Copy of Physics S2

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................................ I

TOPIC.I MECHANICS ................................................................................................................................................ 1
CHAP.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 1
CHAP.1 KINEMATICS ................................................................................................................................................ 3
1.1. KINEMATICS OF CONSTANT VELOCITY .................................................................................................................. 3
1.1.1 Coordinate system ......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1.2 Position, displacement, and distance ............................................................................................................. 4
1.1.3 Speed and Velocity ......................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1.4 Exercises ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 KINEMATICS OF CONSTANT ACCELERATION ......................................................................................................... 8
1.2.1 Acceleration, velocity and displacement ........................................................................................................ 8
1.2.2 Equation for uniform acceleration and in one dimension ............................................................................ 10
1.2.3 Motion-Time Graphs .................................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.4 Acceleration due to gravity and Free fall ..................................................................................................... 14
1.2.5 Exercise ........................................................................................................................................................ 16
1.3 CIRCULAR MOTION .............................................................................................................................................. 30
1.3.1 Uniform Circular Motion .............................................................................................................................. 30
1.3.2 Exercises ....................................................................................................................................................... 31
CHAP.2 DYNAMICS OF RECTILINEAR MOTION ....................................................................................................... 33
2.1 FORCE AND FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS .................................................................................................................... 33
2.1.1 Definition ..................................................................................................................................................... 33
2.1.2 Free-body diagrams ..................................................................................................................................... 34
2.1.3 Determining the Net Force........................................................................................................................... 35
2.2 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION ............................................................................................................................. 38
2.2.1 First law: law of inertia. ............................................................................................................................... 38
2.2.2 Second law ................................................................................................................................................... 41
2.2.3 Third law: Action and Reaction .................................................................................................................... 44
2.2.4 Exercises ....................................................................................................................................................... 45
2.4 ENEGY, WORK AND POWER ................................................................................................................................. 48
2.4.1 Relating Work and Energy ........................................................................................................................... 48
2.4.2 Categories of Energy in Our Environment .................................................................................................... 49
2.4.3 Law of conservation of energy ..................................................................................................................... 51
2.4.4 Power ........................................................................................................................................................... 52
2.4.5 Exercises ....................................................................................................................................................... 54
CHAP.3 EQUILIBRIUM OF SOLID: STATICS .............................................................................................................. 55
3.1 STATE OF EQUILIBRIUM ....................................................................................................................................... 55
3.2 TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM ....................................................................................................................................... 55
3.3 CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND CENTER OF MASS ....................................................................................................... 56
3.4 TURNING FORCES ................................................................................................................................................ 57
3.4.1 Moment of a force ....................................................................................................................................... 57
3.4.2 Torque .......................................................................................................................................................... 58
3.4.3 Exercises ....................................................................................................................................................... 59
3.5 SIMPLE MACHINE ................................................................................................................................................ 60
3.5.1 Definition of Machine .................................................................................................................................. 60
3.5.2 Types of Simple Machines ............................................................................................................................ 62
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3.5.3 EXERCISES ............................................................................................................................................................ 67

TOPIC.II HEAT ........................................................................................................................................................ 68
CHAP.1 THERMOMETRY ........................................................................................................................................ 68
1.1 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE ................................................................................................................................... 68
1.2 TEMPERATURE SCALES ........................................................................................................................................ 69
o o
1.2.1 Degree Celsius ( C), Degree Fahrenheit ( F) and Degree Kelvin (K) .............................................................. 69
1.2.1 Relevant conversion formulae between those scales are: ........................................................................... 69
1.3 PRACTICAL ACTIVITY IN LAB ................................................................................................................................. 70
1.4 EXERCISES ............................................................................................................................................................ 74
CHAP.2 TRANSMISSION OF HEAT........................................................................................................................... 75
2.1 HEAT IS TRANSFERRED BY THREE PROCESSES ...................................................................................................... 75
2.1.1 Conduction ................................................................................................................................................... 75
2.1.2 Convection ................................................................................................................................................... 76
2.1.3 Radiation ...................................................................................................................................................... 76
2.2 PRACTICAL ACTIVITY ............................................................................................................................................ 77
2.3 EXERCISES ............................................................................................................................................................ 82
CHAP.3 EXPANSION OF BODIES ............................................................................................................................. 83
3.1 THERMAL EXPANSION ......................................................................................................................................... 83
3.1.1 Linear Expansion .......................................................................................................................................... 83
3.1.2 Superficial expansion ................................................................................................................................... 84
3.1.3 Cubical Expansion ........................................................................................................................................ 84
3.2 APPLICATION ....................................................................................................................................................... 84
3.4 EXERCISES ............................................................................................................................................................ 87
CHAP.4 PRINCIPLES OF TRANSMISSION OF HEAT ................................................................................................... 88
4.1 CALORIMETER ..................................................................................................................................................... 88
4.2 HEAT GAIN AND HEAT LOSS ................................................................................................................................. 89
4.3 INTERNAL ENERGY AND SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY .............................................................................................. 89
4.3.1 Heat capacity ............................................................................................................................................... 89
4.3.2 Internal energy ............................................................................................................................................. 89
4.4 PRACTICAL ACTIVITY: THERMAL CAPACITY .......................................................................................................... 90
4.5 EXERCISES ............................................................................................................................................................ 91
CHAP.5 CHANGE OF PHYSICAL STATE .................................................................................................................... 93
5.1 PHYSICAL CHANGE OF STATE ............................................................................................................................... 93
5.2 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY ..................................................................................................................................... 94
5.3 SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT ........................................................................................................................................ 94
5.3.1 Melting and Freezing ................................................................................................................................... 94
5.3.2 Evaporation and Condensation .................................................................................................................... 95
5.3.3 Specific latent heat ...................................................................................................................................... 96
5.3.4 Applications ................................................................................................................................................. 96
5.5 EXERCISES .......................................................................................................................................................... 100
PHYSICS LECTURE ................................................................................................................................................ 102
GALILEO GALILEE .......................................................................................................................................... 102
SIR ISAAC NEWTON ....................................................................................................................................... 103
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................................... 107
"If we can measure what we are speaking about and express it in a value, then we know
something about it, else our knowledge is limited." Lord Kelvin
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PREFACE
The modem world lives in an era of technology, which governs our everyday life. We cannot
imagine life without electricity; motorcars; telephone, radio and other life conveniences. All these
practical realizations have been made possible by the progress of physical sciences and
mathematics among other things. Rwanda being a developing country; needs highly qualified
technicians who will apply the Physics skills in modem technology, and this course is a step
towards that goal.
This handbook ―Physics for Ordinary Level S2‖ is published with the aim to make a Rwandese
student who understands what Physics is and what is done in Physics in order to give him flot
only the desire of more Physics knowledge but also the willingness for further studies in physics
sciences and Engineering
It contains two themes developed by Physics subject introduced in the ―ORDINARY LEVEL
SCIENCE CURRICULUM (BIOLGY, CHEMISTRY, and PHYSICS)‖ in 2006. These themes
are
 MECHANICS:
 HEAT
The different exercises proposed are made on all objectives of the chapter and the readings on
historical personalities of some scientists are added at the end of this book.
With a view to improving this handbook, especially on the scientific content as well as on various
methodological and technical aspects, we request you to send your opinion and observations to
[email protected] or call us on 0788666798
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TOPIC.I MECHANICS
CHAP.0 INTRODUCTION
The laws of motion are important to all human activities. Can you imagine the world without
motion? What kinds of forces and energy cause motion?
Motion is everywhere –from the vibrations of atoms in matter to the swirl of Galaxies in the
Universe. The study of motion goes back to Aristotle, the leading philosopher of the fourth
century B.C. In his view, every object in the Universe had a proper place determined by its nature,
and any object not in its proper place would strive to get there. According to Aristotle, the
distance of an object from its natural place was the fundamentally important factor governing
motion.
Galileo, a leading scientist of the seventeenth century A.D broke with this traditional concept by
realizing that time was an important missing factor. According to Galileo, motion was best
described as change in distance over a change in time. To measure motion Galileo used rates. A
rate tells us how fast something happen- in other words, how much something changes in certain
amount of time. Rates that measure motion are speed, velocity and acceleration.
Mechanics is an important branch of physics which is concerned the study of the motion of
objects, and the related concepts of force and energy.
It is further divided into two parts
 Kinematics: (from Greek κινεῖν, kinein, to move) is the branch of classical mechanics that
describes the motion of objects without consideration of the causes leading to the motion.
 Dynamics: In dynamics we discuss the motion of bodies under the action of forces.
When a body is continuously changing its position with respect to the surroundings with time,
then we say that the body is in motion. Example:
 When an athlete is running on the ground then he is continuously changing his position with
respect to the audience who are sitting at rest.
 We are continuously changing our position since morning till night with respect to earth
which is at rest.
 The earth is continuously changing position with respect to sun which is at rest.
A body is said to be at rest if its position with respect to a specified frame of reference does not
change with time. Reference point or frame of reference is a fixed solid in space from which any
motion can be studied. Every measurement of position, displacement, distance or speed must be
made with respect to a frame of reference.
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Types of motion
 Linear motion
When a body moves either in a straight line or along a curved path, then we say that it is
executing linear motion. When it moves without rotating it is said to haave translational motion.
When a body moves in a straight line then the linear motion is called rectilinear motion. E.g., an
athlete running a 100 m race along a straight track is said to be a rectilinear motion.
Fig. 1 Motion a long line
It can therefore be described mathematically using only one spatial dimension. It can be uniform,
that is, with constant velocity (zero acceleration), or non-uniform, that is, with a variable velocity
(non-zero acceleration).
Another example of linear motion is that of a ball thrown straight up and falling back straight.
Fig.2 Ball thrown straight line up: An MX missile was test-fired for the first time on June 17, 1983, toward a
target about 6800 km away in the Pacific Ocean
When a body moves along a curved path then the linear motion is called curvilinear motion.
E.g., a planet revolving around its parent star
Fig.3 Non linear motion
 Rotatory motion
A body is said to be in rotatory motion when it stays at one place and turns round and round
about an axis. For example a rotating fans, a spinning top, the earth.
 Oscillatory motion
A body is said to be in oscillatory motion when it swings to and fro about a mean position;
example: the pendulum of a clock, the swing etc.
The knowledge got from the study of motion of objects helps scientists involved in the
manufacture of weapons to determine, for example, the paths for artillery to be used in warfare to
hit enemy positions with accuracy or the paths for space crafts used by researchers in space
exploration programs.
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CHAP.1 KINEMATICS
By the end of this topic; the learner should be able
to:
 Define displacement; speed, velocity and

acceleration.
 Distinguish between scalar and vector quantities.
 Determine velocity and acceleration.
 Derive the equations of linear motion.
 Plot and interpret the graphs of motion.
 Describe the motion under gravity.
 Define circular motion; angular velocity;
periodic time; frequency and centripetal
acceleration.
1.1. KINEMATICS OF CONSTANT VELOCITY

1.1.1 Coordinate system
Coordinate systems are used to describe the motion. It is the system of axes attached to a
reference frame.
A coordinate system is defined by three things: an origin, the directions of the axes, and a
distance scale (which is usually but not always the same for each axis). We typically use the
variable "x" to denote a spatial coordinate in a one-dimensional system, the variables "x" and "y"
to denote spatial coordinates in a two-dimensional system, and the variables "x", "y" and "z" for
the spatial coordinates in a three-dimensional system. These variables coincide with the standard,
mutually perpendicular Cartesian axes:
In addition, our coordinate system will always include a time coordinate, typically denoted by
the variable "t", whose origin typically is at the beginning of the experiment.
Fig. 4 Cartesian coordinate plane. Four points are marked and labeled with their coordinates: A(2,3), B(−3,1),
C(−1.5,−2.5), and O(0,0)
In mathematical illustrations of two-dimensional Cartesian systems, the first coordinate

(traditionally called the abscissa) is measured along a horizontal axis, oriented from left to right.
The second coordinate (the ordinate) is then measured along a vertical axis, usually oriented from
bottom to top.
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1.1.2 Position, displacement, and distance
The position of a point in space is its location relative to a chosen origin. It is a vector quantity,
expressing both the distance of the point from the origin and its direction from the origin.
In physics, distance is a distinct quantity from either position or displacement. It is a scalar

quantity, describing the length of the path between two points along which the particle has
travelled. The straight-line distance |r| of point A from the origin can be found from the position
r by r  xA2  y A2 where xA and yA are the Cartesian coordinates of the point.
Displacement is a vector describing the difference in position between two points. Displacement
is defined as distance moved in specified direction. If point A has position rA = (xA,yA) and point
B has position rB = (xB,yB), the displacement rAB of B from A is given by
rAB  rB  rA  ( xB  x A , yB  y A )
When considering the motion of a particle over time, distance is the length of the particle's path;
displacement is the change from its initial position to its final position.
Fig. 5 The distance traveled is always greater than or equal to the displacement.
In linear motion bodies move in a constant direction, distances covered by the bodies executing
linear motion are actually displacements.
A trajectory is the path taken by a moving object.
The SI unit for distance and displacement is the meter (m) since they are both lengths.
Example1: A race car traversing a 10 km closed loop from start to finish travels a distance of
10 km; its displacement, however, is zero because it arrives back at its initial position.
Example2. To find the displacement of the person from his home to the church, you draw a
straight line joining the home to the church (dotted line from home to church). The displacement
is the length of this line with its direction stated.
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1.1.3 Speed and Velocity
Speed describes how fast something is moving. A simple example would be to look at your car's
speedometer while you are driving. This tells you the speed at which you are traveling.
The average speed v during a finite time of a particle undergoing linear motion is defined as the
r
rate of change of distance moved with time: V 
t
where r is the change in displacement and Δt is the interval of time over which displacement
changes
For instance, let's say that it takes you 2 hours to travel a distance of 100 km. Using the above
formula, your average speed during those 2 hours would be 50 km/h.
Let's contrast average speed to instantaneous speed (actual speed = the velocity at an instant of
time). Well, instantaneous speed is the speed at which you are currently traveling at the moment.
For instance, if you are driving along and look down at the speedometer, your instantaneous speed
at that moment would be what was displayed on your speedometer.
Velocity is very similar to speed except that it involves a direction. To determine the velocity of
an object, you would need to know the object's speed and direction. To measure velocity in a car,
you would need a speedometer and a compass. When a body moves in a constant direction, i.e. a
long a straight line, the term velocity is used and not speed. Hence in linear motion, we shall often
use the word velocity.
Fig. 6 Speedometer
A body is said to move with uniform velocity if its rate of change of distance moved with time in
a specified direction is constant. A body is said to move with Uniform Rectilinear Motion if its
velocity does not change with time.
The speed of an object is the magnitude v of its velocity. It is a scalar quantity.

The SI unit of velocity and speed is also the meter per second abbreviated as m/s.
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1.1.4 Exercises
Exo1 Abed took 90 min to walk to a nearby town 2 km away and back.
If he spent 30 minutes in town doing a shopping calculate his average speed and the time he spent
walking.
Solution:
D 2km  2km 8
V   kmh1
T 90 min 3
Time spent walking t  T  to  90 min  30 min  60 min  1h
Note that average speed also includes the time that is spent doing other things like shopping.
Exo2 A horse can cover a distance of 100 km at an average speed of 80km/h if it is
allowed to stop at least twice and drink some water. Find:
a) how long it takes the horse to cover 100 km
b) if it runs at an average speed of 65 km/h, how long will it take to cover the
same distance?
c) if its actual speed is 90km/h non-stop, how long does the horse spend resting?
Solution:
d d 100
a) From the relation v  we obtain t    1.25h  1h15
t v 80
d 100
b) At 65 km/h it will take t    1h30
v 65
d 100
c) At 90 km/h it takes t    1.1h  1h06 it means that the horse rested for only 9 min i.e.
v 90
1.25h 1.1h  0.15h  9min
Exo3 Mary walked a distance of 600 m for 15 min and then she ran for 900 m in just 10 min. Find
her average speed in m/s.
Solution:
Total dis tan ce 600  900

Average speed    1m / s
Total time (15  10)  60
Exo4 Find the average speed of an athlete who takes 10s to run 200 m.
Solution:
Total dis tan ce 200m

Average speed    20m / s
Total time 10s
Exo5. A student taking part in a 100 m race runs the first 30 m in 3.0 s, the next 30 m in 4.0 s and
the last 40 m in 6.0 s. determine the average speed of student.
Solution
S 100
V    7.7m / s
t 3.0  4.0  6.0
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Exo6. During a race on level ground, Andre covers 825 m in 137 s while running due west. Find
Andre‘s average velocity
Answer:
Given: s  825m to the west t  137s
Unknown: V  ?
s 825m
Use the average velocity equation: V    6.02m / s to the west
t 137 s
Exo7. A bus travelled south along a straight path for 3.2 h with an average velocity of 88 km/h,
stopped for 20.0 min, then travelled south for 2.8 h with an average velocity of 75 km/h.
a) What is the average velocity for the total trip?
b) What is the displacement for the total trip?
Exo8. If the bus stop is 0.68 km down the street from the museum and it takes you 9.5 min to
walk north from the bus stop to the museum entrance, what is your average speed?
Exo9. The position of a runner as a function of time is plotted as moving along the X-axis of a
coordinate system. During a 3.00 s time interval, the runner‘s position changes from x 1 = 50.0 m
to x2 = 30.5 m. What was the runner‘s average velocity?
Answer:
Average velocity is the displacement divided by the elapsed time.
The displacement is x  x2  x1  30.5m  50.0m  19.5m
The time interval is t  3.00s
x 19.5m
Therefore the average velocity is V    6.50m / s
t 3.00s
The displacement and velocity are negative, which tells us that the runner is moving to the left
along the X axis. Thus we can say that the runner‘s average velocity is 6.50 m/s to the left.
Exo10. How far can a cyclist travel in 2.5 h along a straight road if her average
speed is 18 km/h?
Answer x  V t  42km
Exo11. A person walks 70 m east, then 30 m west. Suppose this walk took 70 s to complete. Find
a) total distance traveled and displacement
b) average speed and average velocity
Answer
a) Total distance traveled is 70 m + 30 m = 100 m displacement (+70 m) + (-30 m) = 40 m to the
east
100m 40m
b) V   1.4m / s v  0.57m / s
70s 70s
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1.2 KINEMATICS OF CONSTANT ACCELERATION

1.2.1 Acceleration, velocity and displacement
1.2.1.1 Acceleration
When the velocity of a body is changing, the body is said to be accelerating. Acceleration is
v
defined as the rate of change of velocity with time. a 
t
 When acceleration is constant both in direction and in magnitude, the point is said to be
undergoing uniformly accelerated motion.
 A body whose velocity is increasing or decreasing in size is said to be accelerating. A
decrease in velocity or slowing down indicates a retardation or deceleration or negative
acceleration.
 A change in the direction of velocity also shows a body accelerating, even though there is no
change of the magnitude of velocity. Hence a body moving with constant speed in a circle has
acceleration.
The SI unit of acceleration is the meter per square second abbreviated as ms 2 , like, velocity,
acceleration is a vector quantity.
Example
10m / s
1. If an object gains v  10m / s velocity in 5 s, its average acceleration is a   2m / s 2 .
5s
2. A motor car is uniformly retarded and brought to rest from a speed of 108 km/h in 15 s. Find its
acceleration.
Answer:
Given: u = 108 km/h = 30 m/s and v = 0 m/s
v v  u 0  30
a    2m / s 2
t t 15
The minus sign here simply means that the car is accelerating in the opposite direction to its initial
velocity.
3. A car starts from rest and is accelerated uniformly at the rate of 2 m/s 2 for 6 s. It then maintains
a constant speed for half a minute. The brakes are then applied and the vehicle uniformly retarded
to rest in 5 s. Find the maximum speed reached in km/h and the total distance covered in meters.
Answer:
Total distance moved: 36 m + 360 m + 30 m = 420 m
Maximum speed reached v = 43 km/h
1.2.1.2 Velocity with constant acceleration

By rearranging the equation for acceleration, we can find a value for the final velocity
v
a  at  v  u  v  at  u
t
Do not confuse acceleration and velocity. Acceleration tells us how fast the velocity changes,
whereas velocity tells us how fast the position changes.
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1.2.1.3 Displacement with constant acceleration

For an object moving with constant acceleration, the average velocity is equal to the average of
uv
the initial velocity and final velocity; V 
2
To find an expression for the displacement in terms of the initial and final velocity, we can set the
S u  v
expressions for average velocity equal to each other: V  
t 2
Multiplying both sides of the equation by t leaves us with an expression for the displacement of
uv
any object moving with constant acceleration: S  ( )t
2
1 1
S  [u  at  u ]t  S  ut  a (t ) 2
2 2
Example
1. A race car reaches a speed of 42 m/s. It then begins a uniform negative acceleration, using its
parachute and braking system, and comes to rest 5.5 s later. Find how far the car moves while
stopping.
Answer:
uv
Use the equation for displacement; S  t  115.5m
2
2. A car with an initial speed of 23.7 km/h accelerates at a uniform
rate of 0.92 m/s2 for 3.6 s. Find the final speed and the
displacement of the car during this time.
3. A plane starting at rest at one end of a runway undergoes a constant acceleration of 4.8 m/s2 for
15 s before takeoff. What is its speed at takeoff? How long must the runway be for the plane to
be able to take off?
Answer
Use the equation for the velocity of a constantly accelerated object: v  at  u  72m / s
1
Use the equation for the displacement: S  a(t )2  ut  540m
2
4. An automobile with an initial speed of 4.30 m/s accelerates at the rate of 3.00 m/s 2. Find the
final speed and the displacement after 5.0 s.
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1.2.2 Equation for uniform acceleration and in one dimension

Because we are dealing with linear motion i.e. motion in a straight line, the average speed can be
taken as average velocity since the motion is in one particular direction and so in these equations
we shall use the terms displacement and distance; velocity and speed interchangeably.
Let me quote the formulae that we can derive from calculus concerning constant acceleration and
motion in one dimension.
 S  dis tan ce after object accelerates for a time, t

ac te
(1)  S  initial dis tan ce
 o
v  u  at (2) where v  velocity after object accelerates for time, t
1 u  initial velocity
S  S0  ut  at 2 (3) 
2 a  acceleration and t  time
Additional relations between displacement, velocity and acceleration can be derived.
at 2
We have v  u  at  v  u  2uat  a t  v  u  2a (ut 
2 2 2 2 2 2
)
2
1 1
But S  S0  ut  at 2  S  So  ut  at 2 we have v 2  u 2  2a ( S  So ) (4)
2 2
This relation is useful when time is not known explicitly
If we know any three of u, v, a, S and t , the others can be found from these equations.
These formulae only apply to the case of a particle moving under constant acceleration. If
this condition does not apply to the situation under consideration, then you cannot use these
formulae.
Sign Convention
Before we start applying these formulae, let me introduce a sign convention. Since we are
working in one dimension, there are only two directions we need to worry about. For instance, if
we consider motion in a horizontal direction, the only two directions are left and right. Likewise,
if we consider motion in a vertical direction, the only two directions are up and down.
Mathematically, we can denote the two directions with a sign. The convention that we will use is
as follows.
Horizontal Motion Vertical Motion

