan be
assumed to be the impulsive force only The neglected forces present during the collision time are
external to the two body system, whereas the impulsive forces are internal. The two-body system
can therefore be considered to be isolated during the short time of the collision (which is in the
order of a few milliseconds). Hence, the total linear momentum of the system is conserved
during the collision, which enables us to apply the law of conservation of momentum
immediately before and immediately after the collision. In general, for any type of collision, the
total linear momentum is conserved during the time of the collision. That is, p i= p f., where pi and
pf are the momentum immediately before and after the collision. In the next sections, we will
define various types of two- body collisions, depending on whether or not the kinetic energy of
the system is conserved

6.4.1. Elastic collision

An elastic collision is one in which the total kinetic energy, as well as momentum, of the two-
colliding-body system is conserved. These collisions exist when the impulsive force exerted by
one body on the other is conservative. Such force converts the kinetic energy of the body into
elastic potential energy when the two bodies are in contact. It then reconverts the elastic potential
energy into kinetic energy whenthere is no more contact. After collision, each body mayhave a
different velocity and therefore a different kineticenergy. However, the total energy as well as
the total momentum of the system is constant during the time of the collision. An example of
such collisions is those between billiardballs.

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 Figure 6.3 Two particles of masses m1 and m2 experiencing an elastic-head-on collision
Elastic Collision in One Dimension
When a collision takes place in one dimension, it is referredto as a head-on collision. Consider
two particles of massesm1 and m2 experiencing an elastic head-on collision as inFig.6.3.
Applying the law of conservation of energy and thelaw of conservation of linear momentum
gives
................. (6.12)

............... (6.13)
Solving these equations for v1 f and v2 f , we get

............. (6.13)

................ (6.14)
Special Cases
1. If m1 = m2, it follows from Equations (6.13) and (6.14)that v1 f = v2iand v2 f = v1i. In
other words, if the particles have equal masses they exchange velocities.
2. If m2 is stationary (v2i = 0), then from Equations(6.13)and (6.14), we have

......................... (6.15)

....................... (6.16)
In that case m2 is called the target and m1 is called the projectile. Furthermore, if m1 >>m2, then
from Eqs.(6.15)and (6.16),we find that v1 f ≈ v1iand v2 f≈ 2v1i. While if m2 >>m1, then from
Eqs.(6.15)and (6.16), we see that v1 f≈ -v1i, andv2 f ≈ v2i= 0
Example 1:-Consider a frictionless track ABC as shown in Figure below. A block of massm1 =
5.001 kg is released from A. It makes a head–on elastic collision with a block of mass m2 = 10.0
kg at B, initially at rest. Calculate the maximum height to which m1rises after the collision.

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Solution:-
We release mass m1; it slides down to the slope, picking up speed, until it reaches B.At B it
makes a collision with mass m2, and we are told it is an elastic collision. The lastsentence in the
problem implies that in this collision m1 will reverse its direction of motionand head back up the
slope to some maximum height. We would also guess that m2 will begiven a forward velocity.
This sequence is shown in Figure below. First we think about the instant of time just beforethe
collision. Mass m1 has velocity v1iand mass m2 is still stationary. How can we find v1i?
We can use the fact that energy is conserved as m1 slides down the smooth (frictionless)slope. At
the top of the slope m1 had some potential energy, U = m1gh (with h = 5.00 m) which is changed
to kinetic energy, K = 1 /2m1(v1i) 2when it reaches the bottom. Conservationof energy gives us:

So that

We chose the positive value here since m1 is obviously moving forward at the bottom of the
slope. So m1‘s velocity just before striking m2 is +9.90 m/s .
Now m1 makes an elastic (one–dimensional) collision with m2. What are the final velocities of
the masses? For this we can use the result given in Eqs. (*) and (**), using v2i = 0.We get:

So after the collision, m1 has a velocity of -3.30 m/s ; that is, it has speed 3.30 m/s and it is now
moving to the left. After the collision, m2 has velocity +6.60 m/s, so that it is moving to the
right with speed 6.60 m/s. Since m1 is now moving to the left, it will head back up the slope.
How

97
high will it go? Once again, we can use energy conservation to give us the answer. For the
trip back up the slope, the initial energy (all kinetic) is Ei = Ki = 1 /2m (3.30 m/s) 2and when it
reaches maximum height (h) its speed is zero, so its energy is the potential energy,
Ef = Uf = mgh
Conservation of energy, Ei = Ef gives us:

Mass m1 will travel back up the slope to a height of 0.556 m.

6.4.2. In elastic collision

An inelastic collision is one in which the total kinetic energy of the two-colliding-body system is
not conserved, although momentum is conserved. In such a collision, some of the kinetic energy
of the system is lost due to deformation and appear as internal or thermal energy. In other words,
the
(internal) impulsive forces are not conservative. Therefore, the kinetic energy of the system
before the collision is less than that after the collision. If the two colliding objects stick together,
the collision is said to be perfectly inelastic. There are some types of collisions in which the total
kinetic energy after the collision occurs is greater than that before it occurs. This type of collision
is called an explosive
collision
Figure 6.4shows a one-dimensional (head-on) perfectly inelastic collision between two particles
of mass m1 and m2. Here, the kinetic energy of the system is not conserved, but the law of
conservation of linear momentum still holds

Figure 6.4 A one dimensional (head-on) perfectly inelastic collision between two particles of
mass m1 and m2

............................ (6.17)

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 ........................... (6.18)

Coefficient of Restitution
For any collision between two bodies in one dimension, the coefficient of restitution is defined as

...................... (6.19)

Where,v1i and v2i are velocities before the collision.

o v1f and v2f are velocities after the collision.
o |v1i - v2i| is called the relative speed of approach and
o |v 2 f –v 1f | is the relative speed of recession.
• If e = 1 the collision is perfectly elastic.
• If e <1 the collision is inelastic.
• If e = 0 the collision is perfectly inelastic (the two bodies stick together
Example 1:-Two marble balls of masses m1 = 7 kg and m2 = 3 kg are sliding toward each other
on a straight frictionless track. If they experience a head-on elastic collision and the initial
velocities of m1 and m2 are 0.5m/s to the right and 2m/s to the left, respectively, find the final
velocities of m1 and m2.
Solution:-
For an elastic head-on collision, we have

Example 2:-The ballistic pendulum consists of a large wooden block suspended by alight
wire(see Figure below).The system is used to measure the speed of a bullet where the bullet is
fired horizontally into the block. The collision is perfectly inelastic and the system (bullet +
block) swings up a height h. If M = 3 kg,m= 5 g and h = 5 cm, find (a) the initial speed of the
bullet; (b) the mechanical energy lost due to the collision

Figure 6.5 The ballistic pendulum consists of a large wooden block suspended by a light wire

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Solution:-(a) Using the impulse approximation, the lawof conservation of momentum gives the
velocities just beforeand after the collision when the string is still nearly vertical.For a perfectly
inelastic collision, the total momentum is conserved but the total kinetic energy is not conserved
during thecollision. Thus, we have

................ (6.20)

After the collision, the energy of the (bullet +block + earth) system is conserved since the
gravitational force is the only force acting in the system.

This gives

(b)The kinetic energy of the bullet before collision is

After collision, the kinetic energy of the (bullet+block) is

Therefore,

That is, nearly, all the mechanical energy is dissipated and converted into internal (thermal)
energy of the (block + bullet) system.

