Engineering Science Handbook For Technicians - Level I

CONTENTS
PREFACE ................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................... 6
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES................................................................... 6
International System Of Units (Si – Système Internationale .................................. 6
Si Base Units .......................................................................................... 6
Some Derived Units Expressed In Terms Of Base Units ....................................... 7
Derived Units With Special Names ................................................................ 7
Decimal Multiples, Submultiples And Their Prefixes ............................................ 8
Conversions Of Units ................................................................................ 8
Dimensional Algebra ................................................................................. 9
Evaluation Exercise 1.1............................................................................ 10
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................. 11
VECTORS ............................................................................................. 11
Mass, Force And Weight .......................................................................................... 11
Vectors And Scalars ................................................................................................ 12
Concurrent, Coplanar Forces .................................................................................... 14
Parallelogram Of Forces........................................................................................... 14
Evaluation Exercise 2.1............................................................................................ 20
Non-Concurrent, Coplanar Forces – Turning Forces ................................................... 23
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................. 31
RECTILINEAR MOTION ......................................................................... 31
Displacement .......................................................................................................... 31
Speed and Velocity.................................................................................................. 31
Velocity .................................................................................................................. 31
Equations of Motion ................................................................................................ 31
Derivations of the Equations .................................................................................... 32
Vertical Motion ........................................................................................................ 33
Some examples of vertical motion ............................................................................ 33
Graphical Representation Of Uniform Motion ............................................................ 36
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................. 38
PROJECTILE MOTION ........................................................................... 38
Horizontal & Vertical Components of a projectile ....................................................... 38
Time of Flight ......................................................................................................... 40
Greatest Height ...................................................................................................... 41
The Horizontal Range .............................................................................................. 41
The Maximum Horizontal Range............................................................................... 41
The Equation of the Trajectory ................................................................................ 42
1
CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................. 44
ANGULAR (ROTATIONAL) MOTION ........................................................ 44
Definition of Angular Motion .................................................................................... 44
The Radian ............................................................................................................. 44
Definition of the Radian ........................................................................................... 44
Relationship between the degree and the radian ....................................................... 44
Arc length............................................................................................................... 45
Angular Velocity ...................................................................................................... 45
Relationship Between N and ω ................................................................................. 45
Angular Acceleration ............................................................................................... 46
Equations of Motion ................................................................................................ 46
Relationship Between Linear and Angular Motion ...................................................... 46
CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................. 49
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION............................................................... 49
Mass and Inertia ....................................................................................... 49
Newton’s Laws of Motion ............................................................................. 49
Newton’s First Law ................................................................................. 49