Right is (+). Up is (+).
Left is (-). Down is (-).
For example: If a rocket is moving up at the speed of 100 m/s, we can just write the rocket's
velocity as 100m / s .
If the rocket had been moving downward, then the sign in front of the 100 m/s would have been
negative, (-).
EXEMPLES
Ex1: What is the velocity of an object, initially at rest, if it experiences a constant acceleration of
10 m/s2 to the right after a period of 3 s?
Answer:
The initial velocity of the object is v0  0m / s because we stated that it was initially at rest.
The constant acceleration is a  10m / s 2 to the right.
The time that the object accelerates is t  3s .
Let's try using velocity formula v  v0  at gives v  0  (10  3)  30m / s
The object will move at a velocity of 30 m/s to the right after undergoing a constant acceleration
of a  10m / s 2 to the right for 3 s.
Ex2 Consider a ball thrown upward with an initial velocity of 20 m/s. What will its
velocity be after 3 s if it undergoes a constant acceleration of a  10m / s 2
downward?
Answer: Since we are dealing with vertical motion, up is (+) and down is (-).
The initial velocity is v0  20m / s . The acceleration is a  10m / s 2 the time is t  3s .
Let's plug the values into the velocity formula and get our result.
v  v0  at gives v  20  (10  3)  10m / s
The answer is, therefore, that the ball's velocity is 10 m/sec downward. The (-) sign is very
important here because it tells us the direction of the velocity is downward.
Ex3 A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 14 m/s. Neglecting air
resistance, find
a. The maximum height reached;

b. The time taken before it reaches the ground. (acceleration due to the gravity is 9.8 m/s2)
Answer: Given: u  14m / s v  0m / s a  9.8m / s 2
To find the height reached, x, we substitute in the equation: v 2  u 2  2ax  x  10m
1
The time taken to reach this height is found by substitute in x  ut  at 2  t  1.43s
2
The downward motion is, of course, simply a reversal of the upward motion in every respect.
Height is 10 m and time taken is 2.9 s.
Ex4. As a bus comes to a normal stop, it slows from 9.00 m/s to 0.00 m/s in 5.00 s. Find the
average acceleration.
v
Answer: a   1.80m / s 2
t
1.2.3 Motion-Time Graphs

Examples of some displacement (distance) - time graphs
Fig. 7 Displacement-time graphs
a. Shows a stationary object; displacement/distance does not change as time changes.

b. Shows an object with constant or uniform velocity; the gradient of the distance- time graph
gives the velocity.
c. Shows an object with uniform acceleration with initial velocity not equal to zero.
Examples of some velocity-time graphs
Fig. 8 velocity- time graphs
A. Shows an object with constant or uniform velocity not equal to zero. Gradient is 0 and so
acceleration is zero. Uniform velocity is a velocity which a body covers equal distances in the
same direction in equal successive time intervals.
B. Shows an abject with uniform acceleration, stating with an initial velocity not equal to zero.
Uniform acceleration is an acceleration in which the velocity of a body changes by equal
amounts in successive time intervals.
C. Shows an object with uniform acceleration starting with an initial velocity of 0; nonzero
gradient gives the acceleration.
D. Shows an object with a non- uniform, or irregular (variable) acceleration. Non- uniform
acceleration is an acceleration of a body whose velocity does not change by equal amounts in
successive time.
It is important to know how to draw graphs and to understand how to read and interpret them. The
following rules for plotting graphs must be followed:
 Axes must be labeled using appropriate quantities plus their units e.g. plotting velocity against
time means that velocity plus its units should be written on the vertical axis [i.e. velocity
(v) / ms 1 ] and time with its unit [i.e. time,(t)/s] on the horizontal axis
 A sensitive scale should be used. Use scales from which the graph obtained will cover ¾ of
the graph page provide. This means that the range of values on each of the axes should cover
at least ¾ of the graph page.
 Plotting of points should be done using crosses.
 If the points lie on a straight line, the line should be down using a straight edge like a ruler. If
they lie on a curve, a smooth curve should be drawn by free hand.
 In most cases you will be expected to use or interpret the graph obtained. You may, for
example, be asked to determine the slope or gradient of the graph.
To determine the slope the information below will be found useful:
 Slope of a straight line: in this case use a large triangle, which you should show on the graph,
y
to obtain the slope: S  where y is value on the vertical axis and x is value on the
x
horizontal axis. These two values give a ratio S called gradient of a graph
 Slope of a smooth curve: the points at which the slope is to be determined must first be
identified and the tangent to the curve at the point.
 The slope obtained must be accompanied with correct units e.g. ms 1 for
distance/displacement- time graphs or ms 2 for a speed/velocity- time graphs.
 In the interpretation of the graph, apart from looking at the general trend illustrated by the
shape of the graph, the following quantities should also be used: slope (gradient), area under
the graph, intercepts, maxima or minima, etc. Area under the graph is obtained by multiplying
the quantities plotted on each axis and considering units. Intercepts are points where the graph
crosses the axes.
Motion- time graphs shown by tape charts

Motion time- graphs can also be illustrated using tape charts made using ticker tapes pulled
through ticker timers. Tape charts are made by sticking successive strips of tape, usually ten dot
lengths, side by side.
Fig. 9 Tape chart for a body moving with uniform acceleration
When a body moves with uniform velocity it will travel equal distances in equal intervals of time,
and so a graph against time will be a straight line. Now if we take any point A, on the graph and
drop a perpendicular AB on to the time axis, it is clear that AB represents the distance moved in
the time interval represented by CB.
dis tan ce moved AB

Hence, v   is called the gradient or slop of the line CA.
time taken CB
Notice:
 Don‘t confuse speed-time graphs with distance-time graphs. The shapes may look the same,
but their meaning is very different.
 The gradient of a line on the displacement time graph represents the velocity. The gradient of
the velocity time graph gives the acceleration while the area under the velocity time graph
gives the displacement. The area under an acceleration time graph gives the velocity.
1.2.4 Acceleration due to gravity and Free fall

It is common observation that bodies released from positions above the surface of the earth fall
down to the ground. They do so because of the pull of gravity which the earth exerts on the falling
bodies.
Galileo a famous scientist, who lived in Italy (1564-1642), showed that all bodies, irrespective of
their masses and nature, fall towards the Earth at the same rate. He further explained that the
commonly observed difference in the rate of fall of heavy and light objects was due to the air
resistance these objects experience and hence the differences vanished if the experiment was
performed in vacuum.
Galileo‘s observations were verified by great scientist
Sir Isaac Newton when he performed his famous
feather and coin experiment (Fig.10) He observed that
the rate of fall of a feather and a coin in a long glass
tube was the same if the tube was evacuated and
different when the air was allowed inside the tube.
The falling bodies have a motion with uniform
acceleration i.e. as they fall, their velocity increases
by equal steps in equal time intervals. This
acceleration, which the falling bodies have, is called
acceleration due to the gravity and is denoted by the Fig.10 Feather and coin experiment
letter, ‗g‘. The acceleration due to the gravity is the
same for all objects, provided where there is no air
resistance i.e. if they fall under the influence of gravity alone.
This kind of fall where the bodies fall under the influence of gravity only is called free fall. In
free fall, the only outside force acting on the falling body is the pull of gravity.
Acceleration due to the gravity is given a positive sign for falling bodies and a negative sign for
rising bodies since they are decelerating (deceleration).
Its direction is always downward toward the centre of the Earth. Its magnitude varies from one
place to another. The g is slightly greater at the poles ( g  9.832m / s 2 ) than at the equator (
g  9.780m / s 2 ), since the Earth is not a perfectly spherical shape. Its magnitude is approximately
g  9.80m / s 2
The falling object starts out at a velocity of zero and,

with constant acceleration the value of velocity increases
in a simple straight line, the displacement is a parabola
as shown by fig. at right.
Ex2. Let‘s say you are standing next to a cliff and decide
to drop a ball. What is the ball's velocity after 4 s?
Answer
From v  gt  u  9.81 4  0  39.32m / s
After 4 s, the ball is moving downward at a speed of

39.24 m/s.
Ex3. A stone dropped from the top of a building takes 6 s to reach the ground below.
a) What is the height of building?
b) How far will the stone fall during the fifth second of its falling?
Solution:
1 2
a) Using the equation s  gt  ut
2
We have u  0 g  10m / s 2 t  6s which gives s  180m
b) Using the same equation as above, we find the distance traveled between the fourth and fifth
minutes i.e. for, 4s  s  80m and for 5s  s  125m during the fifth second the stone
falls s  125  80  45m
Ex4. A stone is thrown upwards with an initial speed of 50 m/s.

a) What will its maximum height be?
b) When will it strike the ground?
c) Where will it be in 2 s?
Solution:
a) To find the highest point the stone will reach, we use the equation: v  u  2as where s  h ,
2 2
a   g  10m / s 2 and v  o correspond to the top of the path.
u2
The result is h   125m
2g
1 1
b) Using the equation s  gt 2  ut with s  h u  0 a  g  10m / s 2 , the result is h  gt 2
2 2
We find t  5s
Because the stone takes as long to rise as it takes to fall, the total time between when it is thrown
and when it strikes the ground is twice 5 s or 10 s.
c) To calculate the position of the stone at a given time after it has been thrown, we use the
1
equation s   gt 2  ut with s  h u  50m / s a  g  10m / s 2 . If t  2s  h  80m
2
Ex5. You are standing next to a cliff and you decide to throw the ball upward at a speed of 15
m/s. After 4 s, you see the ball hit the base of the cliff. How far down is the base of the cliff? In
addition, what is the velocity of the ball when it reaches the base of the cliff?
Answer The answer you should get is that the base of the cliff is 18.48 m below you. In addition,
the velocity of the ball is 24.24 m/s downward at the base of the cliff.
Ex6. Jason hits volleyball so that it moves with an initial velocity of 6.0 m/s straight upward. If
the volley starts from 2.0 m above the floor, how long will it be in the air before it strikes the
floor? Assume that Jason is the last player to touch the ball before it hits the floor.
Answer: Given: a  9.8m / s 2 , y  2.0m , u  6m / s
v u
v  u 2  2ay  8.7m / s t   1.50s
a
1.2.5 Exercise
1.2.5.1 Application
vu
Exo1. Solving for the time t 
a
The variation of the formula to use for this purpose is as follows:
v  velocity after object accelerates for time, t

vu 
t where u  initial velocity
a a  acceleration and t  time

1. How long it took a car to accelerate from 10 m/s to 35 m/s while going to the right at a constant
acceleration of 5m / s 2 to the right?
Answer: Quantities we need: v  35m / s u  10m / s a  5m / s 2
vu 35m / s  10m / s

Formula using: t  hence t   5s
a 5m / s 2
2. Imagine a ball that is thrown upward with a velocity of 5 m/s. If the ball experiences a
downward constant acceleration of 10m / s 2 , how long will it take for its velocity to reach 25m / s
downward?
Answer
Quantities we need: v  25m / s u  5m / s a  10m / s 2
25m / s  5m / s
t  3s
10m / s 2
v u
Exo2. Solving for the acceleration: a 
t
v u
The variation of the velocity formula to use for this purpose is as follows. a 
t
v  velocity after object accelerates for time, t
u  initial velocity

whhere 
a  acceleration
t  time
Ex1: Assume there is a car initially moving to the right at 10 m/s. Furthermore, assume it
accelerates for 4 s and ends up with a speed of 14 m/s but moving to the left. Assuming the
acceleration was constant, what is the constant acceleration the car undergoes?
Answer:
The values you should have used are as follows. v  14m / s u  10m / s t  4s
14m / s  10m / s
a  6m / s 2
4s
Ex2. A car accelerates along a straight road from rest to 75 km/h in 5.0 s. What is the magnitude
of its average acceleration?
75km / h  0km / h
Answer: a   4.2m / s 2
5.0s
Ex3. An automobile with an initial speed of 4.30 m/s accelerates at the rate of 3.00 m/s 2. Find the
final speed and the displacement after 5.0 s.
v u
Answer: a   v  at  u  19.30m / s
t
Exo3. Solving for the initial velocity: u  v  at
Once again, since this formula variant is derived from original velocity formula, the condition of a
constant acceleration must be satisfied in order for you to use this formula. u  v  at
where
v  velocity after object accelerates for time, t
u  initial velocity
a  acceleration and t  time
Ex.: Assume you have a ball that ends up with an upward velocity of 10 m/s after it experiences a
downward constant acceleration of 10 m/s2 for 3 s. What is the initial velocity of the ball?
Answer: The following are the values that you needed to put into the formula above. Note that the
(-) sign in front of the "a" is very important because it tells us the acceleration is downward
v  10m / s vo  10m / s t  3s
vo  10m / s  (10m / s 2  3s )  40m / s
Exo4. Solving for velocity v  at  u

Ex1 Assume there is a car moving to the left at an initial speed of 14 m/s. In addition, assume the
car is experiencing a constant acceleration of 5.3 m / s 2 to the right. What will its velocity be at 1.7
s and at 3 s? Keep in mind that both of these times are measured from the initial time. It is 3 s
after the initial starting time, not 3 s after 1.7 s have expired. Likewise, it is 1.7 s after the initial
starting time when the car has a initial speed of 14 m/s.
Answer: v  at  u
After 1.7 s, the car's velocity is -4.99 m/s which means the car is still moving to the left because of the (-)
sign. Notice that, as expected, the car is slowing down.
After 3 s, the car's velocity is +1.9 m/s which means it is moving to the right because of the (+) sign. At
this point, the car has already slowed down to zero and is just starting to pick up speed while moving to the
right.
1
Exo5. Distance Formula: S  So  ut  at 2
2
 S  dis tan ce after objectaccelerates for a time, t

 S  initial dis tan ce

where  o
u  initial velocity
a  acceleration and t  time
The answer you get from using the distance formula will be relative to your choice of origin.
Before continuing on, let me summarize some important points about the origin.
The origin is the point from which you measure everything else. Specifically, both the initial
distance and the distance are measured from the origin.
Sign Convention:
This sign convention is chosen to be consistent with the sign convention for the velocity formula.
 In the horizontal, distances to the right of the origin are (+), and distances to the left are (-)
 In the vertical, distances above the origin are (+), and distances below the origin are (-).
The choice of the origin is arbitrary. You can choose the origin to be anywhere. In most of the n
problems you will encounter, the most helpful choice will be to make the origin coincide with the
initial position of the object under consideration. By changing the origin, the physical situation
should not change.
Ex1 How far does a car travel in 10 s if it undergoes a constant acceleration of 5 m/s 2 to the right?
Assume the car is initially at rest.
Answer
Since it is always good to draw a picture, I have included one below.
Putting in the following values, we will be able to get the correct answer.
S o  0m
u  om / s 1
we have S  om  (0m / s 10s)   5m / s 2 102  250m
a   5m / s 2 2
t  10 s
Therefore, the answer is that the car is 250 m away from its initial position after undergoing a
constant acceleration of 5 m/s2 to the right for 10 s.
Ex2 Assume a ball has been thrown upward with an initial velocity of 20 m/s. While it is in the
air, it experiences a constant downward acceleration of 10m / s 2 . What is the position of the ball
after 2 s?
Answer
The values you should have used are as follows u  20m / s a  10m / s 2 t  2s x0  0m
1
x  0m  (20m / s)(10m / s 2 )  (10m / s 2 )(2 s) 2  20m
2
Exo6. Distance Formula: v 2  u 2  2a ( S  S 0 )
1 A body undergoing uniform acceleration has its velocity increased from 20 cm/s to 50 cm/s,
while it travels 500 cm. What is its acceleration and how long does it take to travel the 500 cm?
Answer:
Here we use the equation: v2  u 2  2as , because it relates with distance in the absence of time.
So 502  202  2a500 gives a  14.28m / s 2
2. A boy throws a stone vertically into the air and it returns to his hands in 4 s.
a) What was the velocity when it was thrown into the air?
b) How high did the stone rise?
c) What distance did it travel during the second second (or quarter) of its flight?
Answer:
a) Using the equation v  at  u , at maximum height, v  0 , a  10m / s 2 and t  2s (i.e. half

way through). This gives u  20m / s
b) Using v2  u 2  2as , at a maximum height v  0 and u  20m / s . This gives s  20m
1
c) For 1s, s   (10) 12  20 1  15m
2
1
For the first 2s, s   (10)  22  20  2  20m
2
In the second second, the stone traveled 20 15  5m
3. An aeroplane lands on the runway with a velocity of 50m / s and decelerates at 10m / s 2 to a
velocity of 20m / s . Calculate the distance travelled on the runway.
Answer u  50m / s v  20m / s a  10m / s 2
No time is mentioned. So we use v 2  u 2  2a ( S  S0 )  S  105m
4. A car moving with a velocity of 15 m/s accelerates uniformly at the rate of 2 m/s2 to reach a
velocity of 20 m/s. Find the time taken and the distance travelled in this time
Answer
Using v  at  u  t  2.5s
Using v2  u 2  2aS  S  43.75m
Exo6. Thrown down and thrown upward

At a given location on the Earth and in the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same
constant acceleration. g  9.780m / s 2 (Equator), g  9.832m / s 2 (pole)
1. Is each of the following True or False? Without air resistance:
a) A heavy stone falls more quickly than a light stone

b) Near the ground, falling things all accelerate at the same rate.
c) Dropped from the same height, a heavy stone takes exactly the same time to reach the ground
as a light stone.
Answer
a) False
b) True
c) True
2 A man fires a rock out of a slingshot directly upward. The rock has an initial velocity of 15m / s . How
long will it take for the rock to return to the level he fired it at?
1 2u 2 15
Answer: S  ut  gt 2  t    3s
2 g 10
3. A falling body travels 68 m in the last second of its free motion: Assuming that the body started
from rest, determine how long it took to reach the ground and the altitude from which the body
fells.
Solution:
A convenient axis is one with origin at the point of dropping and pointing downward.
Let t1 be the time one second before hitting the ground and h1 the corresponding distance traveled
Let t2 be the time to hit the ground and h2 the corresponding distance traveled. Then t2 - t1 = 1 s
and h2 - h1 = 68 m.
1 2 1
h1  gt1  4.9t12 and h2  gt2 2  4.9t2 2 .
2 2
4.9t2 2  4.9t12  68 4, and replacing t1 by (t2-1s) we get 4.9t2 2  4.9(t2  1) 2  68 or 9.8t2  4.9  68 ,
with t2 in seconds giving t2 = 7.4 s.
The altitude is then h2  4.9(7.4) 2  268m
4. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 30 m/s. Find

a. The time taken to reach its highest point
b. The distance then travelled (assume g = 10 m/s2)
Answer
a. Using v  at  u ; at highest point v = 0 since ball is momentarily at rest we find t = 3 s
1
b. Using S  ut  gt 2  S  45m
2
5. A baseball pitcher throws a fastball with a speed of 44 m/s. Estimate the average acceleration of
the ball during the throwing motion. It is observed that in throwing the baseball, the pitcher
accelerates the ball through a displacement of about 3.5 m from behind the body to the point
where it is released.
Answer
v 2  u 2 442  02
a   280m / s
2s 2  3.5
6. Explain the error in these two common misconceptions that:
a) Acceleration and velocity are always in the same direction

b) An object thrown upward has zero acceleration at the highest point.
Answer: Both are wrong.

a) Velocity and acceleration are not necessary in all same direction. When a ball is moving
upward, its velocity is positive (upward), whereas the acceleration is negative.
b) At the highest point, the ball has zero velocity for an instant. Is the acceleration also zero at
this point? No. gravity does not stop acting. So g = 10 m/s2 even there. Thinking that g = o at
this point lead to the conclusion that upon reaching this point, the ball would hover there. For
if the acceleration were zero, the velocity would remain zero, and the ball would stay up there
without falling.
7. A person throws a ball upward into the air with an initial velocity of 15.0 m/s. Calculate
a) how high it goes

b) how much time it takes for the ball to reach the maximum height point B
c) How long the ball is in the air before it comes back to his hand.
d) The velocity of the ball when it returns to the thrower‘s hand (point C)
e) At what time t the ball passes a point 8.00 m above the person‘s hand.
We are not concerned here with the throwing action, but only with the motion of the ball after it leaves the
thrower‘s hand.
Answer
a) To determine the maximum height, we calculate the position of the ball when its velocity
equals zero (v = 0 m/s) at highest point). At t = 0 we have yo = 0, u = 15 m/s, and a = -9.80
m/s2. At t (maximum height), v = 0, a = -9.8 m/s2, and we wish to find y. we use
v 2  u 2  2ay the ball reaches a height of 11.5 m above the hand.
b) Using v  u  at we have 0  15.0m / s  (9.80m / s 2 )t  t  1.53s . This time is just half the
time takes the ball to go up and fall back to its original position.
c) Now we need to calculate how long the ball is in the air before it returns to his hand. We could
do this calculation in two parts by first determining the time required for the ball to reach its
highest point, and then determining the time it takes to fall back down. However, it is simpler
1
to consider the motion from A to B to C in one step and use y  gt 2  ut . We can do this
2
because y (or x) represents position or displacement, and not the total distance travelled. Thus,
1
at both points A and C, y =0, a = -9.80 m/s2 and find 0  (9.80m / s 2 )t 2  (15.0m / s)t
2
This equation is readily factored and we have two solutions: t = 0 and t = 3.06 s
The first solution (t = 0) corresponds to initial point A when the ball was first thrown and was
also at y = 0. The second solution, t = 3.06 s, corresponds to point C, when the ball has
returned to y = 0. Thus the ball is in air the 3.006 s
d. Using equation v  u  at we find v  15.0m / s  (9.8m / s 2 )(3.06s)  15.0m / s . The ball
has the same magnitude of velocity when it returns to the starting point as it did initially, but
in the opposite direction.
1
e. We want t, given that y = 8.00 m, u = 15 m/s and g = 9.80 m/s2. We use y  gt 2  ut we
2
1
have to solve any quadratic equation 8.00  (9.80)t 2  15.0t or 4.90t 2  15.0t  8.00  0
2
We find t1  0.69s and t2  2.37 s .
These two solutions are both valid because the ball passes y = 8 m when it goes up (t = 0.69 s)
and again when it comes down (t = 2.37 s)
8. A stone is dropped from a balloon that is descending at a uniform rate of 12m / s when it is
1000m from ground. u  15m / s
a. Calculate the velocity and position of the stone after 10 s and the time it takes the stone to
hit the ground.
b. Solve the same problem as for the case of a balloon rising at the given velocity.
Answer:
a) It seems convenient a vertical axis pointing downward with the origin at 1000 m over ground.
The data is then taken as: a  9.8m / s 2 u  12m / s yi  0m t  10s
v  gt  u  9.8 10  12  610m or 390 m from ground.
The time to hit the ground is obtained doing y = 1000 m in

1 1
y  yi  ut  at 2  1000  0  12t   9.8t 2  t  13.1s
2 2
b) We could maintain the same free fall frame of reference as before and then the velocity u will
be -12m/s and the same acceleration.
Or, we can choose an upward direction axis with u  12m / s and a = -9.8 m/s2.
The usual choice is this last one, i.e. u  12m / s a  9.8m / s 2 yi  0m t  10s
v  u  at  86m / s
1
y  ut  at 2  370m or 630 m from ground.
2
1
The time to hit the ground is obtained doing y  100m in y  ut  at 2  370m
2
1
100  12t  9.8t 2 or 0  4.9t 2  12t  100  t  15.56s .
2
9. A man standing at the top of a building throws a ball vertically upward with a velocity of
14m / s . The ball reaches the ground 4.5 s later.
a. What is the maximum height reached by the ball?
b. How high is the building?
c. With what velocity will it reach the ground?
Solution
a) Maximum height means v = 0. Then using v = vi + at, and a vertical axis with origin at the top
of the building pointing upward, with v = 0, a = -9.8 m/s2 and vi = 14 m/s, the time to reach
v 14
maximum height is t   i    1.43s
a 9.8
1
Now, using y  yi  vit  at 2 with the same vertical axis already mentioned, yi = 0, vi = +14 m/s,
2
a = -9.8 m/s , we get ymax  0  (14)(1.43)  (49)(1.43) 2  10m
2
b) Keeping the same axis as before, and using vi = +14 m/s, a = -9.8 m/s2 and t  4.5s in
1
y  yi  vit  at 2  14  4.5  49(4.5)2  36.2m .
2
The result is negative as expected since the ground is in the negative side of the axis. The height
of the building is then 36.2 m.
c) The velocity reaching the ground is v  u  gt  14  9.8(4.5)  30.1m / s
Exo7. Kinematics in one dimension and with constant acceleration
Kinematics in one dimension and with constant acceleration involves motion where the position
can be represented by a single number. Motions in other directions (if any) are ignored.
Kinematics serves to tell us how a particle moves in time.
For solving kinematics problems without calculus, use of following equations is necessary:
v  at  u