6.5. Application (recoil and propulsion)

Recoil of gun
After firing the bullet, the bullet moves forward with a large momentum and the gun moves
backward with an equal momentum. Let m and M be the masses of bullet and gun, respectively.
If v and V are the velocities of the bullet and gun, respectively after the firing then:-
0= mv+ MV

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Therefore, V=-mv/M
The negative sign indicates that the gun moves in a direction to that of the bullet.
Example: - A 4kg rifle a 5 x10-3 kg bullet at a velocity of 500m/s. What is the velocity acquired
by the rifle?
Solution:-
After rifle is fired, Given;-mR=4kg ,mb=5x10-3kg Vb=500m/s and VR=?
Total Momentum Before interaction = Total Momentum after Interaction
0=m1V1+m2V2
Subtract m2V2 from both sides

m1v1=-m2 v2

(4Kg) v= (5 x10-3kg)(500m/s)

V= 0.63m/s
Rocket Propulsion
Now we deal with the case where the mass of an object is changing. We analyze the motion of a
rocket, which changes its velocity (and hence its momentum) by ejecting burned fuel gases, thus
causing it to accelerate in the opposite direction of the velocity of the ejected fuel (see Figure).
Specifically:- A fully fueled rocket ship in deep space has a total mass m0 (this mass includes the
initial mass of the fuel). At some moment in time, the rocket has a velocity 𝑣 and mass m; this
mass is a combination of the mass of the empty rocket and the mass of the remaining unburned
fuel it contains. (We refer to m as the ―instantaneous mass‖ and 𝑣 as the ―instantaneous
velocity.‖) The rocket accelerates by burning the fuel it carries and ejecting the burned exhaust
gases. If the burn rate of the fuel is constant, and the velocity at which the exhaust is ejected is
also constant, what is the change of velocity of the rocket as a result of burning all of its fuel?
Physical Analysis
Here‘s a description of what happens, so that you get a feel for the physics involved. As the
rocket engines operate, they are continuously ejecting burned fuel gases, which have both mass
and velocity, and therefore some momentum. By conservation of momentum, the rocket‘s
momentum changes by this same amount (with the opposite sign). We will assume the burned
fuel is being ejected at a constant rate, which means the rate of change of the rocket‘s momentum
is also constant. By Figure, this represents a constant force on the rocket. However, as time goes
on, the mass of the rocket (which includes the mass of the remaining fuel) continuously
decreases. Thus, even though the force on the rocket is constant, the resulting acceleration is not;
it is continuously increasing. So, the total change of the rocket‘s velocity will depend on the
amount of mass of fuel that is burned, and that dependence is not linear.
The problem has the mass and velocity of the rocket changing; also, the total mass of ejected
gases is changing. If we define our system to be the rocket + fuel, then this is a closed system
(since the rocket is in deep space, there are no external forces acting on this system); as a result,
momentum is conserved for this system. Thus, we can apply conservation of momentum to
answer the question (Figure).

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Figure The rocket accelerates to the right due to the expulsion of some of its fuel mass to the left.
Conservation of momentum enables us to determine the resulting change of velocity. The mass m is the
instantaneous total mass of the rocket (i.e., mass of rocket body plus mass of fuel at that point in time).
(credit: modification of work by NASA/Bill Ingalls)
At the same moment that the total instantaneous rocket mass is m (i.e., m is the mass of the
rocket body plus the mass of the fuel at that point in time), we define the rocket‘s instantaneous
velocity to be 𝑣 =v𝑖(in the +x-direction); this velocity is measured relative to an inertial reference
system (the Earth, for example). Thus, the initial momentum of the system is

.........................(6.21)
The rocket‘s engines are burning fuel at a constant rate and ejecting the exhaust gases in the -x-
direction. During an infinitesimal time interval dt, the engines eject a (positive) infinitesimal
mass of gas dmg at velocity 𝑢=−u𝑖; note that although the rocket velocity v𝑖 is measured with
respect to Earth, the exhaust gas velocity is measured with respect to the (moving) rocket.
Measured with respect to the Earth, therefore, the exhaust gas has velocity (v−u)𝑖.
As a consequence of the ejection of the fuel gas, the rocket‘s mass decreases by dmg, and its
velocity increases by dv𝑖. Therefore, including both the change for the rocket and the change for
the exhaust gas, the final momentum of the system is

Since all vectors are in the x-direction, we drop the vector notation. Applying conservation of
momentum, we obtain

........... (6.22)
Our next step is to remember that, since dmg represents an increase in the mass of ejected gases,
it must also represent a decrease of mass of the rocket:
................................ (6.23)
Replacing this, we have

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 ........................ (6.24)
Integrating from the initial mass mi to the final mass m of the rocket gives us the result we are
after:

and thus our final answer is

.................... (6.25)
This result is called the rocket equation. It was originally derived by the Soviet physicist
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in 1897. It gives us the change of velocity that the rocket obtains from
burning a mass of fuel that decreases the total rocket mass from m0 down to m. As expected, the
relationship between Δv and the change of mass of the rocket is nonlinear.
Example: -A spacecraft is moving in gravity-free space along a straight path when its pilot
decides to accelerate forward. He turns on the thrusters, and burned fuel is ejected at a constant
rate of 2.0×102kg/s, at a speed (relative to the rocket) of 2.5×102 m/s. The initial mass of the
spacecraft and its unburned fuel is 2.0×104kg, and the thrusters are on for 30 s.
a. What is the thrust (the force applied to the rocket by the ejected fuel) on the spacecraft?
b. What is the spacecraft‘s acceleration as a function of time?
c. What are the spacecraft‘s accelerations at t = 0, 15, 30, and 35 s?
Solution:-
a) The momentum of the ejected fuel gas is
P=mgv
The ejection velocity, v=2.5 x102 m/s is constant, and therefore the force is
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑚𝑔 𝑑𝑚
F= 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 =−𝑣 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑚 𝑔
Now, 𝑑𝑡 is the rate of change of the mass of the fuel; the problem states that this is 2.0×102kg/s.
Substituting, we get
𝑑𝑚 𝑔
F=𝑣 = (2.5 x102m/s)(2 x102kg/s)=5 x104N.
𝑑𝑡
b) Above, we defined m to be the combined mass of the empty rocket plus however
much unburned fuel it contained: m=mR+mg. From Newton‘s second law.
𝐹 𝐹
a=𝑚 =𝑚 +𝑚
𝑅 𝑔
The force is constant and the empty rocket mass mR is constant, but the fuel mass
mg is decreasing at a uniform rate; specifically:

𝑑𝑚𝑔
mg=mg(t)=mgo-( )t
𝑑𝑡
This gives us

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Notice that, as expected, the acceleration is a function of time. Substituting the given numbers

c) At t=0
5𝑥10 4 𝑁
a(t=0)= =2.5m/s2
2𝑥10 4 𝑘𝑔 −2𝑥10 2 𝑘𝑔 /𝑠)(0)
At t=15sec., a(t=15s)=2.9m/s2
At t=30sec., a(t=30sec.)=3.6m/s2
Significance
Notice that the acceleration is not constant; as a result, any dynamical quantities must
be calculated either using integrals, or (more easily) conservation of total energy.