Application of the first law - vehicle safety and inertia ...................................... 49
Newton’s Second Law ............................................................................. 50
Newton’s Third Law ................................................................................ 50
Application of Newton’s Laws - The Solution of Problems ................................... 50
Evaluation Exercise 6.1............................................................................ 52
CHAPTER 7 ............................................................................. 53
MOMENTUM ......................................................................................... 53
Newton’s 2nd law.................................................................................................... 53
Impulse .................................................................................................................. 53
Conservation of Momentum ..................................................................................... 54
Collisions ................................................................................................................ 54
Inelastic collisions ................................................................................................... 55
Perfectly elastic collisions......................................................................................... 57
Partially or semi- elastic(imperfectly) collisions .......................................................... 57
CHAPTER 8 ............................................................................. 60
WORK, POWER, & ENERGY ................................................................... 60
Work (Mechanical) .................................................................................................. 60
Power .................................................................................................................... 62
Energy ................................................................................................................... 62
Conservation Of Energy ........................................................................................... 65
Transformation Of Energy ....................................................................................... 66
Work And Power Done By A Constant Torque ........................................................... 67
2
CHAPTER 9 ............................................................................. 72
FRICTION ............................................................................................ 72
Definition................................................................................................................ 72
Laws of ‘dry’ friction ................................................................................................ 72
Static Friction ......................................................................................................... 72
Kinetic Friction ....................................................................................................... 72
Coefficient of Friction .............................................................................................. 72
Friction on an Incline ............................................................................................... 75
Angle of Friction...................................................................................................... 76
Effects of Friction .................................................................................................... 78
Effects of Lubrication (Reduction of Friction) ............................................................. 79
CHAPTER 10 ........................................................................... 82
PROPRTIES OF MATERIALS ............................................................... 82
Force And Materials................................................................................................. 82
Types Of Loading (Forces) ....................................................................................... 82
Elasticity ................................................................................................................. 84
Stress (σ) ........................................................................................................... 84
Strain ................................................................................................................. 85
Thermal Strain .................................................................................................... 86
Elasticity And Hooke’s Law................................................................................... 86
Force Constant ................................................................................................... 87
Ultimate Tensile And Compressive Stresses (Tests To Destruction) ........................ 88
Failure: Factor Of Safety ...................................................................................... 89
Evaluation Exercise 10.1 .......................................................................................... 90
CHAPTER 11 ........................................................................... 92
HEAT ................................................................................................... 92
Temperature........................................................................................................... 92
Temperature Scales ................................................................................................ 92
Relationship Between Celsius And Fahrenheit Scales ................................................. 92
Instruments Of Temperature Measurement – Thermometers ..................................... 93
Heat Transfer ......................................................................................................... 94
Conduction ......................................................................................................... 94
Convection ......................................................................................................... 94
Radiation ............................................................................................................ 95
Heat Sinks .............................................................................................................. 95
Calculations Involving Heat Transfer By Conduction .................................................. 96
Effects Of Heat ....................................................................................................... 98
Heat Capacity ......................................................................................................... 99
Specific Heat Capacity ............................................................................................. 99
Heat Exchange (Mixtures) ..................................................................................... 100
Latent Heat, Change Of State ................................................................................ 100
Energy Conversion ................................................................................................ 102
Linear Expansion ................................................................................................... 102
Gas Laws .............................................................................................................. 104
Boyle’s Law ...................................................................................................... 104
Charles’s Law.................................................................................................... 105
The Ideal Gas Equation ..................................................................................... 105
Evaluation Exercise 11.1 ........................................................................................ 108
3
CHAPTER 12 ......................................................................... 110
CIRCULAR MOTION ............................................................................ 110
Definition.............................................................................................................. 110
Vehicle Motion on a Banked Curved Path ................................................................ 111
Unbanked Curved Road ......................................................................................... 112
Why roads are banked at curves ............................................................................ 112
Vertical Circle........................................................................................................ 113
Conical Pendulum ................................................................................................. 114
Periodic Time (Time for one complete cycle) ........................................................... 114
CHAPTER 13 ......................................................................... 116

ILLUMINATION ................................................................................... 116
The Candela ......................................................................................................... 116
The Solid Angle ..................................................................................................... 116
The Lumen ........................................................................................................... 117
Luminous Intensity................................................................................................ 117
Illumination ....................................................................................................... 117
Inverse Square Law .............................................................................................. 118
Inclined Surface Illumination ................................................................................. 119
Luminance Or Brightness ....................................................................................... 120
Evaluation Exercise 13.1 ........................................................................................ 121
REFERENCES ......................................................................... 122
4
PREFACE
This handbook is meant to cover the Technical Education & Vocational
Entrepreneurship Authority (TEVETA) Engineering Science Level I approved
syllabus for Technicians.
The aim is to produce a handbook which is not so long that students are
unlikely to use it. It is meant to fill the ‘gap’ of the non-availability of a
suitable textbook that covers all the topics in the syllabus.
The handbook comes against a background of persistent poor performance by

students pursuing studies at technician level. It is hoped that, not only will
serve as an invaluable set of ‘revision notes’ but also supplement the
students’ class work. Lecturers will also find the handbook to be handy.
There are a lot of worked examples, including those from past papers, which
have been solved in detail. Definitions and fundamental points are
highlighted–either by use of screening or bold type.
At the end of each chapter, there are questions, a good number of then taken
from have taken from past papers. Answers will be provided to these
questions in the next edition.
Let me take this opportunity to thank all those people who have suggested
ways in which the handbook might be improved. I am particularly grateful to
my wife who made several suggestions as regards the format and took care
of the grammar. She also sacrificed a lot of sleep as she and I worked on the
draft.
Finally, I express my gratitude to the following:
W. SICHILIMA
5
CHAPTER 1
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES
1.1 Introduction
There are three fundamental properties of a substance as:
(i) The space it occupies
(ii) The quantity contained in it
(iii) When it is in a given position
These properties are measured respectively by:

(i) Length (m)
(ii) Mass (kg)
(iii) Time (s)
1.2 International System of Units (SI – Système Internationale)

The International System of Units (SI) was adopted by the General Conference of
Weights and Measures in 1960 and is recommended for use in all areas of science
and technology. While the British Engineering System is still used in North America
and the UK, the SI system is gradually replacing it.
The SI system is a set of metric units based on the old ‘mks’ system where m is the
metre, k is the kilogram and s the second. It is a decimal system in which units are
divided or multiplied by 10 to give smaller or bigger units.
Most quantities that are measured in science will always bear appropriate symbols
and units.
SI Base Units
Physical Quantity Symbol SI Unit Description Unit Symbol Dimension
Length l Metre m L
Mass m Kilogram kg M
Time t Second s T
Electric Current I Ampere A A
Quantity of a substance n Mole mol n
Temperature T Kelvin K θ
Luminous intensity IL Candela cd I
Supplementary Units
Angle θ Radian rad -
Solid angle Ω Steradian sr -
6
Some Derived Units Expressed in Terms of Base Units
Physical Quantity Symbol SI Unit Description Symbol Dimension
2 2
Area A Square metre m L
3 3
Volume V Cubic metre m L
Speed, Velocity v, ν Metre per second m/s L/T

2 2 2
Acceleration a Metre per second m/s L/T
3 3 3
Density ρ Kilogram per metre kg/m M/L
3 2
Luminance L Candela per metre cd/m I/L
Angular velocity ϖ Radian per second rad/s -
Radiant intensity I Watt per steradian W/sr -
Derived Units with Special Names
Unit Definition in
Physical Quantity Unit Dimension
Symbol Symbol Base Units
2 -2
Force (Weight) F(W) Newton N Kg.m/s MLT
2 -1 -2
Pressure P Pascal Pa Kg/(m.s ) ML T .
2 2 2 -2
Work (Energy) W(E) Joule J Kg.m /s ML T
2 3 2 -3
Power P Watt W Kg.m /s ML T
-1 -1
Frequency f Hertz Hz s T
Electric charge Q Coulomb C A.s AT
Electric potential 2 3 2 -1 -3
U(V) Volt V Kg.m /(A.s ) ML A T
difference
2 2 3 2 -2 -3
Electric resistance R Ohm Ω Kg.m /(A .s ) ML A T
Electric 2 3 2 2 3 -1 -2
G Siemen S A .s /(kg.m ) ATM L
conductance
Electric 2 4 2 2 4 -1 -2
C Farad F A .s /(kg.m ) ATM L
capacitance
2 2 2 -2 -1
Magnetic flux Φm Weber Wb Kg.m /(s .A) ML T A
Magnetic flux
2 -1 -2
density (magnetic B Tesla T Kg/(A.s ) MA T
induction)
2 2 2 -2 -2
Inductance L Henry H Kg.m /(s .A ) ML2T A
Luminance flux FL Lumen lm cd/sr I

2 -2
Illuminance E Lux lx cd/(sr.m ) IL
7
Decimal Multiples, Submultiples and their Prefixes
Prefix Multiplying Factor Symbol

18
Exa 10 E
15
Peta 10 P
12
Tera 10 T
9
Giga 10 G
6
Mega 10 M
3
kilo 10 k
2
hecto 10 h
1
deca 10 da
-1
deci 10 d
-2
centi 10 c
-3
milli 10 m
-6
micro 10 µ
-9
nano 10 n
-12
pico 10 p
-15
femto 10 f
-18
atto 10 a
1.3 Conversions of Units
Ex am ple 1.1 How many nanometres equivalent to 78km?
Solution 1km = 1012nm