 1 2
 S  at  ut  So .
 2
v  u 2  2at
2
1. Release a ball initially at rest. What is the velocity of the ball when it reaches a point 20 m below its
initial position? (Assume the ball experiences a constant downward acceleration of 10m / s 2 )
Answer: In order to solve this problem, you will need to use the following formulae:
u  u 2  2a(S0  S )
t and v  u  at
a
The ball velocity's is 20 m/s downward when it is 20 m below its initial position after being
released from rest.
2. Consider the following situation. You are sitting on top of a tree 15 meters off the ground. For some
unknown reason, you throw a ball upward. After 4 s, the ball is moving downward at a speed of 20 m/s.
What is the position of the ball relative to the ground? Once again, assume the ball experiences a constant
downward acceleration of g  10m / s 2
Answer
In order to solve this problem, you will need to use the following formulae:
1
u  v  gt and S  So  ut  gt 2
2
The answer you should get is that the ball is 15 m above the ground after 4 s
3. What net force is needed to uniformly stop an automobile whose mass is 1500 kg, from a
velocity of 100 km/h to rest, on a distance of 55 m?
Solution:
To use F = ma, the acceleration should be calculated first. It is assumed that the movement is
along the +x axis. The initial velocity is u = 100 km/h = 28m/s, the final velocity is v = 0, and the
displacement is x = 55 m.
v 2  u 2 0  282
From the kinematics equation v  u  2ax , finding a: a 
2 2
  7.1m / s 2 .
2x 2  55
The necessary force is then: F = ma = (1500 kg) (-7.1m/s2) - 1.1x104 N, acting in the -x sense.
4 A car starts from rest and is accelerated uniformly at the rate of 2 m/s2 during 20 s. It then
maintains a constant speed for half a minute. The brakes are then applied and the vehicle uniformly
retarded to rest in 10 s. Find
a. the maximum speed reached in km/h

b. The total distance covered in meters.
c. The average velocity
Answer
a. v1  u  at1 but u  o as the car starts from the rest. Thus v1  at1  2  20  40m / s
b. The motion of the car comprises three phases:
at 2 2(20)2
First phase: UARM (OA): x1  1   400m
2 2
Second phase: MRU (AB): x2  v2t2  40  30  1200m but v2  v1
Third phase: UARM (BC):
 (4)(10) 2
 at 2
 3
x   40 10  200m
 x3  3 3  v2t3 2
 2 
v  a t  v  0 a3   v2   40  4m / s 2
 3 3 3 2
 t3 10
The total distance travelled by the car is x  x1  x2  x3  400  1200  200  1800m
Alternative graphical solution
The graph below shows that the distance moved is numerically equal to the area of the area under the
velocity-time graph in which OA, AB and BC represent the three stages of the motion respectively. The
area under velocity-time graph is numerically equal to the area of the figure OABC (trapezium):
1 1
Area OABC: AOABC  ( AB  OC )  AD  (30  60)  40  1800m
2 2
1800
c. The average velocity will be given by: V   30m / s
20  30  10
5. A car starts from rest and is accelerated uniformly at rate of 2m / s 2 for 6 s. It then maintains a
constant speed for half a minute. The brakes are then applied and the car uniformly retarded to
rest in 5 s. find the maximum speed reached in km/h and the total distance covered in meters.
Answer
a) v  a1t1  u but u  o as the car starts from the rest. Thus v  a1t1  2  6  12m / s  43km / h
1 1
b) The total distance covered is given by: AOABC  ( AB  OC )  AD  (30  41) 12  426m
2 2
Exo8. Motion time-graph
1. Distinguish between linear motion and non-linear motion; distance and displacement; speed
and velocity; actual speed and average speed.
2 An object moves along the x-axis. When it is at the centre of coordinate, its velocity is 6 m/s
and its acceleration is 8 m/s2. Determine:
a) Its position at t = 2 s
b) Its velocity at t = 3 s
3. If the motion of a body at a constant speed is linear, determine the equation of motion given
that when the time taken is 3 s the distance travelled is 3 m and when the time is 5 s the distance
travelled is 1 m.
Answer s  ut  so
At t = 3 s we have 3  3u  s0 and at t = 5 we have 1  5u  s0

We conclude that the equation of motion is s  t  6
4 A train at rest starts to move from one station and stops at another station in 18min. In the first 2
min, it moves with a constant acceleration of 0.2 m/s2 and that its speed is constant until it
stopped by a constant force from brakes, which is applied for 1 min.
a) Sketch a velocity-time graph for the motion
b) Determine the distance between the two stations
5. An object is initially at rest then it moves as shown bellow
a. What is the maximum speed of that body?

b. Calculate the distance covered by that object in 14s.
c. For how long does the velocity remain constant?
d. Find acceleration in time interval between
i. t = 0 and t = 10s.
ii. t = 10 s and t = 13 s
iii. t = 13 s and t = 14 s
6. A motor cycle passes a lamp post. Every second, its distance from the post is measured:
Time /s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Distance /m 0 3 10 22 34 46 54 56 56 56
a. Plot a distance-time graph

b. Mark on your graph the sections where the motor cycle:
i. has acceleration;
ii. is traveling at a steady speed;
iii. has retardation;
iv. is stopped.
c. How far does the motor cycle travel in the first 7 seconds? What is its average speed over this
period?
d. How long does it take the motor cycle to travel from 10 m to 46 m? What distance does it
cover? What is its average speed over this distance?
7. a) What is meant by acceleration?

b) An object was thrown vertically upwards and its height above the ground was measured at
various times. The results obtained are shown in the table.
Time /s 0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8
Height /m 0 35 60 75 75 60 35 0
Plot a graph of height on the Y-axis against time on the X-axis. From your graph find
i. The maximum height reached
ii. The time taken to reach this height
c) Using either or both of the answers from part (b), calculate the initial velocity with which the
object was thrown. (Assume that the acceleration of free fall is 10m / s 2 ).
1.2.5.2 Practical activity

Activity1: Observing states of rest and motion
Equipment:
 Meter rule
 Ball
Procedure:
 Place the ball at one point on ground and mark that point O.
 Is the ball moving or not? How do you tell whether it is moving or not?
 Push the ball. Is the ball moving or not?
Observations
 In step one the ball remained at point O. it was not moving.

 In step two the ball moved because it went away from O.
Conclusion
 When the ball is not moving it remains at one point. The ball is said to be at rest.
 When going away from point O, it is in motion.
 Point O is the reference point. It is also called the origin.
Activity2: Watching trajectories

Equipment
 Piece of wood
 Rope
Procedure
- Draw a straight line AB with help of the piece of wood and rope
- Draw and mark a circle ACBA with help of the piece of wood and the rope
- Let a participant move in a straight line from A to B
- Let another participant move in a circle ACBA
- What is the form of the path followed by the participants?
Observations:
 The first participant follows a straight line path
 The second participant follows a circular path
Conclusion
- The path followed by a moving body is called its trajectory.

- Along AB the trajectory is a rectilinear.
- Along ACB the trajectory is a circle.
Activity 3: Displacement and distance travelled.

Equipment: a piece of wood and Rope
Procedures
- Draw a triangle ABC
- Let a participant move in a straight line from A to C
- Let another participant move in the path A to B
then to C
- Measure the length AC
- Measure the total length of AB and B C
- What distance does the participant who moves along AC move?
- What is his displacement?
Observation
The path followed by a moving body is called its trajectory.
When he moves along AC the travelled distance equals the measured length of AC
When he moves along AB and then along BC the travelled distance is equal to the sum of the
measured lengths of AB and BC. In both case the displacement is a vector from A to B and has a
magnitude equal to the length of AB
Conclusion
Displacement is a vector from a starting point to final point of motion. The travelled distance is
the length of the path followed by a moving body from the starting to final point.
Activity4: Measuring average velocity.

Equipment: Tape measure; Stopwatch
Procedure:
 Mark two points A and B on the ground

 Let two participants start at the same time and move from A towards B along the straight line
as fast as they can.
 Have they moved equal distances?

 Who arrives at B first?
 Who moves faster and how do you tell?
 Time the two participants as they move from A to B. Who takes the shorter time?
 By measuring the distance from A to B, calculate the distance moved per second by both
participants
 What is the average velocity of each participant? What is average speed of each participant?
Conclusion
 The velocity of a body is the distance it covers per second in a specified direction, it is a
Displacement
vector quantity. The velocity 
Time taken
dis tan ce
 The magnitude of the velocity is called speed speed  .
Time taken
 Velocity is a vector while speed is a scalar.
Activity 5: Acceleration
Equipment
- A marble, Stop watch
- An inclined rail with marked strips 1m each
Procedure:
- Arrange the incline plane as shown.
- Allow a marble to move from rest down the rail.
- Time the marble as it moves the 3 m. )
- Time the marble as it moves through the first 2 m.
- Time the marble as it moves the first 1 m. )
- What is the average velocity as the marble moves the first 1 m?
- What is the average velocity of the marble as it moves the second 1 m?
- What is the average velocity of the marble as it moves the third 1 m?
- Where is marble moving fastest?
- Is the velocity increasing or decreasing?
Observation
The average velocities are different. The velocity increases as the marble goes down the plane.
Conclusion
The velocity is changing with time which means the body is accelerating.
The acceleration of a body is the rate of change of its velocity with time. If the acceleration is
uniform the velocity increases. If the velocity increases with time the body is said to be accelerating. If
the velocity decreases with time the body is said to be decelerating.
Rectilinear motion is the motion in straight line. A body can move following a given path known
as its trajectory. If the body remains at one point we say it is at rest and its velocity is zero. A
body is moving when its position relative to a reference point is changing.
1.3 CIRCULAR MOTION
In physics, circular motion is rotation along a circle: a circular path or a circular orbit. It can be
uniform, that is, with constant angular rate of rotation, or non-uniform, that is, with a changing
rate of rotation.
1.3.1 Uniform Circular Motion

An object is undergoing uniform circular motion if it is traveling at a constant speed while moving in a
circle. Examples of circular motion are: an artificial satellite orbiting the Earth in geosynchronous
orbit, a stone which is tied to a rope and is being swung in circles, a racecar turning through a
curve in a race track, an electron moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, a gear turning
inside a mechanism; motion of watch hands, Earth‘s rotation
Circular motion is accelerated even if the angular rate of rotation is constant, because the object's
velocity vector is constantly changing direction. Such change in direction of velocity involves
acceleration of the moving object by a centripetal force, which pulls the moving object towards
the center of the circular orbit. Without this acceleration, the object would move in a straight line,
according to Newton's laws of motion.
Therefore, this acceleration is called centripetal acceleration (centre

seeking acceleration) or radial acceleration (since it is directed along
radius, toward the center of the circle).
Why did I say constant speed instead of constant velocity? The reason
lies in the definition of velocity. As you will recall, Velocity includes a
direction in addition to the speed while an object undergoing uniform
circular motion is moving at a constant speed, it is not moving at a
constant velocity. This is because the direction of its motion continues Fig. 11 Circular motion
to change as it moves around the circle. And, because the direction is
always changing, its velocity is not constant. Remember, a constant
velocity only occurs if both the object's speed and its direction are constant. The only way this
can occur is if the object is moving in a straight line and at a constant speed. Examples:
 In the case of a ball attached to a string, the force responsible for making the ball undergo
uniform circular motion is you pulling on the string which then pulls on the ball it is attached to.
 In the case of the earth orbiting the sun, the force responsible for keeping the earth in orbit is the
gravitational force of the sun pulling on the earth.
Given that an object is performing uniform circular motion (i.e., moving around a circle of radius,
r, at a constant speed, v). The following formula tells us the amount of force responsible for
mv 2
causing the object to perform uniform circular motion: Fc 
r
where
 Fc = the amount of force needed to make the object undergo uniform circular motion at a
constant speed, v, and at a radius, r. that force is always pointing inward from the object
toward the center of the circle around which it is moving. The subscript, c, serves to remind
us that the force, , is always pointing toward the center of the circle
 v = the speed of the object as it performs uniform circular motion
 r = the radius of the circle around which the object is moving
 m = the mass of the object undergoing uniform circular motion
mv 2 v2
In Fc  we have a 
r r
For motion in a circle of radius R, the circumference of the circle is C = 2π R.
2
If the period for one rotation is T, the angular rate of rotation ω is:  
T
2 R
The speed of the object traveling the circle (Linear velocity) is v   R
T
2 t
The angle θ swept out in a time t is:    t
T
The acceleration due to change in the direction of the velocity is found by noticing that the
velocity completely rotates direction in the same time T the object takes for one rotation. Thus,
2 v
the velocity vector sweeps out a path of length 2π v every T seconds, or: a    2 R and is
T
directed radially inward.
Circular motion is often described in terms of the Frequency f as so many revolutions per second
1 
f  
T 2
The period T of an object revolving in a circle is the time required for one complete revolution.
In SI unit, the unit for frequency is Hertz (Hz)
Example1 A 150 g ball at the end of a string is revolving uniformly in horizontal circle of radius
0.600 m; the ball makes 2.00 revolutions in a second. What is its centripetal acceleration?
Answer
1
If the ball makes two complete revolutions per second then the Period is T   0.500 s
f
The distance traveled in this time is the circumference of the circle, therefore the ball has speed:
2 r
v  7.54m / c
T
v2
The centripetal acceleration is aR   94.8m / s 2
r
1.3.2 Exercises
Exo1: Consider an object with a mass of 5 kg. In addition, the object is moving with a constant
speed of 4 m/s around a circle of radius, 2 m. What is the amount of force (in newtons) which is
causing this object to perform uniform circular motion? In addition, what is the direction in which
this force is acting?
Solution: m = 5 kg, v = 4 m/s, r = 2 m
mv 2 (5kg )  (4m / s) 2
Using the formula: Fc  We find Fc   40 N
r2 2m
A force of 40 N must be acting on it pulling the object inward toward the center of the circle
Exo2 Consider an object moving at a constant speed of 4 m/s around a circle with a radius of 2 m.
How much must the inward force be increased if we want the object to move at 8 m/s without
changing the radius of the circle around which the object moves?
Answer
mv 2 m(4v) 2 16mv 2
F1  and F2  
r2 r2 r2
F2 16mv 2 r 2
  4
F1 r2 mv
In other words, we need to increase the inward pulling force by 4 times
Exo3 Does constant speed necessarily implies constant velocity?

The answer is no because the direction could be changing. Recall that velocity involves both
speed and direction. Therefore, for a velocity to be constant, the speed and direction would both
have to be constant. So, what would an object moving at a constant velocity look like? One
answer would be that the object would not be moving at all. This is fine because the speed is
0m / s and the direction is not changing. The only other possible answer would be that the object
is moving at a constant speed in a straight line. The constant speed part shouldn't be confusing.
But, why does the object have to move in a straight line? Well, if it didn't move in a straight line,
then the direction would be changing, and, as a result, the velocity would be changing and not
constant.
To summarize, the only way an object can have a constant velocity would be if it was sitting still
or if it was moving in a straight line at a constant speed. There are no other alternatives.
Exo4 The moon‘s nearly circular orbit about the Earth has a radius of about 38400 km and a
period T of 27.3 days. Determine the acceleration of the Moon toward the Earth.
Answer:
In orbit around the Earth, the Moon travels a distance S  2 r where r = 384000000 m is the
2 r
radius of its circular path. The speed of the moon in its orbit about the Earth is v  , The
T
period T in seconds is T = (27.3 d)*(3600s)/h = 2.36*106s.
v2 2 r 2 1 4 2 r
Therefore, aR  ( )  2  2.72 103 m / s 2
r T r T
Exo5 A boy is playing by turning a stone attached on a rope whose length is 30 m. He reaches a
velocity of 3.76 m/s. Find:
a) The stone‘s frequency
b) The angular velocity of the stone
Exo6. A model car moves round a circular track of radius 0.3 m at 2 revolution per second what is;
a) The angular speed and The period

b) The speed of the car
c) The angular speed of the car if it moves with a uniform speed of 2 m/s in a circle of radius
0.4m
CHAP.2 DYNAMICS OF RECTILINEAR MOTION

By the end of this topic; the learner should be able to:
 State Newton‘s Laws of motion.

 Distinguish between internal and external forces
acting on a system.
 Define inertia: centripetal and centrifugal forces.
 Define; work; energy and power.
 State the principle of conservation of mechanical
energy.
 Give examples of transformation of K.E. to P.E. and vice versa
 Solve problems involving; work; energy and power and conservation of mechanical energy
2.1 FORCE AND FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS
2.1.1 Definition
In physics, the concept of force is used to describe how a massive body is affected by acceleration
Force can also be described by intuitive concepts such as a push or pull that can cause an object
with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to
accelerate, or which can cause a flexible object to deform. Force can act through contact or at
distance. Forces do not always give rise to motion. For example, you may push very hard on a
heavy desk and it may not move.
Force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. Forces are additive vector
quantities. When two forces act on an object, the resulting force can be determined by the
parallelogram rule of vector addition: the addition of two vectors represented by sides of a
parallelogram, gives an equivalent resultant vector which is equal in magnitude and direction to
the transversal of the parallelogram. The magnitude of the resultant varies from the difference of
the magnitudes of the two forces to their sum, depending on the angle between their lines of
action.
There are a variety of types of forces. Previously in senior 1, a variety of force types were placed
into two broad category headings on the basis of whether the force resulted from the contact or
non-contact of the two interacting objects. Some of them are:
Friction
Friction is a surface force that opposes motion. The frictional force is directly related to the
normal force which acts to keep two solid objects separated at the point of contact.
There are two broad classifications of frictional forces: static friction and kinetic friction.
a. The static friction force (Fsf) will exactly oppose forces applied to an object parallel to a
surface contact up to the limit specified by the coefficient of static friction (μsf) multiplied by
the normal force (FN).
b. The kinetic friction force (Fkf) is independent of both the forces applied and the movement of
the object. Thus, the magnitude of the force equals: Fkf   kf FN
where μkf is the coefficient of kinetic friction. For most surface interfaces, the coefficient of
kinetic friction is less than the coefficient of static friction.
Tension
Tension forces can be modeled using ideal strings which are massless, frictionless, unbreakable,
and unstretchable. They can be combined with ideal pulleys which allow ideal strings to switch
physical direction. Ideal strings transmit tension forces instantaneously in action-reaction pairs so
that if two objects are connected by an ideal string, any force directed along the string by the first
object is accompanied by a force directed along the string in the opposite direction by the second
object. By connecting the same string multiple times to the same object through the use of a set-
up that uses movable pulleys, the tension force on a load can be multiplied. For every string that
acts on a load, another factor of the tension force in the string acts on the load. However, even
though such machines allow for an increase in force, there is a corresponding increase in the
length of string that must be displaced in order to move the load.
Elastic force
An elastic force acts to return a spring to its natural length. An ideal spring is taken to be
massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and infinitely stretchable. Such springs exert forces that push
when contracted, or pull when extended, in proportion to the displacement of the spring from its
equilibrium position. This linear relationship was described by Robert Hooke in 1676, for whom
Hooke's law is named. If Δx is the displacement, the force exerted by an ideal spring equals:
FE  x  k
where k is the spring constant (or force constant), which is particular to the spring. The minus sign
accounts for the tendency of the elastic force to act in opposition to the applied load.
Normal Forces,
The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object which is in contact with another
stable object. For example, if a book is resting upon a surface, then the surface is exerting an
upward force upon the book in order to support the weight of the book. On occasions, a normal
force is exerted horizontally between two objects which are in contact with each other. For
instance, if a person leans against a wall, the wall pushes horizontally on the person.
The normal force is always perpendicular to the contact surface but is not always opposite in
direction to the force of gravity on an object.
2.1.2 Free-body diagrams

Free-body diagrams are diagrams used to show the relative magnitude
and direction of all forces acting upon an object in a given situation.
The size of the arrow in a free-body diagram is reflects the magnitude
of the force. The direction of the arrow shows the direction which the
force is acting. Each force arrow in the diagram is labeled to indicate Fig. 12 Free body diagram
the exact type of force. The free-body diagram above depicts four
forces acting upon the object
Ex1. A book is at rest on a table top. A free-body diagram for this
situation looks like this
Ex2. A girl is suspended motionless from the ceiling by two ropes. A
free-body diagram for this situation looks like this:
2.1.3 Determining the Net Force

An object at rest tends to stay at rest and an object in motion tends to stay in motion with the same
speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
In the statement of Newton's first law, the unbalanced force refers to that force which does not
become completely balanced (or canceled) by the other individual forces. If either all the vertical
forces (up and down) do not cancel each other and/or all horizontal forces do not cancel each
other, then an unbalanced force exists.
The existence of an unbalanced force for a given situation can be quickly realized by looking at
the free-body diagram for that situation. Free-body diagrams for two situations are shown below.
Note that the actual magnitude of the individual forces is indicated on the diagram.
Fig. 13 Unbalanced force
In each of the above situations, there is an unbalanced force. Is commonly said that in each
situation there is a net force acting upon the object.
The net force is the vector sum of all the forces which act upon an object. That is to say, the net
force is the sum of all the forces, taking into account the fact that a force is a vector and two
forces of equal magnitude and opposite direction will cancel each other out. At this point, the
rules for summing vectors (such as force vectors) will be kept relatively simple.
When 2 or more forces act upon an' object without affecting its state of motion, the forces cancel
one another out; this is called balanced forces and the object is in equilibrium.
For a velocity change, a net force, or unbalanced force is required. This force is capable of
accelerating the object. According to Newton‘s law of motion: The net force on an object is equal
to the mass of the object multiplied by its acceleration: Fnet  ma ‖
Ex1: Observe the following examples of summing two forces:
Ex2. Free-body diagrams for four situations are shown below. For each situation, determine the
net force acting upon the object.
Answer:
A. The net force is 0 N. All the individual forces balance each other (i.e., cancel each other out).
B. The net force is 5 N, left. The vertical forces balance each other (i.e., cancel each other out).
The leftward force (friction) remains unbalanced
C. The net force is 0 N. All the individual forces balance each other (i.e., cancel each other out).
D. The net force is 15 N, up. The upward force of air resistance is only partially balanced by the
downward force of gravity - 15 N of upward force remains unbalanced.
Ex3. Free-body diagrams for four situations are shown below. The net force is known for each
situation. However, the magnitudes of a few of the individual forces are not known. Analyze each
situation individually and determine the magnitude of the unknown forces.
Answer:
 A = 50 N (the horizontal forces must be balanced)

 B = 200 N (the vertical forces must be balanced)
 C = 1100 N (in order to have a net force of 200 N, up)
 D = 20 N (in order to have a net force of 60 N, left)
 E = 300 N (the vertical forces must be balanced)
 F = H = any number you wish (as long as F equals H)
 G = 50 N (in order to have a net force of 30 N, right)
Ex4. Friction force

1. Define: a) Friction, b) Sliding friction, c) Rolling friction, d) Lubricants
a) Friction is the resistance to motion that occurs between two surfaces in contact. Friction
tends to oppose or stop motion
b) Sliding friction this is the frictional resistance an object in motion experiences
c) Rolling friction - wheels exhibit this form of friction which is usually less than sliding
friction
d) Lubricants reduce friction by separating two contacting surfaces with an intermediate
layer of softer material
2. Effects of friction
 Friction tends to generate heat energy.