Rocket in a Gravitational Field

Let‘s now analyze the velocity change of the rocket during the launch phase, from the surface of
Earth. To keep the mathmatics manageable, we‘ll restrict our attention to distances for which the
acceleration caused by gravity can be treated as a constant g.
The analysis is similar, except that now there is an external force of 𝐹=−mg𝑗 acting on our
system. This force applies an impulse d𝐽=𝐹dt=−mgdt𝑗, which is equal to the change of
momentum. This gives us
d𝑃 = d𝐽
𝑃𝑓 -𝑃𝑖 = -mgdt𝑗
[(m-dmg)(v+dv)+dmg(v-u)-mv]𝑗 =-mgdt𝑗
And so

................... (6.26)
Where we have again neglected the term dmgdv and dropped the vector notation. Next we
replace dmg with −dm:

Dividing through by m gives

and integrating, we have

............................ (6.27)

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Unsurprisingly, the rocket‘s velocity is affected by the (constant) acceleration of gravity.
Remember that Δt is the burn time of the fuel. Now, in the absence of gravity, Figure implies that
it makes no difference how much time it takes to burn the entire mass of fuel; the change of
velocity does not depend on Δt. However, in the presence of gravity, it matters a lot. The
−gΔt term in Figure tells us that the longer the burn time is, the smaller the rocket‘s change of
velocity will be. This is the reason that the launch of a rocket is so spectacular at the first
moment of liftoff: It‘s essential to burn the fuel as quickly as possible, to get as large a Δv as
possible.
Summary
 A rocket is an example of conservation of momentum where the mass of the system is not
constant, since the rocket ejects fuel to provide thrust.
 The rocket equation gives us the change of velocity that the rocket obtains from burning a
mass of fuel that decreases the total rocket mass.
Example:- A Saturn V‘s mass a lift off was 2 .80x 106Kg, its fuel-burnt 1.40 x 104kg/s, and the
exhaust velocity was 2.40 x103m/s. Calculate its initial acceleration..
Solution
Substituting the given values into the equation for acceleration yields
𝑣𝑒 ∆𝑚
a= -g
𝑚𝛿𝑡
2.40𝑥10 4 𝑚 /𝑠
= (1.40 x104Kg/s)-9.8m/s2
2.80 𝑥10 6 𝑘𝑔
=2.20m/s2

Problem and questions

1. A person slaps her leg with her hand, bringing her hand to rest in 2.50 milliseconds from an
initial speed of 4.00 m/s. (a) What is the average force exerted on the leg, taking the effective
mass of the hand and forearm to be 1.50 kg? (b) Would the force be any different if the
woman clapped her hands together at the same speed and brought them to rest in the same
time? Explain why or why not.
2. Professional Application Train cars are coupled together by being bumped into one another.
Suppose two loaded train cars are moving toward one another, the first having a mass of
150,000 kg and a velocity of 0.300 m/s, and the second having a mass of 110,000 kg and a
velocity of - 0.120 m/s . (The minus indicates direction of motion.) What is their final
velocity?
3. A 0.0250-kg bullet is accelerated from rest to a speed of 550 m/s in a 3.00-kg rifle. The pain
of the rifle‘s kick is much worse if you hold the gun loosely a few centimeters from your
shoulder rather than holding it tightly against your shoulder. (a) Calculate the recoil velocity
of the rifle if it is held loosely away from the shoulder. (b) How much kinetic energy does the
rifle gain? (c) What is the recoil velocity if the rifle is held tightly against the shoulder,
making the effective mass 28.0 kg? (d) How much kinetic energy is transferred to the rifle-
shoulder combination? The pain is related to the amount of kinetic energy, which is
significantly less in this latter situation.
4. (a) During an ice skating performance, an initially motionless 80.0-kg clown throws afake
barbell away. The clown‘s ice skates allow her to recoil frictionless. If the clown recoils with
a velocity of 0.500 m/s and the barbell is thrown with a velocity of 10.0 m/s, what is the mass

105
 of the barbell? (b) How much kinetic energy is gained by this maneuver? (c) Where does the
kinetic energy come from?
5. Professional Application Calculate the increase in velocity of a 4000-kg space probe that
expels 3500 kg of its mass at an exhaust velocity of 2.00×103 m/s. You may assume the
gravitational force is negligible at the probe‘s location.
6. Derive the equation for the vertical acceleration of a rocket.
7. Professional Application (a) A 5.00-kg squid initially at rest ejects 0.250-kg of fluid with a
velocity of 10.0 m/s. What is the recoil velocity of the squid if the ejection is done in 0.100 s
and there is a 5.00-N frictional force opposing the squid‘s movement?
(b) How much energy is lost to work done against friction?

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 UNIT 7
FLUID MECHANICS
Introduction
The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the behavior of fluids
at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or
other fluids at the boundaries. Fluid mechanics is also referred to as fluid dynamics by
considering fluids at rest as a special case of motion with zero velocity

Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several categories. The study of the motion of fluids
that can be approximated as incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and gases at low
speeds) is usually referred to as hydrodynamics. A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics,
which deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels. Gas dynamics deals with the flow of
fluids that undergo significant density changes, such as the flow of gases through nozzles at high
speeds. The category aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies such
as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds. Some other specialized categories
such as meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology deal with naturally occurring flows. In this
we deal about fluid at rest and fluid dynamics.

What Is a Fluid?
You will recall from physics that a substance exists in three primary phases: solid, liquid, and
gas. (At very high temperatures, it also exists as plasma.) A substance in the liquid or gas phase
is referred to as a fluid. Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the basis of the
substance‘s ability to resist an applied shear (or tangential) stress that tends to change its shape.
A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming, whereas a fluid deforms continuously
under the influence of a shear stress, no matter how small. In solids, stress is proportional to
strain, but in fluids, stress is proportional to strain rate. When a constant shear force is applied, a
solid eventually stops deforming at some fixed strain angle, whereas a fluid never stops
deforming and approaches a constant rate of strain.
Learning objectives:-

 Determine the variation of pressure in a fluid at rest

 Calculate pressure using various kinds of manometers
 State Pascal‘s principle
 Describe applications of Pascal‘s principle
 Derive relationships between forces in a hydraulic system
 Calculate the forces and moments exerted by a fluid at rest on plane or curved
submerged surfaces
 Analyze the stability of floating and submerged bodies
 Analyze the rigid-body motion of fluids in containers during linear acceleration or
rotation

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  Define buoyant force
 State Archimedes‘ principle
 Describe the relationship between density and Archimedes‘ principle
 Explain what viscosity is
 Calculate flow and resistance with Poiseuille's law
 Explain how pressure drops due to resistance
 Calculate the Reynolds number for an object moving through a fluid
 Use the Reynolds number for a system to determine whether it is laminar or turbulent
 Describe the conditions under which an object has a terminal speed

7.1. Fluids at rest

This sub chapter deals with forces applied by fluids at rest or in rigid-body motion. The fluid
property responsible for those forces is pressure,which is a normal force exerted by a fluid per
unit area. We start this sub chapter with a detailed discussion of pressure, including absolute and
gage pressures, the pressure at a point, the variation of pressure with depth in a gravitational
field, the barometer, the manometer, and other pressure measurement devices. This is followed
by a discussion of the hydrostatic forces applied on submerged bodies with plane or curved
surfaces. We then consider the buoyant force applied by fluids on submerged or floating bodies,
and discuss the stability of such bodies. Finally, we apply Newton‘s second law of motion to a
body of fluid in motion that acts as a rigid body and analyze the variation of pressure in fluids
that undergo linear acceleration and in rotating containers. This chapter makes extensive use of
force balances for bodies in static equilibrium, and it would be helpful if the relevant topics from
statics are first reviewed