∴ 78km = 78 × 1012nm
= 7.8 × 1013nm
Ex am ple 1.2 How many cubic millimetres are there in 0.8km3?
Solution (1km) 3 = (10 6 mm) 3 = 1018 mm 3

∴ 0.8km 3 = 0.8 × 1018 mm 3 = 8 × 1017 mm 3
Ex am ple 1.3 Convert 54 km/h into metre per second.
Solution
54km 54 × 10 3 m
= = 15ms −1
h 3600 s
8
Ex am ple 1.4 Convert 500Js-1 into kilo Joules per hour.
Solution
1kJ = 10 3 J ∴ 1J = 10 kJ
-3
1
1h = 3600s ∴ 1s = h
3600
500J 500 × 10 −3 kJ
∴ = = 1 800kJh -1
s 1
3600
1.4 Dimensional Algebra

Every physical quantity may be expressed in terms of a combination of base units;
each base unit defines a physical dimension. For example, an area is the product of
two lengths; therefore it has dimensions of length squared (L2).
Algebraic operations may be performed with units and dimensions in exactly the
same way with numerals. Dimensional algebra is extremely useful since it enables us:
1. to reduce a combination of units to the simplest form;

2. to check equations; and
3. to establish equations which have a dimensionless constant (no units).
Example 1.5
Reduce the units of work (Joules) divided by pressure (Pascal) to the simplest form.
Solution
Work J ML2 / T 2
= = 2
= L3
power Pa M / LT
Example 1.6
Is the following equation dimensionally correct?
Force
Time = 2π
Mass × length
Solution
Force ML / T 2 1 1
= = =
Mass × length ML T 2
T
∴ The equation is incorrect.
9
Evaluation Ex ercise 1.1
Carry out the following conversions:

1. 8 200N to kilo Newtons
2. 6.5A to milliamperes
3. 2.8 × 108W to Megawatts
4. 0.01kg to milligrams
5. 2.5 × 105Ω to Mega ohms
6. 0.000 04µF to millifarads
7. 20mV to kilovolts
8. 7 × 10-2kJ to micro Joules
9. The speed of light is 1.08 × 109km/h.

(a) metres per second
(b) millimetres per pico second
10. A substance of mass 200g measures50cm × 4cm × 8cm. Calculate its density giving your
answer in SI units.
10
CHAPTER 2
VECTORS
2.1 Introduction
Statics is the study of forces on bodies that are at rest or in steady motion.
2.2 MASS, FORCE AND WEIGHT
M ass: The mass of a body is the quantity of matter it contains.
Force: Force is simply a push or pull and may be measured by its effect on a body
(mass). It is the cause or agent that puts an object at rest into motion or alters the
motion of a moving body.
W eight: If a body is dropped it will start to fall, so we deduce that there must be a
force acting on that body which attracts it to the ground. This force is called the
gravitational force or the weight of the body; thus the weight of a body is a
force.
(There is a force of attraction between any two given bodies. This force is directly
proportional to the product of the masses of the bodies and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them. Consider the earth, mass me, and an
object of mass mo; the distance between their centres of gravity being d).
me mo
d me mo
F∝
d2
me mo
∴F = k
d2
me mo
∴F = G
d2
Where G = gravitational constant

= 6.67 × 10 -11 Nm 2 kg - 2
Since the earth’s mass is fairly constant, then
Gme
is a cons tan t
d2
i.e. F = kmo
= mog
Gm e
= mg where g =
d2
It is apparent that g will vary from place to place depending on the distance the
mass is from centre of the earth. The further away it is the less the value.
11
2.3 VECTORS AND SCALARS
Scalars: Scalars are quantities that can be completely specified by magnitude (size)
and a unit.
Ex am ples of scalar quantities: Speed, time, density, energy, area, temperature,

length, etc
Vectors: Some physical quantities need to be expressed more definitely by

specifying magnitude and direction. Vector quantities have both magnitude and
direction.
Ex am ples of vector quantities: Force, displacement, velocity, momentum,