 Friction reduces the speed of moving objects and therefore causes loss of energy.
 Friction damages sliding surfaces that are in contact.
 Friction causes wear and tear in moving parts.
3. Advantages and disadvantages of friction

Friction is very important because it enables us to move. If there was no friction, our feet would
slip, just as they do on smooth surface. Friction also enables us to write, to make fire, the brake of
car or bicycle use friction to slow them down.
It is also a nuisance because it wears the soles of our shoes and the car tires, causes the
unnecessary heat and undesirable noise, lowers efficiency of machine. In machine such as a
bicycle, friction hinders the wheels from turning freely. This is also true in other machines like
cars, Lorries, buses. This means that they use more fuel in order to move because they have to
overcome friction in addition to their weight.
Hence we must always try to reduce friction in such machines in order to cut on the fuel to use.
The moving machine parts are always oiled or greased because of this. This helps one to slip more
easily over the other. The liquid is usually oil, which we refer to as a lubricant (reduce friction by
separating two contacting surfaces with an intermediate layer of softer material). And we call the
effect lubrication. The 2nd t method involves reducing the roughness of the surfaces in contact
4. Factors affecting friction and ways
Friction depends upon the nature of the two surfaces in contact\ and upon the degree to which
they are pressed together. Experiments show us that the force of friction between two surfaces
depends:
 The nature of the surfaces. Rough surfaces give more friction than smooth ones. So if we want
to make a machine in which very little friction acts, we make the surfaces smooth;
 The force pressing the surfaces together. The bigger this force is, the greater the force of
friction.
 The bigger the area of contact faces of object, the greater is the opposing force.
 The type of shape also. Some shapes meet less resistance than others. The shapes which meet
the least resistance are said to be streamlined.
 The size of frictional force also depends the speed of the moving object.
The frictional force or resistance met by an object through air is always much less than it
experiences when moving through a liquid.
2.2 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

The study of moving bodies begun by Galileo Galilei in Italy was
continued after his death by Sir Isaac Newton in England.
Sir Isaac Newton was one of the greatest scientists and mathematicians
that ever lived. He was born in England on December 25, 1643. He was
born the same year that Galileo died. He lived for 85 years.
Isaac Newton was raised by his grandmother. He attended Free
Grammar School and then went on to Trinity College Cambridge.
Newton worked his way through college. While at college he became
interested in Mathematics, Physics, and Astronomy. Newton received
both a bachelors and masters degree.
While Newton was in college he was writing his ideas in a journal. Fig. 14 Sir Isaac Newton
Newton had new ideas about motion, which he called his three laws of
motion. He also had ideas about gravity, the diffraction of light, and
forces. Newton's ideas were so good that Queen Anne knighted him in 1705. His
accomplishments laid the foundations for modern science and revolutionized the world. Sir Isaac
Newton died in 1727.
In this lesson you will develop an understanding of each of Newton's Three Laws of Motion.
Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws which provide relationships between the forces
acting on a body and the motion of the body. They were first compiled by Sir Isaac Newton in his
work Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (translated, by means ―the mathematical
principles of natural philosophy‖), first published on July 5, 1687. The laws form the basis for
classical mechanics and Newton himself used them to explain many results concerning the motion
of physical objects. In the third volume of the text, Newton showed that these laws of motion,
combined with his law of universal gravitation, explained Kepler's laws of planetary motion
2.2.1 First law: law of inertia.
2.2.1.1. State of law of Inertia

It is possible to select a set of reference frames, called inertial reference frames, observed from
which a particle moves without any change in velocity if no net force acts on it. This law is often
simplified into the sentence "A body continues to maintain its state of rest or of uniform motion
unless acted upon by an external unbalanced force." Simply stated, an object moving at a constant
velocity will continue to move at a constant velocity (moving at a constant speed and in a straight
line) unless a nonzero net (or total) force acts upon the object.
This means that there is a natural tendency of objects to keep on doing what they're doing. All
objects resist changes in their state of motion. In the absence of an unbalanced force, an object in
motion will maintain this state of motion.
The law of inertia was first formulated by Galileo Galilei for horizontal motion on Earth and was
later generalized by René Descartes. Before Galileo it had been thought that all horizontal motion
required a direct cause, but Galileo deduced from his experiments that a body in motion would
remain in motion unless a force (such as friction) caused it to come to rest. Recall that constant
velocity means that the object is moving at a constant speed and in a constant direction.
This law is known as the law of inertia. This is often paraphrased as "zero net force implies zero
acceleration", but this is an over-simplification. The significance of the first law is to establish
frames of reference for which the other laws are applicable, such frames being called inertial
frames.
Newton's first law says that if this sum is zero, the state of motion of the object does not change.
Essentially, it makes the following two points:
 An object that is not moving will not move until a net force acts upon it.
 An object that is in motion will not change its velocity until a net force acts upon it.
Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of rest or motion in the absence of
any net forces acting.
But what is meant by the phrase state of motion? The state of motion of an object is defined by its
velocity - the speed with a direction. Thus, inertia could be redefined as follows: Inertia is the
tendency of an object to resist changes in its velocity.
An object which is not changing its velocity is said to have an acceleration of 0 m/s2. Thus, we
could provide an alternative means of defining inertia is tendency of an object to resist
accelerations.
An object with a large mass has a lot of inertia. The greater the mass of an object, the harder it is
to start it moving or to stop it. Therefore mass is a measure of inertia.
Objects that are either at rest or moving with constant velocity are said to be in equilibrium.
Newton‘s first law states one condition that must be true for equilibrium: the net external force
acting on a body in equilibrium must be equal to zero.
Reference frames and law of inertia
Reference frames in which Newton‘s first law does hold are called inertial reference frames. For
most purposes, we can usually assume that reference frames fixed on the Earth are Inertial frames.
(This is not precisely true due to the Earth‘s rotation, but usually it is close enough).
Any reference frame that moves with constant velocity relative to an inertial frame is also an
inertial reference.
Reference frames where the law of inertial does not hold, such as the accelerating reference
frame, are called non-inertial reference frame.
2.2.1.2 Exercises
Exo1. Imagine a place in the cosmos far from all gravitational and frictional influences. Suppose
that you visit that place (just suppose) and throw a rock. The rock will
a) Gradually stop.
b) Continue in motion in the same direction at constant speed.
Answer: According to Newton's first law, the rock will continue in motion in the same
direction at constant speed
Exo2. A 2 kg object is moving
horizontally with a speed of 4 m/s. How much net force is required to keep the object moving at
this speed and in this direction?
Answer:
0 N An object in motion will maintain its state of motion. The presence of an unbalanced force
changes the velocity of the object.
Exo3. Passengers in a bus or car move forward when the vehicle stops suddenly. They continue in
their state of motion until brought to rest. The use of safety belts reduces the shock
Exo4. Mac and Tosh are arguing in the cafeteria. Mac says that if he flings the Jell-O with a
greater speed it will have a greater inertia. Tosh argues that inertia does not depend upon speed,
but rather upon mass. Who do you agree with? Explain why.
Answer:
Tosh is correct. Inertia is that quantity which depends solely upon mass; the more mass, the more
inertia. Momentum is another quantity in Physics which depends on both mass and speed.
Exo4. Fred spends most Sunday afternoons at rest on the sofa, watching pro football games and
consuming large quantities of food. What effect (if any) does this practice have upon his inertia?
Explain.
Answer: Fred's inertia will increase! Fred will increase his mass if he makes a habit of this. And
if his mass increases, then his inertia increases.
Exo5. Two bricks are resting on edge of the lab table. Shirley stands on her toes and spots the two
bricks. She acquires an intense desire to know which of the two bricks are most massive. Since
Shirley is vertically challenged, she is unable to reach high enough and lift the bricks; she can
however reach high enough to give the bricks a push. Discuss how the process of pushing the
bricks will allow Shirley to determine which of the two bricks is most massive. What difference
will Shirley observe and how can this observation lead to the necessary conclusion?
Answer:
The bricks, like any object, possess inertia. That is, the bricks will resist changes in their state of
motion. If Shirley gives them a push, then the bricks will offer resistance to this push. The one
with the most mass will be the one with the most inertia. This will be the brick which offers the
most resistance. This very method of detecting the mass of an object can be used on Earth as well
as in locations where gravitational forces are negligible for bricks.
Exo6. Can an object be in equilibrium if only one force acts on it?
2.2.2 Second law

2.2.2.1 State of second law
Newton's first law of motion predicts the behavior of objects for which all existing forces are
balanced. The first law - sometimes referred to as the law of inertia - states that if the forces acting
upon an object are balanced, then the acceleration of that object will be 0m / s 2 .
According to Newton, an object will only accelerate if there is a net force or unbalanced force
acting upon it. The presence of an unbalanced force will accelerate an object - changing its speed,
its direction, or both its speed and direction.
The second law states that the acceleration of an object is dependent upon two variables - the net
force acting upon the object and the mass of the object. The acceleration of an object depends
directly upon the net force acting upon the object, and inversely upon the mass of the object.
Newton's second law of motion can be formally stated as follow: ―The acceleration of an object as
produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the same
F
direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object: a  net ‖
m
This law is often stated as "The net force on an object is equal to the mass of the object multiplied
by its acceleration Fnet  ma ."
If the body is subject to multiple forces at the same time, then the acceleration is proportional to
n
the vector sum (that is, the net force): Fnet   mi a
i 1
SI unit for a force is Newton (N). 1 N is the force required to give a 1 kg mass an acceleration of
1m / s 2 i.e. 1N  1kgm / s
2
2.2.2.4 Exercise
Exo1. A block of mass 2 kg is pushed along a table with a constant velocity by a force of 5 N.
When the push is increased to 9 N what is
a) the resultant force;
b) the acceleration?
Answer:
When the block moves with constant velocity the forces acting on it are balanced. The force of
friction opposing its motion must therefore be 5 N.
When the push is increased to 9 N the resultant (unbalanced) force on the block is
F  9 N  5N  4 N
The acceleration is obtained from F = ma where a = F/m = 2 m/s2
Exo2 In a previous unit, several means of representing accelerated motion (position-time and
velocity-time graphs, etc.) were discussed. Combine your understanding of acceleration and the
newly acquired knowledge that a net force causes an acceleration to determine whether or not a
net force exists in the following situations.
Answer:
A. No! There is a no net force since there is not an acceleration (zero slope on a v-t graph means
zero acceleration).
B. Yes! There is a net force since there is acceleration (the slope on v-t graph means
acceleration).
C. Yes! There is a net force since there is acceleration (the slope on v-t graph means
acceleration).
Exo3 A car of mass 1200 kg travelling at 72km/h is brought to rest in 4 s. Find:

a) Average deceleration
b) Average braking force
c) Distance moved during the deceleration
Exo4 Determine the accelerations which result when a 12 N net force is applied to a 3 kg object
and then to a 6 kg object.
Answer:
F 12
A 3 kg object experiences an acceleration of a    4m / s 2
m 3
F 12
A 6 kg object experiences an acceleration of a    2m / s 2
m 6
Exo5 A net force of 15 N is exerted on an encyclopedia to cause it to accelerate at a rate of

5m / s 2 5. Determine the mass of the encyclopedia.
Answer:
Use Fnet= m * a with Fnet = 15 N and a  5m / s 2

(15 N) = (m)*( 4m / s 2 ) and m = 3.0 kg
Exo6 A. Suppose that a sled is accelerating at a rate of 2 m/s2. If the net force is tripled and the
mass is doubled, then what is the new acceleration of the sled?
Answer: a  3m / s 2
B Suppose that a sled is accelerating at a rate of 2 m/s2. If the net force is tripled and the
mass is halved, then what is the new acceleration of the sled?
Answer: a  12m / s
2
Exo7. A force of 300 N pulls a mass of 60 kg. If this force overcomes a constant frictional force
of 50 N, calculate the acceleration of the mass. (NATEX 200/2001 6BC)
Answer
Fnet 300  50
Fnet  ma  a    4m / s 2
m 60
Exo8. A. Consider an object that is moving to the right and speeding up. Is the object
accelerating? If so, in which direction is the object's acceleration?
B. Consider an object moving to the right and slowing down. Is the object accelerating? If
so, in which direction is the object's acceleration?
Exo9. The product of an object’s mass and velocity gives the object’s
a) Acceleration
b) Force
c) Momentum
d) Inertia
Exo10. Which is an example of a pair of equal and opposite forces?

a) Balanced and unbalanced
b) Action and reaction
c) Friction and centripetal
d) Mass and weight
Exo11. An object seems weightless if it is

a) In free fall
b) In an airplane
c) Moving rapidly
d) Not moving
2.2.3 Third law: Action and Reaction
2.2.3.1 State of Third Law

Whenever a particle A exerts a force on another particle
B, B simultaneously exerts a force on A with the same
magnitude in the opposite direction. The strong form of
the law further postulates that these two forces act along
the same line. This law is often simplified into the
sentence "To every action there is an equal and
Fig. 15 Action and reaction
opposite reaction."
For example, when you push on a wall with 5 N, the wall will also push back on you with an
equal and opposite force.
2.2.3 2 Exercises
Exo1. The valve of a cylinder containing 12 kg of compressed gas is opened and the cylinder
empties in 1 min 30 s. If the gas issues from the exit nozzle with an average velocity of 25 m/s,
find the force exerted on the cylinder.
Answer
v
The force required to accelerate the gas out of the cylinder is given by, F  ma  m  3.3N
t
By Newton‘s third law, an equal reaction force is exerted on the cylinder. i.e. 3.3N vertical.
Exo2. What exerts the force on the car which makes a car go forward?
Answer
A common answer is that the engine makes the car move forward. But it is not so simple. The
engine makes the wheels go around. But what good is that if they are on slick ice or mud? They
just spin. A car moves forward due to the friction force exerted by the ground on the tires, and this
force is the reaction to the force exerted on the ground by the tires.
We can walk forward because, when one foot pushes backward against the ground (this the action
of force), the ground pushes forward on that foot (the reaction) and it is this force which makes
you to move.
Exo3: Newton’s laws of motion

a) Who was the scientist who gave us the Laws of Motion? (Sir Isaac Newton)
b) How many Laws of Motion are there? (three)
c) What is another name for the first law of motion? (Law of Inertia)
d) Which law explains why we need to wear seat belts? (First Law of Motion)
e) Which law says that force is equal to mass times acceleration (F=MA)? (2nd Law of
Motion)
f) Which law says that heavier objects require more force than lighter objects to move or
accelerate them? (Second Law of Motion)
g) Which law explains how rockets are launched into space? (Third Law of Motion)
h) Which law says that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction? (3rd Law of
Motion)
2.2.4 Exercises
2.2.4.1 Newton’s laws of motion
Exo1: Copy and complete
a) A---------is a push or pull. It is measured in ---------------------, or --------------- for short. Small

forces can be measured with a ---------- -------------.
b) All things resist acceleration. The effect is called --------------. The greater the---------------, the
greater the resistance to acceleration. To give -----------of 12 kg an ---------- of 3 m/s2, a
force of --------- is needed. Twice the ------------- pushing on the same ---------------would
produce -----the acceleration.
c) A ------------- is another name for the gravitational ---------------- on something. Weight is
measured in ------. All masses ----------- each other. The closer the masses the ----------- the
pull between them.
d) --------- is a vector quantity that causes changes in motion. A ----------- shows only the forces
that act on one object.
e) The tendency of an object to maintain its state of motion is -----------. The ------------ acting on
an object is the vector sum of all the forces acting on it. An object is in a -------- when the net
external force on it is zero.
f) A ---------- is a force between two surfaces in contact that acts in a direction opposite to the
direction of the motion of one of the surfaces. The force of -------- is proportional to the
normal force.
Exo2. The net external force on the propeller of a 0.75 kg model airplane is 17 N forward. What
is the acceleration of the airplane?
Exo3. The net external force on a golf cart is 390 N North. If the cart has a total mass of 270 kg,
what are the magnitude and direction of its acceleration?
Exo4. A car has a mass of 1500 kg. What force is required to accelerate the car at 4.5 m/s 2 to the
East?
Exo5. A ball pushed with a force of 13.5 N accelerates at 6.5 m/s2 to the right. What is the mass
of the ball?
Exo6. A 2.0 kg mass starts from rest at the top of an inclined plane 85 cm long and slides down to
the bottom in 0.50 s. What net external force acts on the mass along the incline?
Exo7. A bullet of mass 20 g, travelling with a velocity of 16 m/s, penetrates a sandbag and is
brought to rest in 0.05 s. Find
a) The depth of penetration in m
b) The average retarding force of the sand in Newtons.
Answer: Depth of penetration: 0.4 m and average retarding force = 6.4 N
Exo8.What force is needed to give a car of mass 6000 kg an acceleration of 3 m/s2?

Exo9 A tennis player hits a ball of mass 200 g with a force of 50 n. what is the ball‘s
acceleration?
Exo10. A child pulls a wagon with a horizontal force, causing it to accelerate. Newton‘s third law
says that the wagon exerts an equal and opposite force on the child. How can accelerate? (Hint:
Draw a free-body diagram for each object to help you answer this question?
Exo11. A car of mass 500 kg accelerates steadily from rest to 40 m/s in 20s.
a) What is its acceleration
b) What resultant force produces this acceleration?
c) The actual force will be greater. Why?
Exo12 A block of mass 500 g is pulled from rest on a horizontal frictionless bench by a steady
force F and travels 8 m in 2 s. find:
a) The acceleration
b) The value of F
Exo13 Identify the action-reaction pairs in the following situations:

(a) A person takes a step
(b) A snowball player catches a ball
(c) A gust of wind strikes a window
Exo14 The forces acting on a sailboat are 390 N north and 180 N east. If the boat (including
crew) has a mass of 270 kg, what are the magnitude and direction of its acceleration?
Exo15 A 6.0 kg object undergoes an acceleration of 2.0 m/s2. What is the magnitude of the net
external force acting on it?
Exo16 A 24 kg crate initially at rest on a horizontal surface requires a 75 N horizontal force to set
it in motion. Find the coefficient of static friction between the crate and the floor.
Answer:
Given: FS  75 N m  24kg Unknown:   ?

FS 75 N
Use the equation for the coefficient of static friction:     0.32
mg 24kg  9.81m / s 2
Exo17. Identify each statement as true or false. If a statement is false, replace the underlined term
or phrase with a term or phrase that makes the statement true.
a) A car travels 100 km in 4 h. Its acceleration is 25 km/h.
b) One hundred meters per second north is a description of an object‘ speed.
c) A 25000-kg truck is harder to push than a 2500-kg car because the truck has more inertia
than the car.
d) An unbalanced force on an object will accelerate the object in the direction of the force.
e) If the mass of an object remains constant, increasing the force applied to the object will
decrease the acceleration of the object.
Exo18. a) What is inertia?

b) Distinguish between:
i. Weight and mass
ii. Kinetic and potential energy.
Exo19. a) Is it possible to have motion in the absence of a force? Explain.

b) If an object is at rest, can we conclude that no external forces are acting on it?
c) An object thrown into the air stops at highest point in its path. Is it in equilibrium at this
point? Explain.
d) What physical quantity is a measure of the amount of inertia an object has?
Exo20. All objects resist changes in their state of motion. All objects have this tendency - they have
inertia. But do some objects have more of a tendency to resist changes than others?
Answer: Absolutely yes! The tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion varies
with mass. Mass is that quantity which is solely dependent upon the inertia of an object. The more
inertia which an object has, the more mass it has. A more massive object has a greater tendency to
resist changes in its state of motion.
Exo21 Imagine that there was no friction along the level surface from point B to point C and that
there was no air resistance to impede your motion. How far would your sled travel? And what
would its motion be like?
Answer:
The sled would travel forever at constant speed. Without friction or air resistance to slow it down,
the sled would continue in motion with the same speed and in the same direction. The forces
acting upon the sled from point B to point C would be the normal force (the snow pushes up on
the sled) and the gravity force (see diagram at right). These forces are balanced and since the sled
is already in motion at point B it will continue in motion with the same speed and direction. So, an
object can be moving to the right even if the only forces acting upon the object are vertical forces.
Forces do not cause motion; forces cause accelerations.
Exo22. Write the letter of the term that best matches the definition. Not all the terms will be used.
1. Property of matter that causes object to resist change in a. Newton‘s first law of
motion motion
2. The length of the actual path an object moves b. Centripetal force
3. The force that causes an object to move in circular path c. Distance
4. Unbalanced force causes an object to accelerate in the d. Newton‘s third law of
direction of the force motion
5. Speed in a given direction e. Motion
6. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. f. Acceleration
7. An object at rest stays at rest if no unbalanced force acts g. Newton‘s second law of
on it motion
8. A change in velocity over time h. Inertia
9. A change in position as compared with a reference point i. Speed
j. Velocity
2.4 ENEGY, WORK AND POWER
2.4.1 Relating Work and Energy

Energy is difficult to visualize. You cannot pick it up or touch it because it has no mass; neither
does it occupy space. Instead of defining energy in terms of what it is, energy is defined in terms
of what it does or can do. It is, therefore, important to know what work is if we are to understand
what energy is.
Anyone raising a weight does a certain amount of work which is measured by the product of the
weight and the vertical distance through which it is lifted. In this example work has been done
against the force of gravity. Work done, force used and distance moved by an object in direction
of the force are related as follow: Work is defined as using a force to move an object through a
distance.
―The work done by the force is defined to be the product of component of the force in the
direction of the displacement and the magnitude of this displacement‖.
Thus W  ( F cos  )d  Fd
Different forms of Work
 Positive work when the direction of motion and that of the force are the same. For example
when a person is pushing on a car, he does a positive work
 When the direction of motion is opposite to direction of the force, the work is negative.
Examples; when a stone is thrown up vertically, the work of the force of gravity are negative.
 The work is zero when the displacement is zero despite of the action of the force. Example,
 When a person tries to move a lorry remains at rest, that person has done a zero work.
 You also do no work on the bag of groceries if you carry it as you walk horizontally across
the floor at constant velocity. No horizontal force is required to move the package at a
constant velocity. However, you do exert an upward force on the package equal to its
weight. But this upward force is perpendicular to the horizontal motion of the package and
thus has nothing to do with that motion. Thus the upward force is doing no work.
The SI unit of work is the Joule, which is the work done when a force of 1N acts trough a distance
of 1m. Thus 1J  1Nm . (in honor of British physicist James Prescott Joule)
Since energy is the capacity to do work or transfer of heat energy, it has the same units as work
and heat i.e. Joule.
Whenever work is done energy is transferred or converted from one form to another. Work is
performed not only in motion and displacement (mechanical work); it is done also by fire flame
and electricity in electric lamps.
When dealing with work, as with force, it is necessary to specify whether you are talking about
work done by a specific object or done on a specific object. It is also important to specify whether
the work done is due to one particular force (and which one) or work done by the total net force
on the object.
2.4.2 Categories of Energy in Our Environment

There are several forms of energy in our environment e.g. heat energy, light energy, electric
energy, nuclear energy, sound energy, chemical energy stored in petrol, food and other materials,
moving matter such as water, wind, falling rocks, etc. Scientists classify forms of energy into two
major categories: Potential energy and Kinetic energy.
2.4.2 1 Potential energy

Potential energy may be defined as the energy possessed by an objects or bodies due to their
position or state of strain or the position of their parts. Potential energy is energy deriving from
position. Potential energy is referred to as stored energy because it can be looked at as energy
which will be used when time comes for it to be used. Thus a stretched rubber band has elastic
potential energy. It can be used to hurl a stone. Petrol, coal or food has energy in their chemical
bonds, which is called chemical potential energy. This energy is released when the bonds are
broken. Chemical potential energy in petrol is converted to kinetic energy when it is burnt on the
engine and this used to move vehicles. The energy which we use to carry out the daily activities
from the food we eat is stored (as chemical energy) in the molecules of food such as
carbohydrates, proteins and fats due to their relative positions. During respiration, some of these
molecules are broken down in the cells of the body.
Kinds of potential energy

a) Chemical potential energy
Activities such as tug of war or riding a bicycle, we use energy provided by the food we eat. In
cars or motorcycles, petrol is used to provide energy. Petrol contains energy which makes these
vehicles move. Food and petrol contain energy called chemical potential energy. It is called
chemical energy because it is from the chemical bonds found in the food or petrol and also called
potential energy because it is potentially available for use when it is needed.
b) Elastic potential energy

A catapult is used to hurl a stone at a very high speed by stretching its bands and then releasing
them to hurl the stone. The catapult possesses potential energy when its bands are in the condition
of being stretched, which is then transferred to the stone and makes it move at high speed. When
the bands are not stretched there is no potential energy in them. The potential energy contained in
1
a stretched rubber band is called elastic potential energy: PEelastic  kx 2 where k is called the
2
spring constant and x distance compressed or stretched
c) Gravitational potential energy (potential energy of position)

An object raised to a height has energy due to the position it is at. An object raised to a higher
level has more gravitational potential energy. If an object such as a hummer or a brick which was
placed on a table top is let to fall it can break something which is placed in its way or it can hurt
someone whose foot is in its way because the potential energy which was stored in it is changed
into motion (kinetic) energy which is used to break something or hurt someone in its way. More
work is done in raising a brick to higher level hence more gravitational potential energy is stored
in the brick at a higher level.
The gravitational potential energy of a mass m, at a height h, is: PE  mgh
This expression can be derived as shown below: suppose a mass m (weight = mg) is raised
through a vertical height h, the work done is: W  mgh
2.4.2.2 KINETIC ENERGY