Pressure
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of pressure only
when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress. Since
pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of Newton per square meter (N/m2),
which is called a Pascal (Pa). That is,
1Pa= 1 N/m2

The pressure unit Pascal is too small for most pressures encountered in practice. Therefore, its
multipleskilopascal (1 kPa=103 Pa) and mega-Pascal (1 MPa= 106 Pa) are commonly used. Three
other pressure units commonly used in practice, especially in Europe, are bar, standard
atmosphere, and kilogram-force per square centimeter:

1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa= 100 kPa

1 atm= 101,325 Pa= 101.325 kPa= 1.01325 bars
1 kgf/cm = 9.807 N/cm2= 9.807 x 104 N/m2=9.807 x 104 Pa = 0.9807 bar = 0.9679 atm.
2

Note the pressure units are bar, atm., and kg.f/cm2 are almost equivalent to each other. In the
English system, the pressure unit is pound-force per square inch (lb-f/in2, or psi), and 1 atm.
=14.696 psi. The pressure units‘kg-f/cm2 and lb-f/in2 are also denoted by kg/cm2 and lb/in2,
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respectively, and they are commonly used in tire gages. It can be shown that 1 kg-f/cm2 = 14.223
psi.

The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured relative
to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere (Fig. 7–2), and so they indicate the difference between
the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference is called the gage
pressure. Pgagecan be positive or negative, but pressures below atmospheric pressure are
sometimes called vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the
difference between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure. Absolute, gage, and
vacuum pressures are related to each other by P

Variation of pressure with depth in a fluid of constant density

Pressure is defined for all states of matter, but it is particularly important when discussing fluids.
An important characteristicof fluids is that there is no significant resistance to the component of
a force applied parallel to the surface of a fluid.
The molecules of the fluid simply flow to accommodate the horizontal force. A force applied
perpendicular to the surfacecompresses or expands the fluid. If you try to compress a fluid, you
find that a reaction force develops at each point insidethe fluid in the outward direction,
balancing the force applied on the molecules at the boundary.
Consider a fluid of constant density as shown in Figure 7.1. The pressure at the bottom of the
container is due to thepressure of the atmosphere (p0) plus the pressure due to the weight of the
fluid. The pressure due to the fluid is equal tothe weight of the fluid divided by the area. The
weight of the fluid is equal to its mass times the acceleration due to gravity.

Figure 7.1 The bottom of this container supports the entireweight of the fluid in it. The vertical
sides cannot exert anupward force on the fluid (since it cannot withstand a shearingforce), so the
bottom must support it all.Since the density is constant, the weight can be calculated using the
density:
w = mg = ρVg = ρAhg.
The pressure at the bottom of the container is therefore equal to atmospheric pressure added to
the weight of the fluiddivided by the area:
𝜌𝐴 𝑕𝑔
p = p0 + 𝐴 = p0 + ρhg. .................... (7.1)

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This equation is only good for pressure at a depth for a fluid of constant density.
Pressure at a Depth for a Fluid of Constant Density
The pressure at a depth in a fluid of constant density is equal to the pressure of the atmosphere
plus the pressure due tothe weight of the fluid, or
p = p0 + ρhg,........................... (7.2)
Where p is the pressure at a particular depth, p0 is the pressure of the atmosphere, ρ is the density
of the fluid, g isthe acceleration due to gravity, and h is the depth.
Example 1:-What Force Must a Dam Withstand?
Consider the pressure and force acting on the dam retaining a reservoir of water (Figure 7.2).
Suppose the damis 500-m wide and the water is 80.0-m deep at the dam, as illustrated below. (a)
What is the average pressure onthe dam due to the water? (b) Calculate the force exerted against
the dam.

Figure 7.2
The average pressure p due to the weight of the water is the pressure at the average depth h of
40.0 m, sincepressure increases linearly with depth. The force exerted on the dam by the water is
the average pressure timesthe area of contact, F = (p)(A).
Solution:-a)The average pressure due to the weight of a fluid is
p = hρg......................... (7.3)
Entering the density of water (and taking h to be the average depth of 40.0 m, we obtain
p = (40.0 m)(103 kg/m3) (9.80m/s2)
= 3.92 × 105 N/m2 = 392 kPa.
b. We have already found the value for p. The area of the dam is
A = 80.0 m × 500 m = 4.00 × 104 m2,
so that
F = (3.92 × 105 N/m2) (4.00 × 104 m2)
= 1.57 × 1010 N.
Significance
Although this force seems large, it is small compared with the 1.96 × 1013 N weight of the water
in the reservoir. In fact, it is only 0.0800% of the weight.
Manometers
One of the most important classes of pressure gauges applies the property that pressure due to the
weight of a fluid of constant density is given by p = hρg . The U-shaped tube shown in Figure
7.3is an example of a manometer; in part(a), both sides of the tube are open to the atmosphere,
allowing atmospheric pressure to push down on each side equally sothat its effects cancel.
A manometer with only one side open to the atmosphere is an ideal device for measuring gauge
pressures. The gaugepressure is pg = hρg and is found by measuring h. For example, suppose
one side of the U-tube is connected to somesource of pressure pabs, such as the balloon in part
(b) of the figure or the vacuum-packed peanut jar had shown in part (c).Pressure is transmitted
undiminished to the manometer, and the fluid levels are no longer equal. In part (b), pabs is

110
greater than atmospheric pressure, whereas in part (c), pabs is less than atmospheric pressure. In
both cases, pabs differs from
atmospheric pressure by an amount hρg, where ρ is the density of the fluid in the manometer. In
part (b), pabs can support a column of fluid of height h, so it must exert a pressure hρg greater
than atmospheric pressure (the gauge pressure phg is positive). In part (c), atmospheric pressure
can support a column of fluid of height h, so pabs is less than atmospheric pressure by an amount
hρg (the gauge pressure pg is negative).

Figure 7.3 An open-tube manometer has one side open to the atmosphere. (a) Fluid depth must
be the same on both sides, or the pressure each side exerts at the bottom will be unequal and
liquid will flow from the deeper side. (b) A positive gauge pressure pg = hρg transmitted to one
side of the manometer can support a column of fluid of height h. (c) Similarly, atmospheric
pressure is greater than a negative gauge pressure pg by an amount hρg . The jar‘s rigidity
prevents atmospheric pressure from being transmitted to the peanuts
Barometers
Manometers typically use a U-shaped tube of a fluid (often mercury) to measure pressure. A
barometer (see Figure 7.4) is a device that typically uses a single column of mercury to measure
atmospheric pressure. The barometer, invented by the Italian mathematician and physicist
Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647) in 1643, is constructed from a glass tube closed at one end
and filled with mercury. The tube is then inverted and placed in a pool of mercury. This device
measures
atmospheric pressure, rather than gauge pressure, because there is a nearly pure vacuum above
the mercury in the tube. The height of the mercury is such that hρg = patm. When atmospheric
pressure varies, the mercury rises or falls. Weather forecasters closely monitor changes in
atmospheric pressure (often reported as barometric pressure), as rising mercury typically signals
improving weather and falling mercury indicates deteriorating weather. The barometer can also
be used as an altimeter, since average atmospheric pressure varies with altitude. Mercury
barometers and manometers are so common that units of mm Hg are often quoted for
atmospheric pressure and blood pressures.