impulse, etc
Usually the North and the x-axis are taken as frames of reference for specifying the
direction of vectors. If the North is taken as the frame of reference, the clockwise
direction is taken as positive. A good example of this is when taking the bearing of a
position with reference to some other point. On the other hand, if the x-axis is taken
as the frame of reference, the anticlockwise direction is taken as positive and the
clockwise direction as negative.
Examples
(a) The North Taken as a Frame of Reference
N N
B B
9o
46o
A A
The bearing of point B The bearing of point B
Positive direction
from point A is 046o or from point A is 351o or
N46oE or E44oN N9oW or W81oN
o o
In the three-digit format an angle of N7 W would be written as 007 .
(b) The X-axis Taken as a Frame of Reference

Y
N
Positive direction B
X 46o
0
A
Negative direction In this convention the bearing
of point B from point A is 44o
Vector Notation
A vector is denoted by an arrow above or below the letter or letters. It may also be
denoted by the letters appearing in boldface.
AB ≡ AB ≡ AB and a≡a
AB This means that the vector’s direction is from A to B.
BA This means that the vector’s direction is from B to A.
∴ AB ≡ - BA
Letters or symbols not appearing in boldface or without arrows are scalar quantities.
12
Equality of Vectors
Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.
A = 65N A = 65N
30
o
30
o
Thus vectors A and B above are equal
Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

When a vector is multiplied by a scalar, the vector’s magnitude is altered while its
direction is unaltered.
a 3a - 3a
Multiplication of a vector with a negative number rotates the direction of the vector
through 180o.
Addition of Vectors
Scalar quantities are added algebraically.
Ex am ple
20n + 8n = 28n
When vectors are added, their directions are also taken into account.

Parallel vectors
Parallel vectors are the easiest to add because they are added algebraically.
Example
 
A = 3N B = 5N
 
(a) A + B = 8N
 
(b) A − B = −2 N
(c) If two opposing parallel forces act through the same point, a turning effect
will be produced and the body will not be in equilibrium (balance). The
turning effect produced is called a couple .
r
d
F
r
13
Non-parallel vectors
Non-parallel vectors may be added using the following methods:
1. Geometrical
 Parallelogram of forces
 Triangle or polygon of forces
2. Analytical
 Resolving vectors into components (horizontal and vertical)
 Use of the sine and cosine rules
2.4 CONCURRENT, COPLANAR FORCES

Forces whose lines pass through a common point are called concurrent : if they also
lie in the same geometric plane, they are said to be coplanar .
F1
F2
F3
Three coplanar forces which are concurrent
Parallelogram of Forces
The parallelogram of forces states “If two forces (vectors) acting at a point
(concurrent) are represented both in magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides
of a parallelogram, their resultant (sum) will be represented by the diagonal of the
parallelogram from that point”.
A
A
R
B B B R
B
θ θ
A A
     
R= A+ B R= A+ B
  A and B at right angles   A and B not at right angles
=B+A =B+A
Ex am ple 2.1
A lathe tool exerts two forces at right angles to each other. They are a cutting force
of 1 100N and a side travelling force of 700N. What is the resultant force exerted on
the piece being turned?
14
1 100N
R
700N 700N
θ
1 100N
Space diagram Vector diagram
R 2 = 1 100 2 + 700 2
∴ R = 1 700 000 = 1 300 N
 700 
θ = tan −1   = 32.5
o
 1 100 
The vector diagram on the right hand side above can be drawn by scale drawing or
construction and the resultant R and the angle θ that it makes with one of the
vectors e.g. the 1 100N in this case can be determined by measurement.
 Triangle of Forces
If three coplanar forces acting at appoint are in equilibrium, they can be represented
in magnitude and direction by the sides of a triangle taken in order.
It should be noted that the words ‘taken in order’ mean that the direction of the
forces follow each other round the side of the triangle in either a clockwise direction
or an anticlockwise direction.
Suppose three forces F 1 , F 2 and F 3 , acting at point O, are in equilibrium and suppose
the line of action of these three forces are to be as shown in the space diagram
below
F2 F2
F1
O
F3
F3
F1
(a) Space Diagram (a) Force/vector diagram
The corresponding vector diagram is shown on the right. This must be drawn
accurately to a suitable scale so that the side of the triangle represent the magnitude
and direction of the three sides.
Polygon of Forces
The polygon of forces rule is an extension of the triangle of forces. The polygon of
forces is stated as follows:
If three or more coplanar forces acting through a point and are in equilibrium, they
may be represented in magnitude, sense and direction by the sides of a polygon
taken in order.
Or
15
If three or more coplanar forces acting through a point and are placed head to tail in
magnitude and direction, the resultant is the vector which closes the polygon with its
direction being from the first vector towards the last vector.
Ex am ple 2.2
An 80N traffic light is suspended from two wires, which make angles of 20o and 30o
with the horizontal as below. Determine the tensions T1 and T2.in the wires.
20o
T2 T1
T1
20o 30o
80 N
T2
30o
(a) Space diagram (b) Polygon of forces