Kinetic energy is the form of energy possessed by moving bodies. Such bodies have the ability to
do work e.g. a flying bullet can kill a dangerous wild animal. Wind (a moving mass of air)
flowing streams, falling rocks, heat flowing from a body at high temperature to one at a lower
temperature, electricity (flowing electrons), moving cars, lorries, busses, etc, all have kinetic
energy. Kinetic energy of a body is dependent upon both the body‘s mass and speed.
In mechanics, for a point particle, it is mathematically defined as the amount of work done to
1
accelerate the particle from zero velocity to the given velocity v: Ek  mv 2
2
For extended objects composed of n particles, the kinetic energy of the composite body is the sum
n
1
of the kinetic energies of the particles: Ek   mi vi2
i 1 2
In physics, mechanical work is the amount of energy transferred by a force acting through a
distance. If a force is applied to a particle that achieves a displacement , the work done by
 
the force is defined as the scalar product of force and displacement vectors: W  F .S .
If the mass of the particle is constant, and Wtotal is the total work done on the particle, obtained by
summing the work done by each applied force, from Newton's second law: Wtotal  EK
where, Ek is called the kinetic energy.
Like energy, it is a scalar quantity, with SI units of joules. The term work was first coined in 1826
by the French mathematician Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis.
 If the force and the displacement are parallel and in the same direction, the mechanical work is
positive.
 If the force and the displacement are parallel but in opposite directions (i.e. antiparallel), the
mechanical work is negative.
 However, if the force and the displacement act perpendicular to each other, zero work is done
by the force:
According to the work-energy theorem if an external force acts upon a rigid object, causing its
kinetic energy to change from Ek1 to Ek2, then the mechanical work (W) is given by:
where m is the mass of the object and v is the object's velocity
It can be state in words: the net work done on an object is equal to the change in its kinetic
energy.
Example: A 145-g baseball is thrown with a speed of 25 m/s. (a) what is its kinetic energy?
(b) How much work was done on the ball to make it reach this speed, if it started from rest?
Answer
1
a) The kinetic energy is Ek  mv 2  45 J
2
b) Since the initial kinetic energy was zero, the net work done is just equal to final kinetic
energy, 45J
Example2: How much work is required to accelerate a 1000 kg car from 20 m/s to 30 m/s?
Answer
The net work needed is equal to increase in kinetic energy:
1
W  KE2  KE1  m(v22  v12 )  2.5 105 J
2
Example3: The Moon revolves around the Earth in a circular orbit, kept there by the gravitational
force exerted by the earth. Does gravity do (a) positive work, (b) negative work, or (c) no work at
all on the Moon?
Answer
The gravitational force on the Moon acts toward the Earth as a centripetal force, inward along the
radius of the Moon‘s orbit. The Moon‘s displacement at any moment is along the circle, in the
direction of its velocity, perpendicular to the radius and perpendicular to the force of gravity.
Hence the angle between the force and the instantaneous displacement of the Moon is 900 and the
work done by gravity is therefore zero.
2.4.3 Law of conservation of energy

This law states that: ―in all energy conversions or transformations, energy is neither created nor
destroyed, but it may be converted from one form to another but the total amount remains
constant.‖
This means that energy does not disappear but is either transferred to another place or transformed
(changed) into some other form. This law tells us when one form of energy is converted to
another form during an energy conversion, energy in put always equals energy out.
The law of conservation of energy can also be stated as follow: ―during transformation of energy
from one form to another, the total amount of energy is unchanged i.e. the amount of the new
form which appears is equal to the amount of the old form which disappeared‖
MECHANICAL ENERGY
Mechanical energy can be either kinetic energy (energy of motion) or potential energy (stored
energy of position).
Objects have mechanical energy if they are in motion and/or if

they are at some position relative to a zero potential energy
position (for example, a brick held at a vertical position above
the ground or zero height position).
A moving car possesses mechanical energy due to its motion

(kinetic energy). A moving baseball possesses mechanical
energy due to both its high speed (kinetic energy) and its
vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential
energy)
We call Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy and all forms of potential energy
associated with an object or group of objects. ME  EK   E P
Conservation of mechanical energy:

Initial mechanical energy = final mechanical energy in the absence of friction
i.e.  MEi   ME f
 ME  E   E
k p
is constant in time.
It may also be stated that the total amount of energy (in all different forms) which exists at the end
of process is the same as the amount of energy at the beginning.
Mechanical energy is not conserved in the presence of friction, but there is a relationship between
the work done and the change in kinetic energy. This relationship is known as the work-kinetic
energy theorem and is written as follows: Wnet  KE net work  change in kinetic energy
When the work is done by friction: W f  ME
If a problem does not involve friction, then ME  0  MEi  ME f this is conservation of
mechanical energy.
Conversion of potential energy to kinetic energy and vice versa
2.4.4 Power
Often it is interesting to know not only the work done on an object, but also the rate at which this
work is done. For example, imagine two cars of same mass but different engines. Both the cars
climb roadway up a hill. But one car takes less time where as another one takes more time to
reach the top. So it is very interesting to know not only the work done by the vehicles but also the
rate at which it is done.
When we speak of power in Physics we refer to the rate of which work is done or the rate at
which energy is used.
The rate of doing work is called as power or the rate at which work is done or energy is
transferred is called as power.
W
P
t
The SI unit of power is the Watt (or J/s).in honor of James Watt (1736-1819). Thus 1W  1Js 1
In the British system, work is expressed in foot-pounds, and the unit of power is the foot-pound
per second.
A larger unit called the horsepower (hp) is also used: 1 hp = 736 W = 0.736 kW
The watt is a familiar unit of electrical power; a 100 W light bulb converts 100 J of electrical
energy into light and heat each second.
The units of power can be used to define new units of work and energy. The kilowatt-hour (kWh)
is the usual commercial unit of electrical energy. One kilowatt-hour is the total work done in 1
hour (3600 s) when the power is 1 kilowatt (103 J/s), so
1 kWh = (103 J/s) (3600 s) = 3.6 MJ
The kilowatt-hour is a unit of work or energy, not power. Our electricity bills carry the energy
consumption in units of kWh.
Alternative Formulae for Power

W Fd
P   Fv
t t
Thus the power associated with force F is given by P = F .v
where v is the velocity of the object on which the force acts. Thus P = F. v = Fvcos 
Special cases
Power = work/time = Energy/time =PE/time = KE/time = (mgh)/t = (1/2mv2)/t
If a gun fires ‗n‘ bullets each of mass ‗m‘ with a velocity ‗v‘ in ‗t‘ seconds, the power of the gun
is given by P = n(1/2 mv2)/t
The power of a machine is measured by the number of units of work it can do in one unit of time.
The work done is obtained from the relation: Work done = weight*height of stairs i.e. W  w h
Power developed or rate of doing work is obtained by dividing work done by time taken for flight
w h
(climbing) i.e. W 
t
2.4.5 Exercises
Exo3. A 7.00 kg bowling ball moves at 3.00 m/s. How much kinetic energy does the bowling ball
have? How fast must a 2.45 g table-tennis ball move in order to have the same energy as the
bowling ball?
Answer
Given: mb  7.00kg mt  2.45 103 kg vb  3.00m / s
Unknown: KEb  ?
1
KEb  mb vb2  31.5 J
2
Use kinetic energy equation:
1 2 KEb
KEt  mt vt2  vt   1.60 102 m / s
2 mt
Exo4. Calculate the Kinetic energy of an 8.0*104 kg airliner flying at 600.0km/h

Exo5. Two bullets have masses of 3.0 g and 6.0 g, respectively. Both are fired with a speed of
40.0m / s . Which bullet has more kinetic energy? What is the ratio of their kinetic energies?
Exo6. Two bullets are fired with velocities of 40.0 m/s and 80.0m/s. Which bullet has more
kinetic energy? What is the ratio of their kinetic energies?
Exo7. A 193 kg curtain needs to be raised 7.5 m in as close to 5.0 s as possible. Three motors are
available. The power ratings for the three motors are listed as 1.0 kW, 3.5 kW, 5.5 kW. Which
motor is best for the job?
Answer
Given: m = 193 kg, t  5.0s ; d = 7.5 m
Unknown: P = ?
W Fd mgd
Use the power equation: P    P  2.8kW
t t t
The best motor to use is the 3.5 kW motor. The 1.0 kW motor will not lift the curtain fast enough,
and the 5.5 kW motor will lift the curtain too fast.
Exo8 A car with a mass of 1.50*103 kg starts from rest and accelerates to 18.0 m/s in 12.0 s.
Assume that air resistance remains constant at 400.0 N during this time. What is the average
power developed by the engine?
Exo10. a) Define the term energy and give its unit of measurement in the SI
b) What is the source of the energy used in the car engine?
Exo11. The potential energy of a mass of 5 kg is 100 J. Find the position of this mass above the
Earth‘s surface if g = 10 N/kg/
CHAP.3 EQUILIBRIUM OF SOLID: STATICS

By the end of this chapter; the learner should be able to:
 State the conditions of equilibrium of solids under the action of two or more parallel forces.
 State the conditions of equilibrium of solids under the action of three or more nonparallel
forces.
 Solve the problems involving equilibrium of objects.
 Explain the equilibrium of a body on a horizontal plane; an inclined plane and when
suspended.
 Give concrete examples of a body in a stable equilibrium under the action of several
concurrent forces.
 Give concrete examples of a body in a stable equilibrium unstable and neutral equilibrium.
3.1 STATE OF EQUILIBRIUM

A simple mechanical body is said to be in equilibrium if it experiences neither linear acceleration
nor angular acceleration; unless it is disturbed by an outside force, it will continue in that
condition indefinitely.
A system of particles is in static equilibrium when all the particles of the system are at rest and the
total force on each particle is permanently zero
The necessary conditions for mechanical equilibrium for a system of particles are:
i. The vector sum of all external forces is zero;

ii. The sum of the moments of all external forces about any line is zero
A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium when the sum of all forces on all particles of the system
is zero, and also the sum of all torques on all particles of the system is zero so that its state of
rotational motion remains constant.
A rigid body in mechanical equilibrium is undergoing neither linear nor rotational acceleration;
however it could be translating or rotating at a constant velocity.
Branch of mechanics which deals with state of equilibrium is called statics. Statics is the branch
of mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads (force, torque/moment) on physical systems in
static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do not vary over
time, or where components and structures are at a constant velocity. When in static equilibrium,
the system is either at rest, or its center of mass moves at constant velocity. The study of moving
bodies is known as dynamics, and in fact the entire field of statics is a special case of dynamics
3.2 TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM

Equilibrium is said to be stable if small, externally induced displacements from that state produce
forces that tend to oppose the displacement and return the body or particle to the equilibrium state.
Examples include a weight suspended by a spring or a brick lying on a level surface.
Equilibrium is unstable if the least departure produces forces that tend to increase the
displacement. An example is a ball bearing balanced on the edge of a razor blade.
Static Equilibrium (neutral equilibrium) is equilibrium where all forces are balanced, but it
also applies to bodies in uniform or accelerated motion. For example, a book resting on a table
applies a downward force equal to its weight on the table. According to the third law, the table
applies an equal and opposite force to the book. This force occurs because the weight of the book
causes the table to deform slightly so that it pushes back on the book like a coiled spring.
Fig. 16 A cone in stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium on the horizontal surface
Fig. 17 A ball in Stable, Unstable and neutral equilibrium
3.3 CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND CENTER OF MASS

The center of gravity is a geometric property of any object. The center of gravity is the average
location of the weight of an object. The centre of gravity is defined as the point of application of
the resultant force due to the earth‘s attraction on it. The centre of gravity of a body also coincides
with its centre of mass.
The center of mass of an object may be defined as the point at which an applied force produces
acceleration but no rotation
Centre of gravity and stability of body

An object tends to fall when its centre of gravity is away from the base that supports it. The
stability of a body exists when the centre of gravity of the body close as possible to the ground
and vertically through the centre falls within the base of support body.
Determining the center of gravity

Determining the center of gravity is very important for any flying object. In general, determining
the center of gravity (cg) is a complicated procedure because the mass (and weight) may not be
uniformly distributed throughout the object.
If the mass is uniformly distributed, the problem is greatly simplified. If the object has a line (or
plane) of symmetry, the center of gravity lies on the line of symmetry.
For a solid block of uniform material, the center of gravity is simply at the average location of the
physical dimensions. (For a rectangular block, 50 X 20 X 10, the center of gravity is at the point
(25, 10, 5)).
For a triangle of height h, the Center of Gravity is at h/3, and for a semi-circle of radius r, the cg is
at (4*r/(3*pi)) where pi is ratio of the circumference of the circle to the diameter. There are tables
of the location of the center of gravity for many simple shapes in math and science books.
Fig. 18 Centre of gravity
For a general shaped object, there is a simple mechanical way to determine the center of gravity:
In Step 1, you hang the object from any point and you drop a weighted string from the same
point. Draw a line on the object along the string.
For Step 2, repeat the procedure from another point on the object you now have two lines drawn
on the object which intersect. The center of gravity is the point where the lines intersect. This
procedure works well for irregularly shaped objects that are hard to balance.
When a small stone, which may be regarded as a particle, is thrown through the air, its trajectory
has been shown to be a parabola. What happen if a larger stone, of irregular shape, is similarly
projected? If we do not observe it too closely, we should say that the path is still parabolic. But
the stone will probably be rotating and any particular point on its surface has a more complicated
path. It is some central point of the stone which follows the parabolic trajectory.
3.4 TURNING FORCES

3.4.1 Moment of a force
Every time we open a door, turn on a tap or tighten up a nut with a spanner, we exert a turning
force. The combined effect of the force and distance which determines the magnitude of the
turning force is called the moment of the force and is defined as follows:
The moment (turning effect) of a force about a point is the force multiplied by the perpendicular
distance from the place where the force is applied to that point. M  Fd sin 
Or Moment is force times lever arm: M  Fd sin 

A lever arm is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to a line drawn along the
direction of the force.
The SI unit for moment is N m.
We can take an anticlockwise moment as positive in sign and a clockwise as negative in sign.
Principle of moment of force

When a body is in equilibrium (balanced), the sum of the anticlockwise moments about any point
is equal to the sum of the clockwise moments about the same point.
3.4.2 Torque
Two equal and opposite parallel forces whose lines of action do not coincide form what is called a
couple. The two forces always have a turning effect, or moment, called a net torque, which is
given by
Torque is force times lever arm:  1  F1d1 and  2  F2 d 2
Because each force produces clockwise rotation or anticlockwise rotation, both torques are
negative or positive i.e.    Fd1  Fd 2   F (d1  d 2 )  Fd
A torque is a quantity that measures the ability of a force to rotate an object around some axis.
When a number of parallel forces are in equilibrium:
 The sum of the forces in one direction is equal to the sum of the forces in the opposite
direction;
 The sum of the anticlockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of the clockwise
moments about the point.
Example: A basketball is being pushed by two basketball players during tip-off. Assuming each
force acts perpendicular to the axis of rotation through the centre of the ball; find the net torque
acting on the ball.
Apply definition of torque we have:  net   1   2  F1d1  F2 d 2
Because each force produces clockwise rotation, both torques are negative
 net  (15)(0.14)  (11 0.14)  2.9 Nm
The net torque is negative so the ball rotates in a clockwise direction.
3.4.3 Exercises
Exo1 If persons of equal weight are on a see-saw, the fulcrum must be placed in the middle to
balance, but if one person weighs much more than the other person, the fulcrum must be
placed close to the heavier person to achieve balance.
Exo2 A space platform consists of four masses of 1, 2, 3 and 4 tones at the corners A, B, C and D
respectively of a light square framework. A particle of mass M is to be fixed to the midpoint
of AB. Find M if the centre of mass of the system is to lie at the centre of the square.
Repeat ex2 if the square framework consists of four equal struts of mass100 kg
Exo3. a) Define moment of a force about a point.
b) State the principle of moments.
Exo4: A light beam, with supports at B and C has loads of 40 N, 20 N and 30 N placed on it as
shown in fig.
Calculate the reactions X and Y at supports.

Exo5. A horizontal rod AB is suspended at its ends by two strings, Fig. bellow. The rod is 0.6 m
long and its weight of 3 N acts at G where AG is 0.4 m and BG is 0.2 m. Find the tensions
X and Y in the string.
The force X, Y and 3 N are parallel forces. So X  Y  3

Clockwise moments about G = clockwise moments about G. Since 3 N has no moment about G.
0.4 X  0.2Y  2 X  Y
From X  Y  3  X  2 X  3  X  1N and Y  2 X  2N
3.5 SIMPLE MACHINE

3.5.1 Definition of Machine
People with time have learnt to make use of energy converters to help them convert one form of
energy to one more convenient form to be used in carrying out of some their activities. They have
invented energy converters called machines to simplify their work. When you have to open a
bottle of soda, you use a machine called a tin opener to help you. The opener converts chemical
energy from your body into mechanical energy to remove the bottle top. Workmen who have to
carry blocks up a building use a machine consisting of pulleys and ropes. The engine of a car is
used together with a machine called a gear box, which helps to convert the chemical energy from
petrol to mechanical energy to drive the car up different types of slopes. From these examples you
see that a machine is an energy converter.
A machine is not a source of energy but an energy converter because it will only give out energy
when energy is supplied to it. In a machine, a small force called the effort is used to overcome a
large force called the load.
A machine may be defined as an appliance which eases work by using a small force (effort)
applied at one point to overcome a large force (load) at another point.
Lever
This refers to any rigid body that can turn about a point called a fulcrum and on which a force
called an effort is applied at one point so that it can overcome another force called a load at
another point.
Fulcrum F is a point on a lever about which the lever turns. Effort E refers to the force applied on
a body so that it can perform work. Load L refers to the fore (weight) of an object on which the
lever has to perform work.
To balance a lever, the product of the mass and length of the lever on one side of the fulcrum must
equal the product of the mass and length of the lever on the other side of the fulcrum:
W  FE  d E  FL  d L  mE d E  mL d L
Mechanical advantage
In the case of the lever, the force applied may be described as the effort and the force overcome as
the load.
FL d E
The ratio MA   is called the mechanical advantage (M.A) of the machine.
FE d L
It is a measure of how much the machine eases the work for which it is used. The bigger
mechanical advantage, the easier the machine makes the work.
In machine classified as force multipliers, a small effort is used to overcome a large load and
therefore the mechanical advantage is greater than one since load is greater than effort. Example
of force multipliers are: The hammer, wheelbarrow, bottle- opener, crow bar, nut cracker, pliers.
In force multipliers, either the fulcrum is between the load and effort or the load is between the
fulcrum and effort i.e. the first and second class of lever fall in this category.
In other machines classified as distance multipliers, the machines is useful in that it enables loads
to be conveniently where they are wanted although the load is less than the effort used. In this
case the mechanical advantage is less than one and might be described as mechanical
disadvantage because we have to apply more effort, but we get the advantage of greater distance
moved. Examples: the human arm, fishing rod, tongs or tweezers. In distance multipliers, the
effort is between the fulcrum and the load i.e. the 3rd class of levers falls in this category.
Efficiency
When a machine is used, the point at which the effort is applied will move, and the point at which
the load is overcome will also move. Hence, work is done on the machine by the effort and by the
machine on the load. While the load may be many times as great as the effort, the work done by
the machine cannot exceed that done on the machine, for by the law of conservation of energy;
the energy gained by the load cannot exceed that lost by the effort. In a perfect machine the work
done by the machine should be just equal to that done on it. In practice, however, part of the effort
applied to the machine is used in overcoming the force of friction between its moving parts and
the force of gravity when moving its own parts.
Wu
The efficiency of a machine is obtained by the relation:  
Wt
where  is efficiency, Wu useful work done by the machine and Wt work done on the machine.
If the above fraction is multiplied by 100% it gives the percentage efficiency of the machine:
E
  o 100% where Eo is energy output and Ei is energy input.
Ei
No machine can ever be more than 100% efficient because the energy output of the machine can
never be more energy input.
Efficiency is a measure of how well a machine works.
Velocity ratio (VR)

If a machine has very light, freely moving parts, its efficiency may be very nearly 1. In that case,
d
approximately, VR  E
dL
where d E is distance effort moves and d L distance load moves. For a perfect machine, mechanical
advantage = velocity ratio.
L.d L 1
Relation between MA, VR and efficiency:    MA.
E.d E VR
MA
If efficiency :    1 then the machine is said to be a perfect machine.
VR
Efficiency increases as the load increases and that the efficiency tends to become almost constant
with high loads.
3.5.2 Types of Simple Machines

Simple machines make work easier for us by allowing us to push or pull over increased distances.
There are SIX simple machines: Pulley, Lever, Wedge, Wheel & Axle, Inclined Plane and
Screw. However, the wheel-and- axle combination is similar in principle to the lever, while the
wedge and screw are similar to the inclined plane; thus simple machines are only of three
categories: the lever, the pulley, and the inclined plane.
Some machines are force magnifiers, a pair of pliers for example. These give you a greater force
at the jaws than you put in at the handles.
Some machines are movement magnifiers, a bicycle for example. One downward push on the
pedals takes you forward over 3 m much further than one step would take you if you were
walking.
No machine magnifies both force and movement. If it did, you would get more work out of the
machine than you into it. So, if a machine increases force, it must decrease distance moved, and
vice versa.
Most machines have friction between their moving parts. This means that some energy is lost as
heat. And you get less useable energy out of the machine than you put in.
3.5.2.1 The lever

A lever is a stiff bar that rests on a support called a fulcrum which lifts or moves loads.
A lever is a simple machine that makes work easier for use; it involves moving a load around a
pivot (fulcrum) using a force. Many of our basic tools use levers, including scissors, pliers,
hammer claws, nut crackers, and tongs
The distance OA and BO from the fulcrum are known as arms of the lever, OA is the effort arm
(distance) and OB is the load arm (distance).
Type 1 Lever,
In a Type 1 Lever, the pivot (fulcrum) is between the effort and the load. In an off-center type
one lever (like a pliers), the load is larger than the effort, but is moved through a smaller distance.
Examples of common tools (and other items) that use a type 1 lever include:
Fig. 19 The first class levers the fulcrum is between the effort and load: machines which increase force (but
decrease movement).
In the second class,

The force F is applied at A and a load W is moved/overcome at B, while the
fulcrum is at O. Examples include nutcrackers, wheelbarrow, paper cut and the
oar of a boat. In second class levers, the load is between the pivot (fulcrum) and
the effort. Fig. 20 Wheelbarrow
In the third class,

The force W is moved or overcome at B by a force F
which is applied between B and the fulcrum O.
Examples: sugar tongs, the human forearm, the treadle
of sewing machine, fishing rod. So in the third class
levers the effort is between the load and the fulcrum.
Fig. 21 Machines which increase movement

(but decrease force) sugar tongs
You only need to remember the part of the lever that is in the middle: class one has fulcrum; class
two has load and class three has effort. Or simply: fulcrum- load – effort.
In the case of simple lever, friction is usually quite small. Hence from the law of conservation of
energy, the work done by the force F (effort) must be equal to the work done on the weight W
(load).
3.5.2.2 Wheel and axle (Winch)

A wheel with a rod, called an axle, through its center lifts or moves loads.
It consists of a rope wound around an axle which is connected to a larger wheel with another rope
attached to its rim. Pulling on the wheel rope (applying an effort) lifts a load attached to the axle
rope. The velocity ratio of the machine (distance moved by effort divided by the distance moved
by load) is equal to the ratio of the wheel radius to the axle radius.
Fig. 22 Wheel and axle
The wheel is fixed on the axis. It is easily seen that in one complete rotation the force F will rise a
distance equal to the circumference of the wheel, while W will rise a distance equal to the
circumference of the axle. If R and r are radii of the wheel and axle, respectively, then:
2 R R
VR  
2 r r
L L W
But MA  VR in the wheel and axle and so from MA  we obtain effort: F  
E MA MA
R Wr
F W  
r R
The wheel-and-axle combination is a form of levers of class 1, the arms AO and BO
corresponding to R and r, respectively. Another example of the wheel-and-axle machine is the
steering wheel.
Gears are modified wheel-and-axle. A gear is a wheel with teeth along
its circumference. The small gear wheel (the driving wheel) turns and
makes the bigger wheel (the driven wheel) to turn.
number of teeth on drivenwheel