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Figure7.4A mercury barometer measures atmospheric pressure. The pressure due to the
mercury‘s weight, hρg, equals atmospheric pressure. The atmosphere is able to force mercury in
the tube to a height h because the pressure above the mercury is zero

7.1.1. Pascal’s principle

Pascal’s principle (also known as Pascal‘s law) states that ―when a change in pressure is applied
to an enclosed fluid, it is transmitted undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to the walls of
its container.‖In an enclosed fluid, since atoms of the fluid are free to move about, they transmit
pressure to all parts of the fluid and to the walls of the container. Any change in pressure is
transmitted undiminished.
Note that this principle does not say that the pressure is the same at all points of a fluid—which
is not true, since the pressure in a fluid near Earth varies with height. Rather, this principle
applies to the change in pressure. Suppose you place some water in a cylindrical container of
height H and cross-sectional area A that has a movable piston of mass m (Figure 7.5).
Adding weight Mg at the top of the piston increases the pressure at the top by Mg/A, since the
additional weight also actsover area A of the lid:
Δptop = Mg/A.............. (7.4)

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Figure 7.5 Pressure in a fluid changes when the fluid is compressed. (a)The pressure at the top
layer of the fluid is different from pressure at the bottom layer. (b) The increase in pressure by
adding weight to the piston is the same everywhere, for example,
ptop new − ptop = pbottom new− pbottom .
According to Pascal‘s principle; the pressure at all points in the water changes by the same
amount i.e.; Mg/A. Thus, the pressure at the bottom also increases by Mg/A. The pressure at the
bottom of the container is equal to the sum of the atmospheric pressure, the pressure due the
fluid, and the pressure supplied by the mass. The change in pressure at the bottom of the
container due to the mass is
Δpbottom = Mg/A .
Since the pressure changes are the same everywhere in the fluid, we no longer need subscripts to
designate the pressure change for top or bottom:
Δp= Δptop = Δpbottom = Δpeverywhere.
Applications of Pascal’s Principle and Hydraulic Systems
Hydraulic systems are used to operate automotive brakes, hydraulic jacks, and numerous other
mechanical systems (Figure).

Figure 7.6 A typical hydraulic system with two fluid-filledcylinders, capped with pistons and
connected by a tube called a hydraulic line. A downward force F1on the left piston creates a
change in pressure that is transmitted undiminished to all parts of the enclosed fluid. This results
in an upward forceF2on the right piston that is larger than F1 because the right piston has a larger
surface area.
We can derive a relationship between the forces in this simple hydraulic system by applying
Pascal‘s principle. Note first that the two pistons in the system are at the same height, so there is
no difference in pressure due to a difference in depth. The pressure due to F1acting on area A1is
simply
p1 = F1/A1, as defined y p = F/A.
According to Pascal‘s principle, this pressure is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid
and to all walls of the container. Thus, a pressure p2 is felt at the other piston that is equal to p1.
That is, p1 = p2. However, sincep2 = F2 /A2, we see that
𝐸1 𝐹2
= ...................... (7.5)
𝐴1 𝐴2

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This equation relates the ratios of force to area in any hydraulic system, provided that the pistons
are at the same verticalheight and that friction in the system is negligible.
Hydraulic systems can increase or decrease the force applied to them. To make the force larger,
the pressure is applied toa larger area. For example, if a 100-N force is applied to the left
cylinder in Figure 7.6and the right cylinder has anarea five times greater, then the output force is
500 N. Hydraulic systems are analogous to simple levers, but they have theadvantage that
pressure can be sent through tortuously curved lines to several places at once.
The hydraulic jack is such a hydraulic system. A hydraulic jack is used to lift heavy loads, such
as the ones used by auto-mechanics to raise an automobile. It consists of an incompressible fluid
in a U-tube fitted with a movable piston on each
side. One side of the U-tube is narrower than the other. A small force applied over a small area
can balance a much largerforce on the other side over a larger area (Figure 7.6).

Figure 7.7
From Pascal‘s principle, it can be shown that the force needed to lift the car is less than the
weight of the car:
𝐴
F1 =𝐴2 F2
1
WhereF1 is the force applied to lift the car, A1is the cross-sectional area of the smaller piston, A2
is the cross sectionalarea of the larger piston, and F2is the weight of the car
.

7.1.2. Archimedes' principle

In the kingdom of Syracuse, King Hero asked Archimedes to determine the actual composition
of the kings crown, which as supposed to be of pure gold. Archimedes was ordered to do so
without damaging the crown. For this he was inspired by the concept he found as he lay partially
submerged in his baths on getting into the tub, he observed that the more his body sank into the
tub, the more water ran out over the top. He jumped out of the tub and rushed through, the streets
naked, shouting
loudly "Eureka". The statement of Archimedes principle says ―A body whether completely or
partially submerged in a fluid, is buoyed upward .by a force that is equal to the weight of the
displaced fluid.”

How this principle allowed Archimedes to solve the problem of the king's crown; we‘ll see in
examples later. The above principle can be easily obtained by a simple mathematical analysis of
finding force on a submerged body. For this let us consider a cylindrical block submerged in a
container filled with a liquid as shown in figure below. The top surface of the cylinder is at a

114
depth L below the free surface ofthe liquid thus net force F1 on the top surface of cylinder (in
downward direction) can be given as

Where 𝜌 - liquid density

Figure 7.8

Similarly at the bottom surface the force F2. on cylinder (in upward direction) can be given as

Here we can see that all the forces acting on cylindrical surface are horizontal and acting in
radially inward direction all of which gets cancelled out. Thus net force on the cylindrical block
is in upward direction and is given as

This upward force on cylinder due to the surrounding liquid is the buoyant force and is equal to
the weight of the liquid in the volume displaced by the object. If we replace this cylinder by
another cylinder of same size, but of different material. The buoyant force remains the same. It
depends only on the volume of the submerged object not on its mass or density. In above
example if block is made of aluminum and liquid is water we can say that as aluminum is denser
then water and the weight of cylinder is more than the buoyant force on it given byequation-
above.so it sinks to the bottom but if liquid used is mercury which has a greater density then that
of aluminum then in this case the buoyant force on block is more than that of its weight and
block will move up and will start floating. Hot air balloons, furnish another example of
Archimedes principle. They float in air and because hot air density is less than the normal
atmospheric air. A similar example can be seen for large ships, which float on water even though
they are made of steel and carry dense objects, because the water is displaced by the submerged
part of the ship.
Example 1:-A cubical block of iron 5 cm on each side is floating on mercuryin a vessel.
(i) What is the height of the block above mercury level?
(ii) Water is poured in the vessel until it just covers the ironblock. What is the height ofwater
column? Density of mercury= 13.6gm/cm3 and Densityof iron =7.2 gm/cm3
Solution:-
Case-I: Suppose h be the height of cubical block of iron above mercury.

115
 Volume of iron block (Viron) =125cm3
Mass of iron block (Miron) = (7.2gm/cm3)(125cm3)= 900gm
Volume of mercury displaced by the block= 50cm2 x (5-h)cm
Mass of Mercury displaced by the block= (50cm2)(5-h)cm x13.6g/cm3
By the law floatation, weight of mercury displaced = weight ofiron block

Figure 7.9
Case II:-Suppose in this case the height of iron block in water be X. The height of iron block in
mercury will be (5 - x) cm.
Mass of water displaced=5cmx 5cmx X
Mass of Mercury displaced=5cm x 5cm x (5-x) (13.6)
So, weight of water displaced + weight of mercurydisplaced =weight ofiron block

Solving for, we get x=2.54cm

7.2. Fluid dynamics

Up to now, we have studied only fluids at rest. Let us now study fluids in motion, the subject
matter of hydrodynamics. The study of fluids in motion is relatively complicated, but the
analysis can be simplified by making few assumptions. We discuss the motion of an ideal fluid
instead of real fluid, as it is simpler to handle mathematically.