Solution
Choose an appropriate scale to draw the polygon as above in (b), not drawn to scale,
1cm = 20N for instance. Construct the vertical vector representing the 80N weight to
scale and from the terminal point draw a line parallel to the tension T2. Since the
polygon (triangle) of forces must be closed, the terminal point of the remaining
tension vector T1 must coincide with the origin of the load vector. The magnitudes of
T1 and T2 may be measured directly from the diagram (to the same scale as the load
vector). In this case the magnitudes of T1 and T2 are 90N and 98N respectively. Note
that the 80N weight is the equilibrant of T1 and T2.
Equilibrant
If a system of concurrent forces is not in equilibrium there is always some other force
called the equilibrant that would give the system equilibrium if it were applied to
the concurrence point. The equilibrant has the same magnitude as the resultant but
opposite in direction.
Resultant
Equilibrant
16
Rectangular Components of a Vector
A vector may be resolved into components along the x and y axes so that they are
mutually perpendicular. Addition of the components becomes easier by using the
Pythagoras’ Theorem.
Y The components of F along the x and y

axes are calculated as follows:
Fx
Fx
F Cosθ = ⇒ Fx = F cos θ
Fy F
θ F
X Sinθ = y ⇒ Fy = F sin θ
F
Where Fx = Component of F along the x − axis
and Fy = Component of F along the y − axis
Example 2.3 Use the component method to solve the problem in example 2.
o
T2Sin30o
T1Sin20
T2 T2
T1 T1
20o 30o 20o 30o

T1Cos20o T2Cos30o
80N
(a) Space diagram (b) Horizontal and vertical components of T1 and T2

Solution
Both T1 and T2 are resolved into components parallel to the x-axis and y-axis. as in
diagram (b) above. For the system to be in equilibrium the sum of the horizontal
forces must be zero and that of the vertical forces must also be zero. This is done as
follows:
Horizontal Forces Vertical Forces

o o o o
T1Cos20 = T2Cos30 T1Sin20 + T2Sin30 = 80N
i.e. 0.9397T1 = 0.866T2 i.e. 0.342T1 + 0.5T2 = 80N Equation (2)

0.9397
⇒ T2 = T1 = 1.0851T1 Equation (1)
0.866
Substituting T2 by 0.684T1 in equation (2),

{i.e. solving the equations simultaneously} we have:
0.342T1 + 0.5(1.085T1) = 80N
i.e. 0.8845T1 = 80N
∴ T1 = 90.4N and T2 = 98.1N

This method may best be used as follows:
17
Force (Vector) X-component Y-component
Weight W = 80N 80Cos270o = 0 80Sin270o = -80
Tension T1 T1Cos160o = -0.9397T1 T1Sin160o = 0.342T1
Tension T2 T2Cos30o = 0.866T2 T2Sin30o = 0.5T2
SUM ΣX = 0.866T2 – 0.9397T1 ΣY = 0.342T1 + 0.5T2 - 80
For system to be in equilibrium, Σx-components = 0