VR 
number of teeth on drivengwheel
3.5.2.3 Wedge
A wedge is an object with at least one slanting side ending in a sharp edge, which cuts material
apart.
Fig. 23 Wedge
3.5.2.4 Pulley
A pulley is a machine consisting of a fixed grooved wheel, sometimes in a block, around which a
rope or chain can be run. A simple pulley serves only to change the direction of the applied force
(i.e. applied effort). The use of more than one pulley results in a mechanical advantage, so that a
given effort can raise a heavier load. The mechanical advantage depends on the arrangement of
pulleys. The mechanical advantage and velocity ratio are equal to the number of ropes supporting
the load if friction and the pulley‘s weight are ignored.
Description of uses of pulley:

Single fixed- A fixed or class 1 pulley has a fixed axle. That is, the
axle is "fixed" or anchored in place.
A fixed pulley is used to change the direction of the force on a

rope (called a belt).
A fixed pulley has a mechanical advantage of 1.
Fig. 24 Fixed A fixed
Single movable pulley; one pulley freely moving over the

w
supporting rope: E 
2
A movable pulley is used to multiply forces.
Fig. 25 Movable pulley
Compound pulley is a combination of a fixed and a movable

pulley system.
A simple compound pulley system: a movable pulley and a fixed

pulley lifting weight W. The tension in each line is W/3, yielding
an advantage of 3
Fig. 26 Compound pulley
Triple Pulley Blocks

In the illustration to the left we see a system of pulley blocks with three pulleys at the top block
and three pulleys at the bottom block.
If W is lifted bodily by 1 m then each of the six ropes would have a slack of 1 m and P would
have to be pulled 6 m to take up the slack. In this example, then, V.R. equals 6 and there are six
pulleys as well as six ropes to and from the moving pulleys proving, again, the formula:
dis tan ce moved by P 6
theVR   6
dis tan ce moved by W 1
Velocity ratio is equal to the number of pulleys
3.5.2.5 The inclined plane

An inclined plane is a slanting surface connecting a lower level to
a higher level.
Common experience shows that when a heavy body is to be raised,
it is easier to push hit or roll it up a sloping surface than to lift it
directly. Workmen loading barrels onto a lorry usually roll them
up a sloping plank.
If a force F is applied parallel to the length l of the plane, the work
done by F is equal to WE  F  l , while the barrel of weight W is Fig. 27 Screw Jack
raised through a distance h and the work done on the barrel is Fig. 28 The inclined plane
WL  w  h . Hence F  l  w  h (if friction is neglected because

l l
rolling friction is not big). This gives: VR  and MA 
h h
3.5.2.6 Screw Jack

A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a pole which holds things together or lifts materials.
A screw jack is simply a ramp wrapped around an axle, with the axle rotated by a handle used as a
lever. If the circular motion of the handle is 30 cm per revolution, for example, and one turn of the
screw lifts a weight by 1 cm, then the mechanical advantage is 30 to 1.
When a screw is rotated through one complete turn, it moves through a distance equal to its pitch.
A pitch is the distance between one thread and the next measured along the axis of the screw.
Fig. 29 Metal grinder, opener bottle and door lock
Bolts screw and wedges are based on the principle of the inclined plane.
3.5.3 Exercises
Exo1. a) A lever uses a force of 200 N to move a rock that weights 2000 N. Find the mechanical
advantage.
b) While using that lever, the student moves an effort force 30 cm to move a resistance
force 3 cm. what is the mechanical advantage of the machine.
Answer
FL 2000
a) MA    10 This means the effort force is multiplied ten times.
FE 200
DE 30
b) MA    10
DL 3
Exo2. Identify each statement as true or false. If a statement is false, replace the underlined term
or phrase with a term or phrase that makes the statement true
a. To move an object, the effort force must be less than the resistance force.
b. Efficiency is calculated by multiplying force times distance.
c. A ramp is an example of an inclined plane.
d. A screw is a modified lever
e. To find the mechanical advantage of a pulley system, count the supporting ropes.
f. Mechanical advantage compares effort force and effort distance
Exo3. Write the letter of the term that best matches the definition. Not all the terms will be used.
a. Compound machine
1. A unit of work equal to one newton-meter. b. Effort arm
2. A bar that turns or pivots around a fixed point c. Fixed pulley
3. Wheels with interlocking teeth d. Fulcrum
4. Distance from the effort to fulcrum of lever e. Gears
5. A modified inclined plane that has a thick end and f. Inclined plane
a thinner end. g. Joule
6. Combination of two or more simple machines h. Lever
7. A force that oppose motion i. Mechanical advantage
8. Using a force to move an object a certain distance j. Power
9. A machine that has a long sloping surface k. Pulley
l. Resistance distance
m. Screw
n. Resistance force
o. Wedge
p. Work
q. Wheel and axle
TOPIC.II HEAT
CHAP.1 THERMOMETRY
 Give the difference between temperature and heat.

 Use a thermometer to measure temperature.
 Explain the principle of calibrating a thermometer
 Compare different temperature scales.
 Describe a thermometer.
 State materials whose physical properties vary with temperature.
1.1 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

"Heat" and "temperature" may seem to be intuitive concepts, and certainly we do understand them
intuitively from daily experience. We can go outside and notice if the temperature is high on a hot
day, or low on a cold one. We put food in the oven to heat it up, and we put ice cubes in a drink to
cool it down. However, properly defining these terms is tricky. Formally speaking, heat is not a
property of an object, but is instead a transfer of energy between objects. It follows a few simple
rules:
 Heat flows from a hot object to a cooler one. We use a hot plate to boil water, for example,
essentially pumping heat into the water.
 Heat never flows in the reverse direction by itself. We have to do work to cool something
down, for example using a refrigerator to freeze water into ice cubes.
 When two objects of different temperature are in contact, the warmer object becomes colder
while the colder object becomes warmer. It means that heat flows from the warmer object to
the colder one.
Temperature (sometimes called thermodynamic temperature) is a measure of the average kinetic

energy of systems particles. Temperature is the degree of "hotness" (or "coldness"), a measure of
the heat intensity. Heat in turn became a transfer of this thermal energy.
The science of measurement of temperature is known as thermometry. The devices used to

measure temperatures are known as thermometers
In metric units, heat and thermal energy are given in terms of the "calorie", which is the amount of
heat required to raise a gram of water from 15 degrees Celsius to 16 degrees Celsius at a pressure
of one atmosphere. Since heat is equivalent to energy. The SI unit of heat is Joule or calorie. One
calorie is the same as 4.186 joules.
Heating and cooling

If an object has become hotter, it means that it has gained heat energy. If an object cools down, it
means it has lost energy. Heat energy always moves from: HOT object to COOLER object
E.g. Cup of water at 20 °C in a room at 30°C - gains heat energy and heats up – its temperature
rises. Cup of water at 20 °C in a room at 10°C loses heat energy and cools down – its temperature
will fall.
The degree of heat in the body of a living organism is usually about 37.0°C (98.6°F) in humans.
An abnormally high condition of body heat caused by illness; a fever...
1.2 TEMPERATURE SCALES

1.2.1 Degree Celsius (oC), Degree Fahrenheit (oF) and Degree Kelvin (K)
Thermometer helps us to determine how cold or how hot a substance is. A sensitive thermometer is
one that can record very small changes in temperature. It needs a large bulb because the greater
the volume of liquid, the greater the expansion is for a given change of temperature. It needs a
narrow bore so that a small change in volume of the liquid fills a greater length of the stem.
Temperatures in science (and in most of the world) are measured and reported in degrees Celsius
(oC). In the US, it is common to report temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (oF). On both the
Celsius and Fahrenheit scales the temperature at which ice melts (water freezes) and the
temperature at which water boils, are used as reference points.
 In 1714 German physicist Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit (1686-1736), worked on the boiling and
freezing of water and from that work he developed a temperature scale. On the Fahrenheit scale
the water freezes at 32 oF and the water boils at 212 oF.
 Swedish professor Anders Celsius (1701-1744), proposed using the boiling point of water as
100° C and the freezing point of water as 0° C, and it was called the centigrade system. (Centi-
means hundred and centigrade means divided into 100 units.). There are 100 degrees between
freezing point and boiling point of water, compared to 180 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale.
This means that 1 oC = 1.8 oF.
 In 1848 the British mathematician and physicist William Thomson Kelvin developed an
absolute temperature scale that started at absolute zero known as the Kelvin scale, it is
widely used in many fields of science. On the Kelvin scale the coldest temperature possible, -
273 oC, has a value of 0 Kelvin (0 K) and is called the absolute zero. Units on the Kelvin scale
are called Kelvins (K) and no degree symbol is used.
1.2.1 Relevant conversion formulae between those scales are:

From Celsius Fahrenheit Kelvin
To
Celsius [°C] C] = ([°F] − 32) × 5⁄9 [°C] = [K] − 273.15
Fahrenheit [°F] = [°C] × 9⁄5 + 32 [°F] [°F] = [K] × 9⁄5 − 459.67
Kelvin [K] = [°C] + 273.15 [K] = ([°F] + 459.67) × 5⁄9 [K]

Table 1 Conversion between Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin
1.3 PRACTICAL ACTIVITY IN LAB

Activity 1: The feeling of cold and hot is subjective.
Equipment
 3 beakers,
 source of heat
 Water, thermometer, stir
Procedure
 Pour cold water in two beakers

 Heat the water in one of the beakers
 Fill the third beaker with equal volumes of water from the cold water and hot water.
 Stir water in order to make uniform mixture
 Put a thermometer into the beaker of the water mixture and allow it to remain inside
 Ask the participant to touch in the beaker which contains cold water and immediately touch in
the beaker which contains the mixture of cold and hot water
 Ask the participant what he/she feels
 Read the thermometer
 Ask the same learner to touch in beaker which contains hot water and immediately to touch in
the beaker which contain the mixture of cold and hot water
 Ask the learner what he/she feels
 Read the thermometer again. Compare the two thermometer readings
 Ask the learner to compare the feelings when the mixture is touched from cold water and from
hot water
Observations
The touch from the cold water gives a feeling that the mixture is hot and yet the touch from hot
water gives a feeling that the mixture is cold. The thermometer reads same temperature in both
cases.
Conclusion
By our bodily sensation, we can say which object is hot and which is cold. But such a decision
about temperature is not reliable. The feeling of warm and cold is thus subjective. To class the
temperature of bodies and evaluate qualitatively an increase or decrease of temperature, we use a
thermometer.
Activity2. Measuring temperature using mercury in glass thermometer

Equipment
 Water, 2 Beakers, Source of heat

 2 Laboratory thermometers
Procedure:
 Pour tap water in both beakers

 Insert thermometer and take reading of the water in both beakers
 Heat the water in one of the beakers for 1 min
 Take another temperature reading of both beakers
 What do you observe?
Observation
Before heating the temperature was the same in both beakers. After heating the water in one of the
beakers its temperature increased.
Conclusion
To measure the temperature of body we use thermometer. When two bodies are at the same
temperature the thermometer gives the same reading. When two bodies are at different
temperatures the thermometer gives the different readings. To change temperature of a body some
amount of heat should be absorbed or released.
To graduate a thermometer, one has first to determine the two fixed points (0 oC and 100oC in
Celsius scale, 32oF and 212 oF in Fahrenheit scale) and then to divide the interval into 100 degrees
for Celsius and into 180 degrees for Fahrenheit scale.
Questions:
1. True or false: temperature is a measure of the total kinetic energy in a substance.

False; temperature is a measure of the average (not the total) kinetic energy of the molecules in a
substance. For example, there is twice as much total molecular kinetic energy in 2 L of boiling
water as in 1 L but the temperature of the two amounts are the same because the average kinetic
energy per molecule in each is the same.
2. How did Fahrenheit determine 100° F?

a. He measured the boiling point of water
b. He looked at a thermometer
c. He measured his body temperature
Answer:
Around 1700, a German scientist Gabriel Fahrenheit invented the thermometer by putting water in a thin
glass tube. He used his body temperature as 100° F (100 degrees Fahrenheit) and the freezing
temperature of saturated salt water as 0° F. He marked those levels on his thermometer and
divided the scale into 100 parts for each degree. The choices of his body temperature for 100° F and
the freezing temperature of salt water for 0° F were unfortunate.
3. Why did Celsius use the freezing and boiling points of pure water to determine his scale?
a. They did not vary as would something like body temperature
b. They were exact multiples of Fahrenheit's values
c. It was pure luck that he picked those values
4. When is 25° K used?
a. When you have absolute zero

b. Never, because degrees aren't stated in the Kelvin system
c. It is used instead of 25° C
5. Advantages of mercury over alcohol

Mercury is to be preferred to Alcohol; as a thermometric liquid for the following reasons:
 It is easily seen, because it is opaque and silvery, whereas alcohol has to be colored
 It does not wet glass which contains it. No mercury remains on the sides of the tube when the
mercury level falls and expands regularly.
 It is good conductor of heat and soon reaches the same temperature as its surroundings.
 It has a high boiling point (357 0C); alcohol has a very low boiling point (78 0C) and therefore
cannot measure temperatures beyond this.
 It has small heat capacity, so it takes only a little heat from hot objects.
 It does not, like alcohol, vaporize and distil on to the upper part of the bore.
Water is unsuitable for use in thermometers, not only because it freezes at 0 0C but also because
of its irregular expansion, it is not a good conductor of heat.
6. Advantages of alcohol over mercury

Alcohol is to be preferred to Mercury; as a thermometric liquid for the following reasons:
 Alcohol does not solidify easily. Its freezing point is -112 0C and boils at 357 0C; while alcohol
freezes at – 115 0C and boils at 78 0C. For this reason alcohol is used in thermometers for
measuring low temperatures. It is therefore essential to use alcohol thermometers in places
such as northern Canada and Russia, where winter temperatures of – 40 0C are not uncommon.
 It expands more (about six times more than mercury). Alcohol is more sensitive to temperature
changes and can be used to measure small temperature margins.
 Mercury is a poisonous substance. This can cause a hazard if a mercury thermometer is broken.
 Mercury is a poisonous substance. This can cause a hazard if a mercury thermometer is broken.
 Alcohol is cheaper than mercury
7. Give the properties of a good thermometric liquid

Common thermometers are based on expansion of liquids. These liquids are called thermometric
liquids. A good thermometric liquid should:
 be a good conductor of heat and not vaporize easily and distil

 have a low specific heat capacity
 have a high boiling point and a lower freezing point
 have a high coefficient of cubical expansivity
 expend regularly and not stick on walls of thermometer /high cohesive
 be opaque
8. Types of thermometer
 Clinical thermometer:
It is graduated from 35 0C to 44 0C. The bulb is small and its glass is thin since the bore is thin the
thermometer is sensitive. The reading does not change because there is a constriction in the bore,
just above the bulb. The mercury in the stem cannot run back through this narrow part, which
breaks the mercury column. The stem acts like a magnifying glass. After use, Doctor shakes the
thermometer to force all mercury back into the lower bulb. Clinical thermometers are sterilized
using alcohol rather than boiling water, which might burst them or cause the mercury to stick at
the top of the tube.
 Maximum and minimum thermometer
Mercury fills the U-tube from B to C. Alcohol fills bulb A and there
is more alcohol in the tube D, in the bulb above D there is alcohol
vapour, but no air. The liquids can expand into this space without
breaking the tube. ,
Above the mercury at B and C are steel indicators I and II. There is
a temperature scale on each tube; one is graduated from the bottom
and the other from the top.
When the temperature rises, the alcohol in A expands, the mercury

level at B falls and that at C rises. The mercury pushes indicator II
upwards and records maximum temperature.
When the temperature falls, the alcohol in A contracts, the mercury level at B rises and that at C
falls. Indicator II still records the maximum temperature. The mercury pushes indicator I upwards;
and records minimum temperature. The lower ends of both indicators record the two temperatures
required. The indicators are rest using a magnet.
 optical pyrometer
The optical pyrometer is used to measure temperatures of solid objects at temperatures above 700° C
(about 1300° F), where most other thermometers would melt
 Electronic thermometers
8. Types of thermometer according to thermometric liquids

Thermometers use some measurable property of substance which is sensitive to temperature
change.
 The constant-volume thermometers, uses the pressure changes with temperature of gas at
constant volume.
 The resistance thermometer uses the change of electrical resistance of a pure metal with
temperature
 The mercury thermometer depends on the change in volume of mercury with temperature
relative to that of gas
 A thermoelectric thermometer depends on the electromotive force change with together.
Temperature of two metals joined together.
1.4 EXERCISES
1. Why doctor must shake a clinical thermometer before using it?
The thermometer should be shake so that the mercury will come back in the reservoir.
2. Describe how we can determine the upper fixed point and the lower fixed point of
thermometer.
3. a) Why should a clinical thermometer not be sterilized in boiling water?
b) What is the role of narrow part in the clinical thermometer?
4 i) Convert 25 0C into (a) Fahrenheit scale
(b) Kelvin scale (NATEX 2000/2001 6BC)
ii) What are the equivalent Celsius and Kelvin temperatures of 50.00F?
5. Are heat and temperature one and the same?

No. They are different.
Heat is a form of energy and measured in JOULES (J). Particles move about more and take up
more room if heated – this is why things expand if heated. It is also why substances change from:
solids, liquids, gases when heated
Temperature represents the degree of hotness of a body and measured in degrees Celsius - °C. We
can say, 'Heat is the cause and temperature is the effect'.
If two substances at different temperatures are mixed, heat flows from hotter body to the colder
one until their temperatures are equalized. Thus, we can say that, 'temperature is that condition
which decides the direction of heat flow when two bodies are mixed together'.
Temperature is NOT the same as heat energy although the two quantities are related. E.g. a
beaker of water at 60 °C is hotter than a bath of water at 40 °C BUT the bath contains more joules
of heat energy
6. Which of the following is the hottest temperature? 150 C 150 F 15K
CHAP.2 TRANSMISSION OF HEAT

- Explain transmission of heat.
- Give examples of heat transmission in everyday life.
2.1 HEAT IS TRANSFERRED BY THREE PROCESSES

Solids, liquids and gases allow heat to pass through them. In metals the heat is transferred mainly
by the free electron, in other solids it is by the collisions of vibrating particles next to each other –
the average position of particles remains the same. Liquids and gases transmit heat in different
way - by the movement of the fluid itself. Heat can also be transmitted through a vacuum.
Fig. 30 Heat transmission
2.1.1 Conduction
The first is simple "conduction", where heat is transferred through matter from places of higher to
places of lower temperature (direct contact) without movement of the matter. It can happen in
solids, liquids and gases, happens best in solids-particles very close together. Conduction does
not occur very quickly in liquids or gases
 Conductors
Materials that conduct heat quickly are called conductors. All metals are good conductors of heat.
Copper is a very good conductor of heat. Pans for cooking are usually made with a copper or
aluminium bottom and plastic handles
 Insulators/poor conductors
Materials that conduct heat slowly or poorly are called insulators. Glass, wood, plastic and rubber
are poor conductors (good insulators). Nearly all liquids including water are poor conductors.
Gases, including air are poor conductors, e.g., wool feels warm because it traps a lot of air
A fridge has insulation material round it to keep it cold – reduces amount of heat conducted to
inside from the warmer room
2.1.2 Convection
The second is "convection", in which the flow of heat through a fluid from places of higher
temperature to places of lower temperature by movement of the fluid itself.
As the fluid is heated from below, it expands. Since its mass remains constant, it become less dense, and
therefore rises. Thus a warm convection current moves upwards; denser cooler fluid then takes its place at
the bottom. In this way, convection currents keep the fluid stirred up as it heats – wormer fluid moving
away from the heat source and cooler fluid moving toward the heat source to be warmed. In effect,
convection is an application of Archimedes‘ principle. Hot liquids and gases expand and rise while the
cooler liquid or gas falls.
If, on the other hand, some fluid in a vessel is heated at the top, the fluid there expands and
remains floating on the denser fluid. No convection current is set up, and the only way in which
heat can travel downwards under these conditions is by conduction.
The sun can cause large convection currents - WINDS. During daytime the land warms up more
than the sea since land has a higher specific capacity than the sea and the surface of the sea is in
constant motion. The warm air rises over the land and cool air falls over the sea during a day. So
we feel a sea breeze (blows from the sea). While at night the direction of the wind is reversed
(land breeze).
Rising convection currents can be uses by glider pilots to keep their planes in the air and by birds
to stay aloft.
2.1.3 Radiation
The third is "radiation", in which heat is transferred through space by an invisible form of light (a
wave; travelling as rays) known as "infrared radiation". This is the heat projected by a heat lamp
or a glowing electric heater. The hotter the object, the more radiation it emits, and the more the
radiation creeps up from the invisible infrared radiation into the visible range.
All objects that are hotter than their surroundings give out heat as infra-red radiation. Heat
transfer by radiation does not need particles to occur and is the only way energy can be transferred
across empty space
 Emitters
Hotter objects emit (give out) heat. Different surfaces emit heat at different speeds. A dull black
surface loses energy more quickly – it is a good radiator. A bright shiny or white surface is a poor
radiator.
Marathon runners need to keep warm at the end of races, covering in shiny blankets reduces
radiation and therefore heat loss.
 Absorbers
Cooler objects absorb (take in) heat. Substances absorb heat at different speeds e.g. Dull, black
surfaces absorb heat quickly and Bright, shiny surfaces absorb heat slowly
In hot countries, people wear bright white clothes and paint their houses white to reduce
absorption of energy from the sun. Petrol storage tanks sprayed silver to reflect sun‘s rays
For a high degree of thermal insulation, a "dewar flask" is used.