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 7.2.1. Flow characteristics
Although our results may not fully agree with the nature of real fluids, but these will be close
enough to be useful. We'll make four assumptions for the ideal fluid, these are:
1. Streamline flow: It is also known as laminar or steadyflow in which the velocity ofthe
moving fluid at any fixed pointdoes not change with time, either in magnitude or in direction.
For example the smoke rising from a cigarette, is steady initiallyand as smoke rises, the
speed of smoke particles increases andat a certain critical speed, the flow change its
characteristics
from steady to turbulent.
2. Incompressible flow: We assume in our analysis that thefluid is incompressible. That is, its
density has a constant value.
3. Non-viscous flow: Viscosity ofa fluid is a measure ofhowresistive the fluid is to flow.
Basically it is a measurement offriction between the flowing layers ofa fluid. For example,
thickoil is more resistive to flow than water. As in absence offrictional block moves with a
constant velocity, similarlyin a non-viscousfluid, a moving object will not experience any
drag force due toviscosity;
4. Irrotational flow: We assume that the flow is irrotational.Means that the particles of fluid will
not provide any rotationalmotion to the uniform bodies moving along the fluid.
Representation ofStreamlines
The density of streamlines in representative diagram is more where the velocity of the fluid is
more. As shown in figure-7.10(a), when water flows in a pipe line, at the bottom the
velocityofthe layers is less as compared to the velocity ofthe particlesofthe layer above some
layers. Thus the stream lines are denserat some height and rarer near the bottom. Unlike to this
case, ifwe consider the flow ofan ideal non-viscous fluid, as shown infigure-7.10b). The density
ofstreamlines will remain constantthroughout the .volume.

Figure 7.10
Laminar Versus Turbulent Flow
Let us examine how a fluid flows through a pipe. Friction forcesexerted on the fluid by the pipe
wall tend to restrain the flow, asdo the viscous forces within the fluid. As a result, the fluidclose
to the walls flows more slowly than that near the center ofthe pipe. Weshow this effect in figure-
below (a), where the lengthsof the arrows indicate the magnitude of the velocity at
variouspositions in the pipe.

117
 Figure 7.11
Another feature of flow through a pipe is shown in figure-7.11 (b). Suppose a tiny speck ofdust,
like the one at point A, isflowing withthe fluid. If the flowrate is low, the speckfollowsthe
lineshown as it moves through thepipe. Otherspecks andthe fluid as well, follow similar smooth
lines. We call theseflowslines streamlines, and this is called streamline, or laminar,flow.
Inlaminar flow, eachelement ofthefluid follows arepeatablestreamline.
If the speed of the fluid becomes high enough, the flow linesbegin to behave erratically.At any
instant, the flow lines maylook like those in figure-above(c). An instant later, the lines willtake
another form. This situation, in which the flow lines arecontorted and vary widely with time, is
called turbulent flow.
As you might guess, friction (or viscous) energy- losses arenearly always larger in turbulent flow
than in laminar flow.Turbulence causes rapid, chaotic,motion that in turn increasesdistances
moved and friction losses. Because ofthis, turbulence is to be avoided if friction losses are to be
minimized. Automakers wish to minimize turbulent airflow around their cars, for
example(Figure-below). A means for predicting when turbulence occurs has obvious practical
importance.
Although turbulence is very difficult to treat mathematically, there is a unifying concept that
simplifies the situation. Experiment shows that flow changes from laminar to turbulent when a
critical value is reached for what is called the Reynolds number-NR, a dimensionless constant
given by

......................................(7.7)
For a fluid with density p, viscosity𝜂, and speed v flowing through a pipe of diameter D, If NR
exceeds about 2000, the flow usually becomes turbulent. This is not a precise rule because
careful design can postpone the onset of turbulence. Reynolds numbers of 40,000 have been
achieved for special laminar flow systems. (Equation-above) is also applicable to a sphere of
diameter D moving through a fluid. In that case, however, the critical value for NR is about 10.)

118
Despite its lack of precision, the critical value of2000 is very useful, as is the Reynolds number
itself. For example, two systems, one of which is a scale model of another, give rise to similar
flow if NR is the same for both. Such systems are said to be dynamically similar. This concept
forms the basis for small scale wind tunnel tests off low patterns around cars and planes.
The flows are similar if v is increased by the same factor by which D is decreased because NR
remains unchanged.

7.2.2. Continuity Equation

This equation defines the steady flow of a 'fluid in-a tube. It states that if flow, of a fluid is
steady then the mass of fluid entering per second at one end is equal to the mass of fluid leaving
per second at the other end.
As shows in figure a section of a tube in which at the ends, the cross sectional areas areA1and A2
and the velocity of the fluid are V1 and V2 respectively.

Figure 7.12
According to the equation of continuity, if flow is steady mass of fluid entering at end
A1persecond = mass of fluid leaving the endA2 per second
In time di the fluid enters a distance V1dt at end A1 so the volume entered in time dt is dV =
V1dt and the volumeentered per second is

According to the definition of steady flow -

............................... (7.8)
Equation above is known as equation of continuity
7.2.3. Bernoulli's principle and applications
It is a basic consequence of energy conservations principle for a flowing fluid. It relates the
variables describing the steady laminar flow of a fluid, assuming the fluid is in-Compressible and
non- viscous. The analytical result of the theorem is called Bernoulli's equation and it describes
the relationship of fluid pressure, velocity and height as it moves along a pipe or in a tube of
flow.

119
As Figure-below shows a fluid flowing smoothly from region A to region B. The situation shown
in figure shows that a fluid is flowing in a pipe with cross sections at end A and B but it need not
be constrained to a real pipe, let us consider an example of water flowing in a river. If we draw
all of the streamlines within a portion of water similar to figure-above from region A to region B
this portion we call tube of flow.

Figure 7.13
Now to establish a relation among the variables consider the tube of flow shown in figure-below.
Here we apply work energy theorem for a small portion (volume AV) of fluid. Let fluid is
flowing in a streamline manner with speedV1 andV2 at the ends A and B of the tube of flow. The
pressure and areas of cross-sections at ends A and B are P1, A1andP2,A2 respectively. If
∆𝑉volume of fluid enters into the tube at end A where pressureis P 1, then the work done in this
displacement at A is P1∆V. At the same time, the same amount of fluid (volume ∆V) movesout
of the tube at end B.The work done in this case is – P2∆𝑉 Herenegative sign indicates that the
element of fluid at regionB moves against the force due to the pressure of the fluid to its right.
The work done by gravity in the net motion of fluid from region A to region B is – mg (h2–h1).
Thus net work done is

Figure 7.14
According to work energy theorem, we know this work must be equal to the change in kinetic
energy of the flowing fluidfrom region A to region B. Thus we have

......................... (7.9)
Here the above equation we conclude that the sum of these three terms is constant for all cross-
sections for a tube of flow in streamline flow of a fluid. The three terms are called kinetic energy

120
 1
per unit volume (2 𝜌𝑣 2 ), gravitational potentialenergy per unit volume (pgh) and pressure energy
per unit volume (P) of the flowing fluid. Thus for any cross-section, sum of the three remains
constant as

................ (7.10)
This equation is called Bernoulli's equation, for the steady, non-viscous flow of an
incompressible fluid. Under these conditions, Bernoulli's equation expresses conservation of
energy in a flowing fluid.
If we consider a horizontal tube of flow then for two points init we can write Bernoulli's equation
as

.................. (7.11)
Which; implies that for such points there is a tradeoff between speed and pressure. If speed is
high pressure will be low and vice versa.
There are several examples to this concept as follows:-
The pressure in the air blown at high speed across the top of the vertical tube of a perfume
atomizer (figure-7.15) is less than the normal air pressure acting on the surface of the liquid in
the bowl; thus perfume is pushed up the tube because of the reduced pressure at the top.