The common consumer "Thermos bottle" is a cheap type of
dewar flask. A lab-quality dewar flask consists of a double-
walled vessel made of Pyrex glass with silvered surfaces and the
space between the two walls evacuated: a vacuum has no thermal
conductivity; of course it can't support convection; and the
silvered surfaces reflect radiation and so limit loss by that route.
The neck and cap of the flask end up providing most of the
thermal conduction, and so are generally made as small as
possible.
Thermopile Fig. 31 Dewar flask
A cooper and an iron wire are twisted together to form a

junction, while the free ends of the wires are connected to the galvanometer. On warming the
junction an electric current is produced in the circuit. This is called the thermoelectric effect.
Bismuth and antimony are two metals which show the thermoelectric effect in a marked degree,
and they are used for the detection of radiation in an instrument called a thermopile.
2.2 PRACTICAL ACTIVITY

Activity 1: Conduction of metal
Equipment
 metal bar ,
 retort stand,
 source of heat (Bunsen burn
and gas cylinder)
 match box, candle wax
Procedure
 Put the metal on stand

 Attach the piece of candle
wax on the metal
 Heat one end of the metal
 After a few minutes observe what happens
Observations:
The candle wax falls off the metal rod, starting with the one near the flam. The wax farthest from
the flame falls last. The piece of candle wax falls progressively from the heated end towards the
unheated end. Heat can move through the metal from hot end to cold end.
Activity 2: Comparison of thermal conductivities

Equipment
 Matchstick, Paraffin wax,

 Aluminum rod 20 cm long
 Brass rod 20 cm long
 Burner, Tripod
 Iron rod 20 cm long
 Copper rod 20 cm long
Procedure
 A matchstick is fixed to one end of each rod using a little melted wax
 Heat the other end of the rod by using a burner
 Write what you observe after a while
Observations:
The match stick on copper rod falls off first followed by aluminum and them iron. The wax on the
glass rod does not fall.
Conclusion:
When the temperatures of the far ends reach the melting points of wax, the matches drop off. The
match on copper falls first showing it is the best conductor, followed by aluminum. The match
stick on the glass rod does not fall showing it is a bad conductor of heat or insulator.
The order of heat conductivity of common metals silver, copper, alluminium, bras, zinc, tin, iron
and lead
Activity 3: Conduction in water

Equipment
 Water, ice,
 metal gauze, burner
 tongs,
 Test tube
Procedure
 Put the ice in test tube

 Cover ice with metal gauze
 Heat as shown on the figure
 Write what you observe
 Observations
 The water at the surface boils before the ice at the bottom melts.
Conclusion:
Liquids and gases also conduct heat but only very slowly. Water is a very poor conductor; the
water at the top of the tube can be boiled before the ice at the bottom melts.
Activity 4: Convection in liquid

Equipment
 Water, beaker
 source of heat (Bunsen burn and gas cylinder)
 sawdust (crystals of permanganate)
Procedure
 Pour water in the beaker

 Pour sawdust in the water
 Heat the water
 Observe what happens during boiling of water
Observation
The sawdust (Potassium permanganate) is seen rising and falling after heating.
Conclusion
When the water at the bottom is heated, it expands, becomes less and rises to surface as the cold
water at the surface moves down to replace the hot water. The sawdust shows this movement.
Streams of warm moving fluids are called convection currents. Instead of using sawdust, one can
use potassium permanganate.
Water does not conduct heat well; it only depends on convection to transfer heat through itself.
Activity5: Convection in air

Apparatus
 convection box
 Candle
 match box
 Cigarette
Procedure
 Light the candle

 Put the candle inside of the box of convection by using one branch (A)
 Light the cigarette and put the smoke at another the top of another branch of the box of
convection
 Observe what happens
Observation
The smoke in the left limb falls and eventually rises in the right limb where the flame is situated.
Conclusion
The direction of the convection current created by the candle is made visible by the smoke from
cigarette. The cold air along with the smoke comes down in the left limb and rises in the right
limb.
Activity 6: Radiation
Apparatus
 Source of heat, Thermometer

 Paper with an opening
Procedure
 Put the cardboard with an opening in front of a source of heat

 On the other side of the cardboard put a thermometer directly opposite the opening, ensuring
that the bulb of the thermometer is next to the opening.
 Make a reading of the temperature when the opening is covered.
 Make another reading of the temperature when the opening is not covered.
 Compare the two readings.
Observation:
The mercury column rises when the opening is not covered.
The reading when the opening is not covered is higher. Heat is transferred by radiation trough the
opening. Heat by radiation can also pass through vacuum.
2.3 EXERCISES
Exo1. Distinguish between conduction and radiation of heat.
Exo2. Describe briefly an experiment to illustrate each of the following:
a. Water is bad conductor of heat
b. Convection currents in gases
Exo3. A beaker of hot water is placed on a bench. Describe all the ways in which it loses heat and
suggest a simple way minimizing each.
Exo4. To cool down drinks, a shopkeeper thinks of using a piece of ice. But he doesn‘t know
whether he is going to place the bottom of the bottle into the ice or to put the upper part of the
bottle in ice. What advice do you give him? Justify your answer. (NATEX 2000/2001)
Exo5. Describe the difference in the manner in which heat is transmitted by conduction and
radiation.
CHAP.3 EXPANSION OF BODIES

 Define linear expansion; cubic and superficial expansion.

 Solve problems related to expansion.
3.1 THERMAL EXPANSION
Most solids and liquids increase in volume when heated (and we say that they have expanded),
and decrease in volume when cooled (and we say that they have contracted). This is why bridges
have "expansion joints" at intervals, to compensate for the changing length of the span due to
temperature changes. The term thermal expansion is used to show that expansion and contraction.
When a substance is heated, its particles begin moving and become active thus maintaining a
greater average separation. The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is
called the material's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature.
The coefficient of thermal expansion of water drops to zero as it is cooled to roughly 4 °C and
then becomes negative below this temperature, this means that water has a maximum density at
this temperature, and this leads to bodies of water maintaining this temperature at their lower
depths during extended periods of sub-zero weather.
Matter expands on heating, i.e., solids, liquids and gases expand on heating. Three types of
expansions are considered in case of solids. This classification is done according to the shape of
the solids.
3.1.1 Linear Expansion

When length of a solid (rod) is much greater than its breadth and thickness, linear expansion or
expansion in length is considered.
Fig. 32 Length of a rod increases on heating
Linear expansibility of a substance is the fraction of its original length by which a rod of the
substance expends per Kelvin rise in temperature.
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion (linear expansibility):
l l  lo
   l  lo (1  T )
lo T lo T
With: lo initial length of the sample and l change of the length due to the temperature change T
Example of the values of the linear expansivities for: iron 1.2 105 K 1 , brass: 1.9 105 K 1 ,
Glass: 0.85 105 K 1 , silica: 0.042 105 K 1
3.1.2 Superficial expansion

When a solid is in the form of a Lamina, its length and breadth increase on heating. Hence, its
area also increases. This is known as superficial expansion.
Fig. 33 Area of Laminar body increases on heating
3.1.3 Cubical Expansion

The volume of solid increases on heating. This is known as cubical expansion.
Coefficient of expansibility (volumetric expansibility):
V
  V  Vo (1  T )   3
Vo T
With: V0 initial length of the sample and V change of the length due to the temperature change
T
Thermal expansion measurements on glass are usually performed using push rod dilatometers.
3.2 APPLICATION
One simple practical application of this property is the "bimetallic coil" used in some
thermometers. This is a coiled strip of metal with brass on one side and iron on the other. Since
the two metals have different coefficients of thermal expansion, as the strip is heated or cooled it
will bend one way or another in a predictable fashion, and the raveling or unraveling of the coil
could be used to turn a thermometer needle.
Fig. 34 Thermometer needle

Activity 1: linear expansion
Equipment
 Bunsen burn ,
 knitting needle
 stands and plasticine
 match stick
Procedure
 Fixed one end of a knitting needle (A) on a retort stand so that the free end rests on another
knitting needle (B) at right angles to it; (see diagram)
 Fix a match stick at one end of the needle( B)
 Heat the fixed end of needle( A)
 Observe the match stick
Observation
The match stick rotates when needle A is heated.
Conclusion
The match stick rotates indicating expansion of needle A after heating.
Activity 2: Bimetallic strips

Equipment
 Bimetallic strip
 Bunsen burn
 Retort stand
Procedure
 Put the bimetallic strips on the stand

 Heat the bimetallic strip
 Make observation
 Cool the bimetallic strip to room temperature again
 Make observation
Observation
After heating the bimetallic strip bends with copper on the outside and iron on the inside.
Conclusion
If equal lengths of two different metals, e.g. copper and iron, are riveted together so that they
cannot move separately, they form a bimetallic strip. When heated, copper expends more than
iron and to allow this, the strip bends with copper on the outside. If they had expanded equally the
strip would have stayed straight.
Activity 3: Cubical Expansion

Apparatus
 Ball, Ring and Burner
Procedure
 Put the cold ball into the ring

 What happens
 Heat the ball
 Put it into the ring again
 What happens?
Observation
The ball can pass through the ring before heating the ball but after heating the ball fails to pass through the
ring, this indicates the ball expends after heating and contracts upon cooling.
3.4 EXERCISES
Exo1. Define linear expansibility
Exo2. Describe a practical device which makes use of the fact that two metals have different
expansibility
Exo3. Describe how you would find by experiment the linear expansibility of a metal in the form
of rod or tube. State the precautions you would take.
Exo4 Copy and fill in the blanks
 Most materials………..when heated and…………when cooled.

 They do so because their…….. vibrate more …….and ……..push each other apart
 If expansion is resisted it can produce a very high……
 To allow for expansion in bridges a ……….has to be left at one end.
Exo5. The steel bed of a suspension bridge is 200 m long at 200 C . If the extremes of temperature to
which it might be exposed are 300 C – 30 C to 400 C , how much will it contract and expand? Take
  12 106 / 0 C
Answer
The increase in length is when it is at 400 C will be

l   l T  12 106  200  (40  20)  4.8  102 m
When temperature decreases to T  30  20  500 C , the change in length is
l   l T  12 106  200  (30  20)  12.0 102 m
CHAP.4 PRINCIPLES OF TRANSMISSION OF HEAT

 Explain how a calorimeter works.

 Define internal energy and specific heat capacity.
4.1 CALORIMETER
A calorimeter (Latin .word calor, meaning heat) is a device used for calorimetry, the science of
measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes as well as heat capacity. A simple
calorimeter is a highly polished metal can, usually made of copper or aluminium. It is fitted with
an insulating cover, in which there two holes: one hole is for a thermometer and the other is for a
stirrer. A stirrer is made of the same metal as that of the calorimeter. Scottish physician and
scientist Joseph Black, who was the first to recognize the distinction between heat and
temperature is said to be the founder of calorimetry
Fig. 35 Calorimeter
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature
of unit mass of a substance by one degree Celsius.
The definition of the specific heat capacity of a substance shows that the quantity of heat required
to change the temperature of a body with mass m by T degree Celsius is given by the specific
heat formula: Q  mct
Where
 Q is energy, or heat,
 m is mass,
 c is specific heat capacity,
 ΔT is change in temperature
We can calculate the energy supplied by the heater using: Q  UIt  Pt
Heat is most often measured in "calories" (cal). A calorie is 4.186 J; it is the amount of heat
needed to raise one gram of water 1K. A dietary "Calorie" (Cal) is 1000 calories, and we
distinguish between the two by the capitalization.
4.2 HEAT GAIN AND HEAT LOSS

We know that heat flows from a hot substance to a cold substance. In Calorimetry, a hot substance
and a cold substance are mixed together. The hot substance loses heat to the cold substance until
their temperatures are equalized. According to law of conservation of energy, heat lost by the hot
substance = heat gained by the cold substance. This is the principle of calorimetry.
Let
 m1 = mass of the hot substance and t1 = temperature of the hot substance

 m2 = mass of the cold substance and t2 = temperature of the cold substance.
 C1 and C2 = specific heats of the hot and the cold substance respectively.
 t3 = common temperature reached.
Heat lost by hot substance = mass x specific heat x decrease in temperature: Q1  m1C1 (t1  t3 )
Heat gained by the cold substance = mass x specific heat x increase in temperature:
Q1  m2C2 (t2  t3 )
According to the principle of calorimeter, heat lost by hot substance = heat gained by cold
substance: Q1  Q2 i.e. m1C1 (t1  t3 )  m2C2 (t2  t3 )
If we know the specific heat of one of the substances, by experimentally measuring all other
quantities, specific heat of the given substance can be measured.
Specific heat of copper is 386 J/kg*K means '1kg of copper requires 386 J of heat energy to
increase its temperature by 1k'.
We may note that the specific heat of water is the highest. It requires nearly 4200 Joules of heat
energy to increase the temperature of 1 Kg of water by 1K. In fact, water has one of the highest
specific heats of all matter. Liquid ammonia with a specific heat of 5040 J/kg*K is one of the few
substances with a value higher than that of water.
4.3 INTERNAL ENERGY AND SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
4.3.1 Heat capacity

The heat capacity C of an object is the proportionality constant between the heat Q that the object
absorbs or loses and the resulting temperature change T of the object. That is,
Where, Ti and Tf are the initial and final temperatures of the object. Heat capacity C is the unit of
energy per degree or energy per Kelvin. The heat capacity of a marble slab is C = 179 cal/Co,
which we could also be written as C = 749 J/K. The SI unit of specific heat of water is J/kg K
4.3.2 Internal energy
Internal energy (thermal energy) is the total energy (kinetic energy and potential energy) of the
particles that make up a substance.
4.4 PRACTICAL ACTIVITY: THERMAL CAPACITY

Activity 1:
 Take half kg of water in a vessel. Note its temperature t10 C

 Heat it for exactly 2 minutes using a Bunsen burner. Again note down its temperature t2 0C
Observation: You will find that: t10C  t2 0C
Activity 2:
 Now take 1 kg of water at t10 C in the same vessel. (Vessel to be cooled to t10 C before taking
water in it).
 Heat water for exactly 2 minutes using the same Bunsen burner. Note its temperature as t30C
Observation:
 You will find that: t30C  t2 0C

1
 Also: Rise in temperature in the 2nd activity is half that in the 1st experiment: t3  t1 (t2  t1 )
2
Activity 3:
 Now, repeat the whole experiment with castor oil (half kg) in the same vessel. Let its initial
temperature be t10 C
 Again heat it exactly for two minutes (so that same amount of heat is supplied to castor oil).
Note its temperature as t4 0C you will find that: t4 0C  t2 0C
Observation:
 When same amount of heat is supplied to different substances of equal mass at the same initial
temperature, rise in temperature for different substances is different.
 The experiment may be repeated with different liquids (or solid pieces). Each time we find
that rise in temperature after two minutes in each case is different.
Rise in temperature of a substance due to same amount of heat depends on
 The amount of substance taken.

 The material of the object
We can say different substances of equal mass require different quantity of heat to increase their
temperature by one degree Celsius. This is a characteristic property of a given substance and is
known as 'Thermal Capacity'.
Thermal capacity is defined as ―the quantity of heat required to increase the temperature of the
substance through one degree Celsius‖.
4.5 EXERCISES
Exo1. 100 L of hot water at a temperature of 60 0C were added to 80 L of cold water at a
temperature of 15 0C. Assuming there is negligible heat loss to the surrounding; calculate the final
temperature of the mixture. Density of water is 1000 kf/m3 and specific heat capacity of water is
4.2*103 J/kg*K (NATEX PHYS II 2000/2001)
Exo2. A 0.0500 kg metal bolt is heated to 100.0 0C. It is then dropped into a beaker containing
0.400 kg of water with an initial temperature of 20.0 0C. If the final temperature of the bolt and
water is 22.1oC, find the specific heat capacity of the metal. Identify the metal using.
Answer
mm  0.0500kg tm  100.0 0C Cm  ?
Given and unknown: mw  0.400kg tw  20.0 0C Cw  4186 J / kg.0 C
t f  22.1 oC
Equate the energy removed from the bolt to the energy absorbed by water.
mmCw (t f  tw )
mmCm (t f  tm )  mwCw (t f  tw )  0  Cm 
mm (t f  tm )
Cm  9.0  10 2 J / kg . 0C
The bolt is most likely aluminum C Al  890 J / kg . 0C which has a value closer to
Cm  9.0  10 2 J / kg . 0C
Exo3. Dry steam is passed into a well-lagged copper can of mass 250 g containing 400 g of water
and 50 g of ice at 0 0C. The mixture is well stirred and the steam supply cut off when the
temperature of the can and its contents reaches 20 0C. Neglecting heat losses, find the mass of
steam condensed. Specific heat capacities: water, 42J/g K; copper, 0.4 J/g K. Specific latent heats:
Steam, 2260 J/g; ice, 336 J/g).
Answer Mass condensed m = 21.8 g
Exo4. How many joules of heat are given out when a piece of iron of mass 50 g and specific heat
capacity 4160 J/kg K, cools from 80 0C to 20 0C?
Exo5. What is the final temperature of the mixture if 100 g of water at 70 0C is added to 200 g of
cold water at 10 0C and well stirred? (Neglect heat absorbed by the container,, take specific heat
Capacity of water as 4200 J/kg K).
Answer: final temperature of mixture is 30 0C
Exo6. The temperature of 500 g of a certain metal is raised to 100 0C and it is then placed in 200 g
of water at 15 0C. If the final steady temperature rises to 21 0C, calculate the specific heat capacity
of the metal.
Answer:
C = 128J/kg K. from the table of specific heat capacities, we infer that the metal is probably lead.
Exo7. The temperature of a piece of copper of mass 250 g is raised to 1000C and it is then
transferred to a well-lagged aluminium can of mass 10.0 g containing 120 g of methlated spirit at
10.0 0C. Calculate the final steady temperature after the spirit has been well stirred. Neglect the
heat capacity of the stirrer and any losses from evaporation and use the table of specific heat
capacities for any data required.
Answer
Let the final steady temperature = 
The cooper cools from 100 0C to to 
The aluminium and spirit both warm up from 10.0 0C to 

Heat given out by copper = heat received by aluminium and heat received by spirit
  32.70 C final steady temperature.

Exo8. A tank holding 60 kg of water is heated by 3 kW electric immersion heater. If the specific
heat capacity of water is 4200 J/kg 0C, estimate the time for the temperature to rise from 10 0C to
60 0C.
Answer
A 3 kW (3000W) heater supplies 3000 J of heat energy per second. Let t = time taken in seconds
to raise the temperature of the water by (60 -10) = 50 0C
Heat supplied to water in time t = 300*t
From the heat equation, we can say heat received by water = 60*4200*50
Assuming heat supplied = heat received
3000*t = 60*4200*50 we find t = 4200 s = 70 min
Exo9. A piece of aluminium of mass 0.5 kg is heated to 100 0C and then placed in 0.4 kg of water
at 10 0C. If the resulting temperature of the mixture is 30 0C, what is the specific heat capacity of
aluminium if that of water is 4200J/kg*0C?
Answer
When two substances at different temperatures are mixed, heat flows from the one at the higher
temperature to the one at the lower temperature- the temperature of the mixture. If there is no loss
of heat, then in this case
Heat given out by aluminium = heat taken in by water
Using the heat equation and letting C1 be the specific capacity of aluminium in J/kg*0C, we have
Heat given out: Q1  m1C1 (t f  t1 )  0.5  C1  (100  30)
Heat taken in: Q2  m2C2 (t2  t f )  0.4  4200  20
We find C1  960 J / kg 0 C
CHAP.5 CHANGE OF PHYSICAL STATE

By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
 Determine experimentally the specific heat capacity of a substance by: Electrical method and
by method of mixtures.
 Differentiate change of states in matter :melting, sublimation, solidification, evaporation,
boiling, condensation
 Differentiate boiling from evaporation
 Define melting and boiling points.
 Explain latent heat.
5.1 PHYSICAL CHANGE OF STATE

Heat can change a substance from solid to liquid (Fusion or Melting), from liquid to solid
(solidification or freezing) and from liquid to gas (vaporization).and from gas to liquid
(condensation). Sublimation occurs when a solid changes to a gas.
For example, water is solid ice at low temperatures, but changes to liquid at higher temperatures,
and steam at even higher temperatures.
These changes are reversible—that is, a gas can turn into a solid or a liquid, and a liquid can turn
into a solid. Different materials go through such "changes of state" or "phase changes" at specific
temperatures.
Fig. 36 Changing of physical state
When a sublimable solid substance is heated, it is said to 'sublime' into a gaseous state; and when
sublimable substances are cooled from their vapour state, the solid obtained is called the
'sublimate'. Some sublimable substances are: iodine, camphor, naphthalene, dry ice carbon
dioxide) etc. A mixture of 2 solids whereby one sublime and other does not sublime can be
separated by sublimation. E.g. salt and Iodine.
5.2 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Gases, liquids, and solids that are being heated, but not changing state, have a "specific heat
capacity " that defines how much energy must be added per unit mass to raise the temperature of
unit mass of the substance one degree.
Specific heat capacity, often shortened to specific heat, is the measure of the heat energy
required to increase the temperature of a unit quantity of a substance by a unit of temperature.
For example, the heat energy required to raise water‘s temperature one kelvin degree (equal to 1
degree Celsius) is C  1cal / g  0C  4186 J / kg  0C .
The specific heat of water is unusually high, and so it takes more energy to heat water than most
other substances. The symbols for specific heat capacity are either C or c depending on how the
quantity of a substance is measured. The specific heat of ice is C  2100 J / kg  0C
The equation relating heat energy to specific heat capacity, where the unit quantity is in terms of
mass is:
Q  mcT
where
 Q is the heat energy put into or taken out of the substance,
 m is the mass of the substance, c is the specific heat capacity, and
 T   f   i is the change in temperature.
State of water Specific heat in cal/g-oC
Ice 0.50 2100

Water 1.00 4200
Steam 0.48
Table 2 Specific heat of various states of water
5.3 SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT

5.3.1 Melting and Freezing
In physics and chemistry, melting (fusion) is the process of converting a solid substance to its
liquid form, typically by heating the substance to a temperature called its melting point
(temperature at which a pure solid change to liquid under standard atmospheric pressure
(760mmHg or 101325 Pa) for example ice melts at  F  00 C ).
In the reverse process, called freezing, the liquid substance is cooled to the temperature called the
freezing point, when it changes to the solid form.
At 2795° Fahrenheit (1535° Celsius), iron melts. The metal tungsten doesn‘t melt—change from a
solid to a liquid—until about 6190° Fahrenheit (3422° Celsius)! It has the highest melting point of
any metal. Helium changes from a gas to a liquid at -452° Fahrenheit (-268.9° Celsius). It is the
most difficult gas of all to turn into a liquid.
The melting or freezing of a substance is known as a phase change or phase transition.
Chemically, the substance remains the same, but its physical state (or "phase") changes.
Comparing melting and freezing

In most cases, the melting point of a substance is equal to its freezing point. For example, the
melting point and freezing point of the element mercury is 234.32 K (−38.83 °C or −37.89 °F).
Some substances, by contrast, possess differing solid-liquid transition temperatures. For example,
agar melts at 85 °C and solidifies from 32 °C to 40 °C —this process is known as "hysteresis."
Impurities affect the melting point

If a substance contains a small amount of impurity, its melting point (and freezing point) becomes
lower than that of the pure substance. The greater the amount of impurity present, the lower the
melting point and the greater boiling point. Eventually, at a certain composition of the mixture, a
minimum melting point will be reached. At that stage, the mixture is said to be at its "eutectic
point," or it is called a "eutectic mixture." For e.g. a mixture of 3 parts of ice and 1 part of
common salt melts at about 200 C and a concentrated salt solution boils at about 1070 C
5.3.2 Evaporation and Condensation

The high energy causes the particles to break the remaining bonds and drift farther apart until the
liquid boils and stats to evaporate into a gas. This process is called vaporization. Like melting
point, boiling point of a pure substance is the temperature at which it turns from liquid to gas at
atmospheric pressure. It is therefore, a test of purity. For e.g. Water boils at 1000 C and ethanol has
a boiling point of 780 C . We call Ebullition, rapid change of liquid state to gas state.
Condensation (gas-liquid) occurs when the heat is allowed to escape from the substance through
the process of cooling. The particles lose energy as the gas cools and in the process lose their
speed. So the gas particles move closer to each other and form weak bonds and the substance
liquefies (condenses). Further cooling forces the particles between them to strengthen and the
particles are reduced to small vibrations about their position. So the substance solidifies
(solidification or freezing: liquid into solid).
Evaporation is the process by which liquid water changes to water vapor at any temperature
without actually boiling and enters the atmosphere as a gas. It occurs at a liquid‘s surface.
Evaporation of ice is called sublimation. Evaporation from the leaf pores, or stomata, of plants is
called transpiration
Evaporation results in the liquid becoming cooler. Blowing on the liquid increases the
evaporation. The evaporation rate increases with temperature, sunlight intensity, wind speed, plant
cover, and ground moisture, and it decreases as the humidity of the air increases
Comparing boiling point and evaporation
Boiling (Vaporization) Evaporation
Occurs at the surface and inside the liquid Occurs only at the surface
Occurs when the liquid attains its boiling point Takes at all temperature below the boiling point
at the pressure
Temperature does not change during boiling Temperature may be change during evaporation
5.3.3 Specific latent heat
The specific latent heat is the amount of energy required to convert 1 kg of a substance from
solid to liquid (or vice-versa) without a change in the temperature of the surroundings -- all
absorbed energy goes into the phase change -- is known as the specific latent heat of fusion
(melting).
Likewise, the amount of energy required to convert 1 kg of a substance from liquid to gas (or
vice-versa) without a change in the external temperature is known as the specific latent heat of
vaporization (boiling) for that substance.
The latent heat for a different mass of the substance can be calculated using the equation:
Q  m L
where:
 Q is the amount of energy released or absorbed during the change of phase of the substance
(in J),
 m is the mass of the substance (in kg), and
 L is the specific latent heat for a particular substance (J-kg-1); substituted as Lf to represent as
the specific latent heat of fusion, Lv as specific latent heat of vaporization.
The expression latent heat refers to the amount of energy released or absorbed by a chemical
substance during a change of state that occurs without changing its temperature, meaning a phase
transition such as the melting of ice or the boiling of water.
Different phase changes have different latent heats: a particular material will have different latent
heats of melting, vaporization, or when it applies, sublimation. For example, the latent heat of
fusion of ice is approximately LF  80Cal / g  336 KJ / kg . This means that 1 g of ice at its
melting temperature (0 °C) will absorb 80 calories of heat before it melts completely. And the
latent heat of vaporization of water is 540 cal / g at 100 C.
Change of state of water Latent heat in cal/g Latent heat in kJ/kg
Melting / Freezing 80 330

Boiling / Condensation 540 2300
Table 3 Latent heat required changing state of water
5.3.4 Applications
 Melting points are often used to characterize compounds and ascertain their purity.
 Freezing is a common method of food preservation, because it slows food decay and the
growth of microorganisms. In addition, by turning water to ice, it makes the water unavailable
for bacterial growth and chemical reactions.
 Given that ice has a high latent heat of fusion (79.72 cal/g), it is useful for refrigeration.
 If one has a mixture of several solid substances, melting is a way by which some substances
(with lower melting points) can be separated from others (with higher melting points).
 Materials with high melting points are valuable for making products that need to resist high
heat. For example, tungsten, with its extremely high melting point, is used in filaments for
light bulbs.

Activity 1: Solidification
Equipment
 Naphthalene, boiling tube, water bath, thermometer, meter rule

 Source of heat (Bunsen burn or gas cylinder), stop watch
Procedure
 Put naphthalene in a metallic container

 Put the metallic container in a water bath
 Heat the water in the water bath until all the naphthalene has melted
 Insert a thermometer into the liquid naphthalene
 Note the temperature every 10 seconds as the naphthalene cools.
 Complete the table below
Temperature (°c)
Time(s)
 Plot the temperature against time( cooling curve)
Observation:
The temperature of naphthalene falls for some time and then remains constant as naphthalene
changes from liquid to solid. When all the naphthalene has changed to solid the temperature
continued to fall till it reaches room temperature.
The constant temperature is the melting point of the naphthalene. The heat supplied when
temperature is constant is called latent heat of fusion.
Activity2: Vaporization
Equipment: Water, oil, beakers, Thermometer, stop watch, source of heat
Procedure
 Pour water in a beaker

 Put a thermometer inside the water
 Heat the water in the beaker
 Record the temperature of the water every 10 seconds until the water boils for 30 seconds
 Fill the table below
Temperature (°c)
Time(s)
 Plot a graph of temperature against time(heating curve)
 Differentiate boiling and evaporation
Observation
As the water is heated the temperature rises till boiling point. The temperature remains constant as
the water boils. As water boils (changing from liquid to gas) the temperature remains constant. The
constant temperature is called boiling point. The heat supplied when supplied when the temperature is
constant is called latent heat of vaporization.
Vapor and gas mean the same thing. The word vapor is used to describe gases that are usually found as
liquids at room temperature. Good examples are water or mercury (Hg). Compounds like carbon dioxide
are usually gases at room temperature.
The factors favoring the evaporation of a liquid are:
 The liquid surface

 The movement of air above the liquid.
Activity3 Sublimation
 Take some crystals of iodine in an evaporating dish.

 Cover it with a glass funnel, as shown in fig. bellow.
 Close the tip of the tail of the funnel with some cotton.
 Heat the dish gently and observe.
Observation:
The space inside the funnel gets filled with purple vapours of iodine. Stop the heating and observe
Observation:
The purple vapours solidify to form beautiful purple crystals of iodine on the cooler sides of the
funnel. These crystals are the sublimate of iodine.
Activity 4: Factors which influence absorption and release of heat

Objectives:
By the end of the activity the participant should know that the heat required to raise the
temperature of a body depends on its mass, its nature and the amount of temperature rise.
Equipment
 Source of heat (B), Rheostat (R), Stopwatch,

 Switches (S), Thermometer (T), Voltmeter (V),
 Ammeter (A), graduated beakers, water and alcohol, stirrer (agitator)
Procedure
 Pour 1kg of water into a beaker

 Heat the water through 5 °C
 Find time t required to raise the water through
5 °C.
 Calculate the amount of heat used
 ( Q  Pt where P  UI ),Q is the heat in joules
,P is power of heater in watts and t is time in
seconds
 Put another 0.5 kg of water into another
beaker
 Heat the water through 5 °C
 Find time t required to raise the water through 5 °C.
 Calculate the amount of heat used (Q = Pt),where Q is the heat in joules, P is power of heater
in watts and t is time in seconds
 Compare the heat used to heat 1kg of water through 5 °C to that used to heat 0.5 kg through
the same temperature rise.
 Repeat the experiment above using alcohol
 Compare the respective amount of heat used for water and alcohol.
 Repeat the experiment above with water but make temperature rise 10 °C
 Compare the amount of heat used in the two water experiments
Observation
The time taken to heat 0.5 kg through 5 0C is half the time required to heat 1 kg through the same
temperature rise. This implies half the amount of heat s required. For the same mass (1 kg) and
same temperature rise (5 oC) water requires more heat than alcohol
Conclusion
The heat required depends on the mass of the liquid, its temperature rise and the nature of the
liquid.
In general Q  mCT
Where Q is the heat in joules, m is the mass in kg, C is specific heat capacity of the liquid and
T is the change in temperature.
5.5 EXERCISES
Exo1. Define specific heat capacity and specific latent heat of vaporization.
Exo2. What do you understand by specific latent heat of fusion?
Exo3. Explain latent heat of fusion in terms of kinetic theory of matter.

The kinetic theory explains latent of fusion as being the energy which enables the molecules of
solid to change their vibration about a fixed position to the greater range of movement they have
as liquid molecules. Their potential energy increases but not their kinetic energy as happens when
the heat causes a temperature rise.
Exo4. Suppose we have 50g of ice at -10oC. We want to heat the material until it all turns to
steam at 110oC. How much heat is required?
With a problem that is complex like this one, it is good to break it down into pieces and solve
each part individually. This also helps to explain the logic used in the solution.
1. Heating ice: How much heat would be required to raise 50g of ice to its melting point?
The ice temperature must be raised 10 degrees to reach 0oC.
Since the specific heat of ice is 0.50 cal/g-oC, that means that 0.50 calories is needed to raise 1g of
ice 1oC. Thus, it would take 50 x 0.50 calories to raise 50g up 1oC and 10 x 50 x 0.50 = 250 cal to
raise the ice to its melting point.
2. Melting ice: How much heat would be required to melt the 50g of ice?
The latent heat for melting ice is 80 cal/g. That means that 1g of ice requires 80 cal of heat to
melt. Thus, 50g requires 50 x 80 = 4000 cal to melt.
3. Heating water: How much heat is required to heat 50g of water from 0oC to its boiling
point of 100oC?
Since the specific heat of water is 1.00 cal/g-oC, that means that 1.00 calorie is needed to raise 1g
of water 1oC. Thus, it would take 50 x 1.00 calories to raise 50g up 1 oC and 100 x 50 x 1.00 =
5000 cal to raise the water to its boiling point.
4. Boiling water: How much heat would be required to boil the 50g of water?
The latent heat for boiling water is 540 cal/g. That means that 1g of water requires 540 cal of heat
to boil. Thus, 50g requires 50 x 540 = 27000 cal to boil.
5. Heating steam: How much heat is required to heat 50g of steam from 100oC to 110oC?
Since the specific heat of steam is 0.48 cal/g-oC, that means that 0.48 calories are needed to raise
1g up 1oC. Thus, it would take 50 x 0.48 calories to raise 50g of steam 1oC and 10 x 50 x 0.48 =
240 cal to raise the temperature of the steam to 110oC.
6. The total heat required to change 50g of ice at -10oC to steam at 110oC is:
250 + 4000 + 5000 + 27000 + 240 = 36490 cal.
Exo5. How does the very large heat capacity of the water in the sea affect the temperature?
a) The sea between day and night.
b) The land near the sea in summer and winter.
Exo6. Give a simple explanation by reference to internal molecular energy of the changes which
occur in a substance when it is supplied with heat at constant temperature and goes from the solid
to the liquid\d state.
Exo7. (a) What is a saturated vapour?
(b) Sketch a graph to show the variation of saturation vapour pressure with temperature.
(NATEX 2000/2001 BC)
Exo8. (a) Briefly explain the relationship between the temperature and heat of a body.
(b) Why is stream at 100 0C more harmful to the skin than the same amount of water at 100 0C
Exo9. A copper can together with a stirrer of total heat capacity 60J/K contains 200 g of water at
100C. Dry steam at 1000C is passed in while the water is stirred and until the whole reaches a
temperature of 300C. Calculate the mass of steam condensed.
Exo10. Calculate the quantity of heat required to melt 4 kg of ice and to raise the temperature of
the water formed to 500 C. take the specific latent heat of ice to be 3.4*105J/kg and the specific
heat capacity of water to be 4.2*103J/kg K
Exo11. Define specific heat capacity and specific latent heat of vaporization. Calculate the heat
required to convert 2 kg of ice at -12 00C to steam at 1000 C
Exo12. Define specific latent heat of ice. A refrigerator can convert 400g of water at 20 0C to ice
at -100C in 3h. Find the average rate of heat extraction from the water in J/s.
Exo13. What do you understand by specific latent heat of fusion? Find the quantity of heat
required to melt completely 200 g of lead initially at 270C given that , for lead: melting point =
3270C, mean specific heat capacity = 0.14J/g K; specific latent heat of fusion = 270 J/g. If the heat
is supplied to the lead at the rate of 30 J/s, find:
a) the time taken to bring the lead to its melting point;
b) the additional time required to melt it.
Exo14. 160 g of molten silver at its melting point, 9600C, is allowed to solidify at the same
temperature and gives out 16800J of heat. What is the specific latent heat of silver? If the mean
specific heat capacity is 230J/kg K how much additional heat does it give out in cooling to -400C?
Exo15. Why can't the sun melt snow?

Light from the sun does melt the snow. But since snow is white, it reflects much of the sunlight,
so that the heating from the light is not as effective. If the snow is dirty, sunlight readily melts it.
Exo16. Why are pieces of ice at 0 oC added to a drink at room temperature more effective in
cooling the drink than an equal mass of water at 0 oC .
Exo17. Is mist gas or liquid?

Mist or fog is a mixture of very small liquid water drops and air, which is a gas. However,
humidity in air is a gas, because the water molecules are absorbed in a solution in the air. So, the
answer is that mist is a mixture of liquid and gas.
Exo18. Why do your spectacles become foggy when you drink a glass of hot chocolate?
Your spectacles are usually at room temperature. When the warm, humid air coming up from the
glass of hot chocolate comes in contact with your cooler spectacles, some of the water vapor
changes from steam to liquid water, which collects on the lenses
PHYSICS LECTURE
Galileo Galilee
Born (February 15, 1564 – January 8, 1642) in Pisa, Italy, Galileo
was a mathematician, musician, astronomer, philosopher, and
physicist who is closely associated with the scientific revolution.
His achievements include improving the telescope, a variety of

astronomical observations, the first law of motion, and Fig. 37 Galileo Galilee
supporting Copernicanism effectively. He has been referred to
as the "father of modern astronomy," as the "father of modern
physics," and as "father of science." Galileo's career coincided with that of Johannes Kepler.
The work of Galileo is considered to be a significant break from that of Aristotle. In addition, his
conflict with the Roman Catholic Church is taken as a major early example of the conflict of
authority and freedom of thought, particularly with science, in Western society.
He attended the University of Pisa, but was forced to cease his study there for financial reasons.
He was offered a position on its faculty in 1589 and taught mathematics.
Soon after, he moved to the University of Padua, and served on its faculty teaching geometry,
mechanics, and astronomy until 1610. During this time he explored science and made many
discoveries.
Galileo's father, Vincenzo Galilei, had performed experiments in which he discovered what may
be the oldest known non-linear relation in physics, between the tension and the pitch of a
stretched string.
Galileo contributed to the rejection of blind allegiance to authority (like the Church) or other
thinkers (such as Aristotle) in matters of science and to the separation of science from philosophy
or religion.
Although the popular idea of Galileo inventing the telescope is inaccurate, he was one of the first
people to use the telescope to observe the sky. Based on sketchy descriptions of telescopes
invented in the Netherlands in 1608, Galileo made one with about 8 x magnifications, and then
made improved models up to about 20 x.
In 1609, he demonstrated his first telescope to Venetian lawmakers. He published his initial
telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a short treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius
(Sidereal Messenger). It was on this page that Galileo first noted an observation of the moons of
Jupiter. On January 7, 1610 Galileo discovered three of Jupiter's four largest moons: Io, Europa,
and Callisto. He discovered Ganymede four nights later.
He determined that these moons were orbiting the planet since they would occasionally disappear;
something he attributed to their movement behind Jupiter. He made additional observations of
them in 1620
The demonstration that a planet had smaller planets orbiting it was problematic for the orderly,
comprehensive picture of the geocentric model of the universe, in which everything circled
around the Earth. Galileo noted that Venus exhibited a full set of phases like the Moon.
The heliocentric model of the solar system developed by Copernicus predicted that all phases
would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the Sun would cause its illuminated hemisphere
to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth
when it was on the Earth side of the Sun.
Galileo was one of the first Europeans to observe sunspots; although there is evidence that
Chinese astronomer had done so before.
Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely
independent work of Kepler and René Descartes, was a precursor of the Classical mechanics
developed by Sir Isaac Newton.
One of the most famous stories about Galileo is that he dropped balls of different masses from the
Leaning Tower of Pisa to demonstrate that their velocity of descent was independent of their mass
(excluding the limited effect of air resistance).
Though the story is now generally rejected as false, however, Galileo did perform experiments
involving rolling balls down inclined planes, which proved the same thing: falling or rolling
objects are accelerated independently of their mass.
In his 1632 Dialogue Galileo presented a physical theory to account for tides, based on the motion
of the Earth. :”Yet it moves”.
If correct, this would have been a strong argument for the reality of the Earth's motion. (The
original title for the book, in fact, described it as a dialogue on the tides; the reference to tides was
removed by order of the Inquisition.)
Galileo also put forward the basic principle of relativity. It typically states that nobody is able to
determine their speed without the use of an external point of reference. This later provided the
basic framework for Einstein's theory of relativity.
Sir Isaac Newton

was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher,
alchemist, and theologian who is considered by many scholars and
members of the general public to be one of the most influential people in
human history. His 1687 publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (usually called the Principia) is considered to be among the
most influential books in the history of science, laying the groundwork for
most of classical mechanics.
In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of
motion which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries.
Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the
same set of natural laws by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary
motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and
advancing the scientific revolution.
Newton also built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on
the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours that form the visible
spectrum. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling and studied the speed of sound.
In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of the
differential and integral calculus. He also demonstrated the generalised binomial theorem,
developed Newton's method for approximating the roots of a function, and contributed to the
study of power series.
Newton remains uniquely influential to scientists, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of members

of Britain's Royal Society asking who had the greater effect on the history of science and had the
greater contribution to humankind, Newton or Albert Einstein. Royal Society scientists deemed
Newton to have made the greater overall contribution on both.
Newton was also highly religious, though an unorthodox Christian, writing more on Biblical
hermeneutics and occult studies than the natural science for which he is remembered today. In
spite of this, The 100 by astrophysicist Michael H. Hart ranks Newton as the second most
influential person in history (below Muhammad and above Jesus).
Early life
Isaac Newton was born on 25 December 1642 at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-

Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. At the time of Newton's birth, England had
not adopted the Gregorian calendar and therefore his date of birth was recorded as Christmas Day,
25 December 1642. Newton was born three months after the death of his father, a prosperous
farmer also named Isaac Newton. Born prematurely, he was a small child; his mother Hannah
Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug (≈ 1.1 litres). When Newton
was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabus
Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough. The young
Isaac disliked his stepfather and held some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as
revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19: "Threatening my father and
mother Smith to burn them and the house over them." While Newton was once engaged in his late
teens to a Miss Storey, he never married and is believed to have been asexual, being highly
engrossed in his studies and work.
From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's School,
Grantham (where his signature can still be seen upon a library window sill). He was removed
from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, where his
mother, widowed by now for a second time, attempted to make a farmer of him. He hated
farming. Henry Stokes, master at the King's School, persuaded his mother to send him back to
school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a
schoolyard bully, he became the top-ranked student.
In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge as a sizar — a sort of work-study
role. At that time, the college's teachings were based on those of Aristotle, but Newton preferred
to read the more advanced ideas of modern philosophers, such as Descartes, and of astronomers
such as Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler. In 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem
and began to develop a mathematical theory that would later become infinitesimal calculus. Soon
after Newton had obtained his degree in August 1665, the university temporarily closed as a
precaution against the Great Plague. Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge
student, Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the subsequent two years saw
the development of his theories on calculus, optics and the law of gravitation. In 1667, he returned
to Cambridge as a fellow of Trinity.
Fame
French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who
ever lived, and once added that Newton was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more
than once a system of the world to establish." English poet Alexander Pope was moved by
Newton's accomplishments to write the famous epitaph: Nature and nature's laws lay hid in night;
God said "Let Newton be" and all was light."
Newton himself had been rather more modest of his own achievements, famously writing in a
letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676: ‗If I have seen further it is by standing on the
shoulders of Giants.’
Two writers think that the above quote, written at a time when Newton and Hooke were in dispute
over optical discoveries, was an oblique attack on Hooke (said to have been short and
hunchbacked), rather than – or in addition to – a statement of modesty. On the other hand, the
widely known proverb about standing on the shoulders of giants published among others by 17th-
century poet George Herbert (a former orator of the University of Cambridge and fellow of
Trinity College) in his Jacula Prudentum (1651), had as its main point that "a dwarf on a giant's
shoulders sees farther of the two", and so its effect as an analogy would place Newton himself
rather than Hooke as the 'dwarf'.
In a later memoir, Newton wrote:
I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy
playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a
prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.
Newton remains influential to scientists, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of members of

Britain's Royal Society (formerly headed by Newton) asking who had the greater effect on the
history of science, Newton or Albert Einstein. Royal Society scientists deemed Newton to have
made the greater overall contribution. In 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of today's leading physicists
voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever;" with Newton the runner-up, while a parallel survey of
rank-and-file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton.
Religious views
Historian Stephen D. Snobelen says of Newton, "Isaac Newton was a heretic. But ... he never
made a public declaration of his private faith — which the orthodox would have deemed
extremely radical. He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unravelling his personal beliefs."
Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser (he owned and had
thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an Arian and almost certainly an
antitrinitarian.[6] In an age notable for its religious intolerance there are few public expressions of
Newton's radical views, most notably his refusal to take holy orders and his refusal, on his death
bed, to take the sacrament when it was offered to him.
In a view disputed by Snobelen, T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that Newton held the Eastern Orthodox
view of the Trinity rather than the Western one held by Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and most
Protestants. In his own day, he was also accused of being a Rosicrucian (as were many in the
Royal Society and in the court of Charles II).
Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known discoveries,
he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great clock.
He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in
motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done."
His scientific fame notwithstanding, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers
were also noteworthy. Newton wrote works on textual criticism, most notably An Historical
Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture. He also placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ
at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with one traditionally accepted date. He also tried,
unsuccessfully, to find hidden messages within the Bible.
Newton wrote more on religion than he did on natural science. He believed in a rationally
immanent world, but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza. Thus, the
ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an
active reason. In his correspondence, Newton claimed that in writing the Principia "I had an eye
upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity". He saw
evidence of design in the system of the world: "Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary
system must be allowed the effect of choice". But Newton insisted that divine intervention would
eventually be required to reform the system, due to the slow growth of instabilities. For this,
Leibniz lampooned him: "God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time: otherwise
it would cease to move. He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion."
Newton's position was vigorously defended by his follower Samuel Clarke in a famous
correspondence.
In a manuscript he wrote in 1704, in which he describes his attempts to extract scientific

information from the Bible, he estimated that the world would end no earlier than 2060. In
predicting this he said, "This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be, but to put a
stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end, and
by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as often as their predictions fail."
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hypertext book
1. htt://www.mkpublishers.com
2. http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Physics_Exercises/Kinematics
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion
4. http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/kinemarics
5. http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/phys#Recherche-d
6. http://pstc.aapt.org
7. http://www.answers.com/Topic/Physics
8. http://www.answers.com/topic/temperature-conversion
9. http://www.answers.com/Topic/Thermometer
10. http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/Class/newtlaws
11. Http://www.howstuffworks.com/pulley.htm
12. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Freezing_point
13. http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/matterstates
14. www.iop.org
15. www.physicscetral.com
16. www.sciam.com
17. www.worldofteaching.com
Textbooks
1. ABBOT A.F, JOHN COCKCROFT, Physics, Fifth Edition, Heinemann Educational
Publishers, 1989
2. Cunningham, William P, Environmental science, Mc Graw-Hill, 6th Ed., 2001
3. HEWITT P.G, SUCH0CKI J., HEWITT L.A., Conceptual Physical Science, Second edition,
1999, Addison Wesley Longman
4. Holt, Rinehart and Winstone, 1999, Physics
5. MINEDUC, Ordinary level science curriculum (Biology, Chemistry, Physics), NCDC, Kigali,
2006
6. PATRICK T., Mathematics standard level, 3rd Edition, Ibid Press, Victoria, 2004
7. SILVER Burdett, GINN Inc, Physical Science, Unit States of America, 1990
8. WABWIRE S.H, KASIRYE S., MK secondary Physics, student‘s book 1, MK Publishers
LTD, Kampala-Uganda, 2007

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................................ I

3.5.3 EXERCISES ............................................................................................................................................................ 67

Fig. 1 Motion a long line

Fig.3 Non linear motion

 Define displacement; speed, velocity and

1.1. KINEMATICS OF CONSTANT VELOCITY

In mathematical illustrations of two-dimensional Cartesian systems, the first coordinate

1.1.2 Position, displacement, and distance

In physics, distance is a distinct quantity from either position or displacement. It is a scalar

r by r  xA2  y A2 where xA and yA are the Cartesian coordinates of the point.

1.1.3 Speed and Velocity

The speed of an object is the magnitude v of its velocity. It is a scalar quantity.

Time spent walking t  T  to  90 min  30 min  60 min  1h

Total dis tan ce 600  900

Total dis tan ce 200m

Given: s  825m to the west t  137s

The displacement is x  x2  x1  30.5m  50.0m  19.5m

The time interval is t  3.00s

1.2 KINEMATICS OF CONSTANT ACCELERATION

1.2.1.2 Velocity with constant acceleration

1.2.1.3 Displacement with constant acceleration

1.2.2 Equation for uniform acceleration and in one dimension

 S  dis tan ce after object accelerates for a time, t

Additional relations between displacement, velocity and acceleration can be derived.

This relation is useful when time is not known explicitly

Horizontal Motion Vertical Motion

The constant acceleration is a  10m / s 2 to the right.

The time that the object accelerates is t  3s .

Let's try using velocity formula v  v0  at gives v  0  (10  3)  30m / s

The initial velocity is v0  20m / s . The acceleration is a  10m / s 2 the time is t  3s .

v  v0  at gives v  20  (10  3)  10m / s

a. The maximum height reached;

Answer: Given: u  14m / s v  0m / s a  9.8m / s 2

To find the height reached, x, we substitute in the equation: v 2  u 2  2ax  x  10m

1.2.3 Motion-Time Graphs

Fig. 7 Displacement-time graphs

a. Shows a stationary object; displacement/distance does not change as time changes.

Examples of some velocity-time graphs

Fig. 8 velocity- time graphs

To determine the slope the information below will be found useful:

Motion- time graphs shown by tape charts

Fig. 9 Tape chart for a body moving with uniform acceleration

dis tan ce moved AB

1.2.4 Acceleration due to gravity and Free fall

The falling object starts out at a velocity of zero and,

After 4 s, the ball is moving downward at a speed of

Ex4. A stone is thrown upwards with an initial speed of 50 m/s.

a   g  10m / s 2 and v  o correspond to the top of the path.

Answer: Given: a  9.8m / s 2 , y  2.0m , u  6m / s

v  velocity after object accelerates for time, t

Answer: Quantities we need: v  35m / s u  10m / s a  5m / s 2

vu 35m / s  10m / s

Quantities we need: v  25m / s u  5m / s a  10m / s 2

vo  10m / s  (10m / s 2  3s )  40m / s

Exo4. Solving for velocity v  at  u

 S  dis tan ce after objectaccelerates for a time, t

Exo6. Distance Formula: v 2  u 2  2a ( S  S 0 )

a) Using the equation v  at  u , at maximum height, v  0 , a  10m / s 2 and t  2s (i.e. half

Answer u  50m / s v  20m / s a  10m / s 2