Figure 7.15
Airplane wings and other airfoils are designed to deflect the air so that although streamline flow
is largely maintained, the streamlines are crowded together above the wing (figure-7.16). Just as
the flow lines are crowded together in a pipe constriction where the velocity is high, so the
crowded streamlines above the wing indicate the air speed is greater than below and thee is thus
a net upward force; this is called dynamic lift. Actually, Bernoulli's principle is only one aspect
of the lift on a wing. Wings are usually tilted slightly upward so that air striking the bottom
surface is deflected downward; the change in momentum of the rebounding air molecules results
in an additional upward force on the wing. Turbulence also plays an important role; for
Example, if the wing is tilted upward too much, turbulence sets in behind the wing with a
consequent loss of lift.

Figure 7.16
Numerical Applications of Bernoulli's Theorem

121
There are several different cases in which Bernoulli's Equation can be applied but the
major problem in the numerical problems is the selection of the points in the given situation
where
Equation is to be applied. We'll discuss several examples and applications concerned
which will help you to select the points.
1) Pitot tube
It is a device used to measure flow velocity of fluid. It is a shaped tube which can be inserted in
a tube or in the fluid flowing space as shown in figure-below. In the U-tube a liquid
which is immiscible with the fluid is filled up to a level C and the short opening M is placed
in the fluid flowing space against the flow so that few of the fluid particles entered into the
tube and exert a pressure on the liquid in limb A of C tube. Due to this the liquid level changes as
shown infigure-7.15.

Figure 7.17
At end B fluid is freely flowing, which exert approximately negligible pressure on this
liquid. The pressure difference at ends A and B can be given by measuring the liquid level
difference
h as
Ifit is a gas, then

If it is a liquid of density𝜌, then

Now if we apply Bernoulli's equation at ends A and B we'll have

Now using by this equation we can evaluate the velocity v, with which the fluid is flowing.
NOTE: Pitot tube is also used to measure velocity of aero-planes with respect to wind. It can be
mounted at the top surface of the plain and hence the velocity of wind can be measured with
respect to plane. In early 1920's such a device was also being used in ships to measure the
velocity of ships with respect to seawater.
2) Venturimeter
It is a device used to measure velocity of fluids (liquids only), in pipe lines. This is a hollow tube
with slightly narrow cross section at the middle, as shown in figure-below, it can be inserted in
series with a flowing line.

122
Figure 7.18
Let the liquid is flowing at a rate V in tube and the cross-sectional areas of the two sections of
venturi tube are A1 and A2respectively. Thus the velocity vat the narrow section can be given by
continuity equation as

and
Here we choose points A and B for Bernoulli's Application, just below the two small pipes open
in atmosphere. Due to less cross section at A velocity of liquid is high and hence low pressure of
liquid here. Thus liquid rises up to a less height in this pipe as compared to that at B .
According to Bernoulli's Theorem at A and B

Here pressure difference between points A and B can be evaluated by measuring the height
difference between the two pipes as
or from the above equation

.......................... (7.12)
3) Torecelli's Theorem
This concept is used to evaluate the velocity of liquid flowing out from a hole in a container. The
example can be taken as shown in figure-below; If from the surface of the liquid at a depth h, a
hole is made of small cross-section. The liquid will come out from this hole with some speed,
say V. To evaluate this speed, we apply Bernoulli's theorem at two points A and B, just inside
and outside the hole. At point A as the cross-section of the vessel is large, we can consider the
velocity of liquid particles close to zero and the pressure at A is given as

And at B the pressure is only atmospheric.

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 Figure 7.19
Applying Bernoulli's Theorem at A and B

.......................... (7.
Equation-above is known as Torecelli's Theorem and the velocity with which liquid comes out,
is called efflux velocity.
This equation is used in problems concerned with liquid draining Out from a vessel and in cases
of conservation of momentum (cases of variable mass).
4) Freely falling liquid
When liquid falls freely under gravity, the area of cross section of the stream continuously
decreases, as the velocity increases.
For example, we consider water coming out from a tap, as shown in figure- below. Let its speed
near the mouth of tap isV0 and at a depth h it is v, then we have

Figure 7.20
If cross section of tap is A then according to the equation of continuity, the cross section at point
M(say a) can be given as

....................................... (7.13)
Example 1:-Water stands up to a height H in a tank, whose side walls are vertical. A hole is
made on one of the walls at a depth h below the water surface. Find at what distance from the
foot of the wall does the emerging stream of water strike the floor and for what value of h this
range is maximum?
Solution:-
The situation is shown in figure below

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 Figure 7.21
Here, we have

and
……….. (7.18)
The distance x is given by
............ (7.19)
From equation eq. (7.18)

Substituting the value of vA from equation and the value oft from equation-(7.18) in equation-
(7.17), we get

𝑑𝑥
The range x will be maximum when𝑑𝑕 =0

Solving we get
From equation above substituting the value of h we get

Example 2:-In a horizontal pipe line of uniform area of cross section, the pressure falls by 8
N/m2 between two points separated by a distance of 1 km. What is the change in kinetic energy
per kg of the oil flowing at these points? Density of oil is 800kg/m3.
Solution:-
According to Bernoulli's theorem,

= change in K.E. per kg mass, or

125
 change in K.E. per kg mass ofoil

Change in K.E. per kg mass=

Example 3:-Air is streaming past a horizontal aero-plane wing such that its speed is 120m/s over
the upper surface and 90 m/s at the lower surface. If the density of air is about 1.3kg/m3; then
find the difference in pressure between the top and bottom of the wing. If the wing is10mlong
and has an average width 2 m, calculate the gross lift of the wing.
Solution:-
According to Bernoulli's equation for a horizontal plane, we have

Now as

7.2.4. Viscosity
In Applications of Newton‘s Laws, which introduced the concept of friction, we saw that an
object sliding across the floor with an initial velocity and no applied force comes to rest due to
the force of friction. Friction depends on the types of materials in contact and is proportional to
the normal force. We also discussed drag and air resistance in that same chapter.
We explained that at low speeds, the drag is proportional to the velocity, whereas at high speeds,
drag is proportional to the velocity squared. In this section, we introduce the forces of friction
that act on fluids in motion. For example, a fluid flowing through a pipe is subject to resistance, a
type of friction, between the fluid and the walls. Friction also occurs between the different layers
of fluid. These resistive forces affect the way the fluid flows through the pipe.
Viscosity and Laminar Flow
When you pour yourself a glass of juice, the liquid flows freely and quickly, but if you pour
maple syrup on your pancakes, that liquid flows slowly and sticks to the pitcher. The difference
is fluid friction, both within the fluid itself and between the fluid and its surroundings. We call
this property of fluids viscosity. Juice has low viscosity, whereas syrup has high viscosity.
The precise definition of viscosity is based on laminar, or non-turbulent, flow. Figure 7.22 shows
schematically how laminar and turbulent flow differ. When flow is laminar, layers flow without
mixing. When flow is turbulent, the layers mix, and significant velocities occur in directions
other than the overall direction of flow.

126
Figure 7.22 Laminar flow occurs in layers without mixing. Notice that viscosity causes drag
between layers as well as with the fixed surface. The speed near the bottom of the flow ( vb) is
less than speed near the top ( vt ) because in this case, the surface of the containing vessel is at the
bottom

Turbulence is a fluid flow in which layers mix together via eddies and swirls. It has two main
causes. First, any obstruction or sharp corner, such as in a faucet, creates turbulence by imparting
velocities perpendicular to the flow. Second, high speeds cause turbulence. The drag between
adjacent layers of fluid and between the fluid and its surroundings can form swirls and eddies if
the speed is great enough. In Figure 7.23, the speed of the accelerating smoke reaches the point
that it begins to swirl due to the drag between the smoke and the surrounding air.

Figure 7.23 An obstruction in the vessel causes turbulent flow. Turbulent flow mixes the fluid.
There is more interaction, greater heating, and more resistance than in laminar flow.
Figure 7.24 shows how viscosity is measured for a fluid. The fluid to be measured is placed
between two parallel plates. The bottom plate is held fixed, while the top plate is moved to the
right, dragging fluid with it. The layer (or lamina) of fluid in contact with either plate does not
move relative to the plate, so the top layer moves at speed v while the bottom layer remains at
rest. Each successive layer from the top down exerts a force on the one below it, trying to drag it
along, producing a continuous variation in speed from v to 0 as shown. Care is taken to ensure
that the flow is laminar, that is, the layers do not mix. The motion in the figure is like a
continuous shearing motion. Fluids have zero shear strength, but the rate at which they are
sheared is related to the same geometrical factors A and L as is shear deformation for solids. In
the diagram, the fluid is initially at rest. The layer of fluid in contact with the moving plate is
accelerated and starts to move due to the internal friction between moving plate and the fluid.
The next layer is in contact with the moving layer; since there is
internal friction between the two layers, it also accelerates, and so on through the depth of the
fluid. There is also internal friction between the stationary plate and the lowest layer of fluid,

127
next to the station plate. The force is required to keep the plate moving at a constant velocity due
to the internal friction.

Figure 7.24 Measurement of viscosity for laminar flow of fluid between two plates of area A.
The bottom plate is fixed. When the top plate is pushed to the right, it drags the fluid along with
it.
A force F is required to keep the top plate in Figure above moving at a constant velocity v, and
experiments have shown that this force depends on four factors. First, F is directly proportional
to v (until the speed is so high that turbulence occurs—then a much larger force is needed, and it
has a more complicated dependence on v). Second, F is proportional to the area A of the plate.
This relationship seems reasonable, since A is directly proportional to the amount of fluid being
moved. Third, F is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates L. This relationship
is also reasonable; L is like a lever arm, and the greater the lever arm, the less the force that is
needed. Fourth, F is directly proportional to the
Coefficient of viscosity, η . The greater the viscosity, the greater the force required. These
dependencies are combined in to the equation

......................................... (7.20)
This equation gives us a working definition of fluid viscosity η . Solving for η gives

..................................... (7.21)
Which defines viscosity in terms of how it is measured, The SI unit of viscosity is N ⋅ m/ (m/s)
(m2) or Pa ⋅s . Table below lists the coefficients of viscosity for various fluids. Viscosity varies
from one fluid to another by several orders of magnitude. As you might expect, the viscosities of
gases are much less than those of liquids and these viscosities often depend on temperature

128
Figure 7.25 Coefficients of Viscosity of Various Fluids

Problems and question

1. The left ventricle of a resting adult‘s heart pumps blood at a flow rate of 83.0 cm3/s,
increasing its pressure by 110 mm Hg, its speed from zero to 30.0 cm/s, and its height
by 5.00 cm. (All numbers are averaged over the entire heartbeat.) Calculate the total
power output of the left ventricle. Note that most of the power is used to increase
blood pressure.
2. What is the average flow rate in cm3/s of gasoline to the engine of a car traveling at
100 km/h if it averages 10.0 km/L?
3. Prove that the speed of an incompressible fluid through a constriction, such as in a Venturi
tube, increases by a factor equal to the square of the factor by which the diameter decreases.
(The converse applies for flow out of a constriction into a larger diameter region.)

129
4. A cylindrical tank 1 m in radius rests on a platform 5 m high. Initially the tank is filled with
water up to a height of5 m. A plug whose area is 10-4 m2is removed from an orifice on the side
of
the tank at the bottom. Calculate (a) initial speed with which the water flows from the orifice
b)initial speed with which the water strikes the ground and (c) time taken to empty the tank to
half its original volume (d) Does the time to be emptied the tank depend upon the height of stand
5. A non-viscous of liquid of constant density 1000 kg/m3 flows in a streamline motion along a
tube of variable cross section. The tube is kept inclined in the vertical plane as shown in figure-
below

The area of cross-section of the tube at two points P and Q at heights of 2 meters and 5 meters
are respectively 4 x 10 -3 m2 and 8 x10-3 m 2. The velocity of the liquid at point P is 1m/s. 'Find
the work done per unit volume by the pressure and the gravity forces as the liquid flows from
point P to Q.

6. In an experimental model of the venture meter, the diameter of the pipe is 4 cm and that of
constriction is 3 cm. With water filling the pipe and flowing at a certain rate the height of the
liquids in the pressure tube is 20 cm at the pipe and 15 cm at the constrictions. What is the
discharge rate?
7. In a horizontal pipe line of uniform area of cross section, the pressure falls by 8 N/m2
between two points separated by a distance of 1 km. What is the change in kinetic energy per
kg of the oil flowing at these points? Density of oil is 800kg/m3.
8. Air is streaming past a horizontal aero-plane wing such that its speed is 120m/s over the
upper surface and 90 m/s at the lower surface. If the density of air is 1.3kg/m3, find the
difference in
pressure between the top and bottom of the wing. If the wing is 10 m long and has an average
width 2 m, calculate the gross lift of the wing.
9. Water stands up to a height H in a tank, whose side walls are vertical. A hole is made on one
of the walls at a depth h below the water surface. Find at what distance from the foot of the
wall does the emerging stream of water strike the floor and for what value of h this range is
maximum?
10. In a car lift used in a service station, compressed air exerts a force on a small piston that has a
circular cross section of radius 5.00 cm. This pressure is transmitted by a liquid to a piston
that has a radius of 15.0 cm.
(A) What force must the compressed air exert to lift a car weighing 13 300 N?
(B) What air pressure produces this force?

130
11. A gardener uses a water hose to fill a 30.0-L bucket. The gardener notes that it takes 1.00
min to fill the bucket. A nozzle with an opening of cross-sectional area 0.500 cm2 is then
attached to the hose. The nozzle is held so that water is projected horizontally from a point
1.00 m above the ground. Over what horizontal distance can the water be projected?

Reference books:-
1.

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