And Σy-components = 0
Σx-components: 0.866T2 – 0.9397T1 = 0

∴ 0.9397T1 = 0.866T2 {Similar to equation (1) above}
Σy-components: 0.342T1 + 0.5T2 – 80 = 0
∴ 0.342T1 + 0.5T2 = 80 {Again, this is similar to equation (2)}
Solving these equations simultaneously would give the same results.
Ex am ple 2.4
Resolve the weight of the mass resting on a 30o frictionless incline (ramp) into the
normal reaction and a force parallel to the plane.
N
mgSinθ
30o 30o 30o
mgCosθ
mg mg
Solution
Imagine that the x and y axes, with the x-axis originally horizontal, are given an
anticlockwise rotation about the centre of gravity of the mass. The y-axis will make
an angle of 30o with vertical. And therefore the components of the mass are as
follows:
mgSin30 o , down the plane

The normal reaction, N = mgCos30 o upwards
The sine rule and the cosine rule can also be used to solve vector problems very
easily.
The Sine Rule

The sine rule is used when the following are given:
(i) Two sides and an angle opposite one of the two sides.
(ii) Two angles and a side are given (may lead to an ambiguous solution)
The vector diagram in Ex am ple 2.2 was as below with the internal angles included:
T1 80 20o
o
= 70o T1
Sin60 Sin50 o
80 N × Sin60 o
⇒ T1 = = 90.4 N 50o
Sin50 o
80 N
T2
o
60
18 30o
T2 80
o
=
Sin70 Sin50 o
80 N × Sin70 o
⇒ T1 = = 98.1N
Sin50 o
Notice that these are exactly the same results as before
The Cosine Rule

The cosine rule is used to solve a triangle given:
(i) three side
(ii) two sides and the included angle.
Ex am ple 2.5
A load of 1 000N is supported by two chains, one making an angle of 30o with and
the other θo with the horizontal. If the tension in the chain making 30o with the
horizontal is 800N, find:
(a) the tension in the other chain

(b) the angle that it makes with horizontal
30o
60o
600N T
600N
30o θo
T
α
θ
o
1 tonne
(a) Space diagram (b) Vector diagram
b 2 = a 2 + c 2 − 2acCosB
∴T = 1000 2 + 600 2 − 2 × 1000 × 600Cos 60 o
= 871.8N
Sinα Sin60 o
=
600 871.8
600 × Sin60 o
∴ Sinα = = 0.5960
871.8
⇒ α = 36.6 o
∴θ = 90 o − 36.6 o = 53.4 o
19
1. State which of the following quantities are vectors:
(a) distance (b) mass (c) force (d) time
(e) displacement (f) velocity (g) speed (h) volume
2. Are the following descriptions sufficient to specify vectors? If not, what further
information is required?
(a) A displacement of 3 km.
(b) A displacement of 2 km East.
(c) A force of 10 N at an angle of 300 to the right of the vertical.
(d) A velocity of 20 kmh-1.
(e) A horizontal force in the direction of 370 E of N.
(f) A velocity of 4 ms-1 vertically up.
3. Using geometrical constructions, find the sum of the following vectors:

(a) cm North, 3 cm W450S, 6 cm E.
(b) cm S300W, 6 cm N, 2 cm E450S.
4. Find the vertical and horizontal components of each of the following vectors:
(a) A displacement of 5 m, 370.
(b) A force of 4 N, S600W.
(c) A velocity of 8 ms-1 in the direction E450S.
(d) A displacement of 12 km, 3000.
5. (a) When a book is resting on the palm of your hand:

(i) What is the reaction to the weight W exerted by the earth?
(ii) What is the reaction to the normal force N exerted by your hand?
(b) A load is suspended from a string and is at rest:

(i) What are the forces exerted on the load? In each case state which
body exerts these forces.
(ii) What is the reaction to each of the forces in (i) above? In each case
state which body the force is exerted on.
(c) A load of weight 120 N is suspended from a rope. A man pulls down on the
rope with a force of 50 N. What is the tension in the rope if the load is at
rest?
6. Determine the resultant force for the forces shown below.
10N
50 15N
45
8N
20
20
7. Determine the magnitude and the direction of the 80N force if the system in the
figure below is in equilibrium.
110N
80N
70o 100N
120o (Horizontal)
160N
8. Find T1, T2 and T3 in each of the following diagrams.
40o 45o 30o
T1 T2
T1 30N
T2 T3
mg = 100N
(a) (b)
9. Find the components parallel and perpendicular to the plane for each of the forces in
the diagrams below.
F
20o
30o
mg
10. If the weight of the block (mg) in question 7 is 15 N and the force F is 20 N, find the
resultant of these forces.
11. Find the resultant of the two forces below.
F2 = 150N
60o
F1 = 100N
21
12. Find the magnitude of the weight in the diagram below if the system is in equilibrium.
150N 200N
o
120
13. Three coplanar forces P N , 2P N and 20 N are in equilibrium as shown below.

Calculate the value of P and θ.
PN
120o
θ
20 N 2P N
14. When the angle between two forces P and Q is 60o, the magnitude of their resultant
is 19 N. When the angle is 120o, the magnitude 7 N. Calculate the value of P
and Q .
22
2.5 NON-CONCURRENT, COPLANAR FORCES – TURNING FORCES
Introduction
Undoing or loosening a nut is accomplished much more easily using a longer spanner
(or wrench) than a shorter one. Why?
Factors affecting the turning effect:

(a) the size of the force
(b) the distance of the line of action of the force from the axis of rotation
(fulcrum)
Discuss the different positions of the door handle (from the hinge) in relation to (a)
and (b) above.
Moment or Torque
The moment of a force is the measure of the ability of the force to rotate an object
about an axis.
Definition: The moment of a force about an axis is the product of the magnitude
(size) of the force and the perpendicular distance from the axis to the line along
which the force acts.
F
l
θ
A
θ
Moment of the force F about A: M o = Fd

= FlSinθ
Moment of a Couple
The moment of a couple is the product of one of the forces times the perpendicular
distance between them.
F
r
d
F F
r
F
Most drivers know about the rule “ten
to two” or “13:50”.
The distance from the center of the
wheel to the tangential force, F, is r.
Moment of a couple in both cases above = Mo = Fr + Fr = 2 Fr = Fd
23
Equilibrium
If there are not forces or moments on a body, it is said to be in equilibrium and it will
remain either at rest or continue moving with constant velocity (linear equilibrium) or
angular velocity (rotational equilibrium).
These conditions can be expressed as follows:
(a) The algebraic sum of forces in the horizontal direction is zero i.e. Σ Fx =0
(b) The algebraic sum of forces in the vertical direction is zero i.e. Σ Fy = 0
(c) The sum of moments about any point is zero.
Ex am ple 2.6
The figure below shows a claw hammer being used to remove a nail from a piece of
wood. Calculate the effort ( E ) required to overcome the force of resistance
(frictional), L .
E Solution
Σ CM o = Σ ACM o
36 cm 36 × E = 8 × 270
E = 60 N
8 cm
L=270 N
Ex am ple 2.7
The diagram below illustrates a simple steam valve. When the steam pressure
exceeds 105 Pa (N/m2) above atmospheric pressure, cap A is lifted off the pipe and
steam escapes. Ignoring the weight of rod B and cap A, what value of the weight X
would be required to make the valve work at this pressure?
0.5 m 0.5 m
Hinge
Rod B
Cap A X
Pipe internal CSA = 0 002 5 m2 Uniform bar wt = 20 N
Solution
F
Pressure, P= ⇒ F = P × CSA = 105 × 0.002 5 = 250 N
CSA
1m
0.5 m R = 250N – 20N = 230N
Taking moments about the hinge:
X×1 = 230 × 0.5 ⇒X = 165 N
24
Ex am ple 2.8
What effort (E) in the accelerator cable is required to counterbalance a load of 6 N in
the Bell cranked lever below?
Solution
E
3m
Σ CM o = Σ ACM o
d i.e Ed =6×1
60o E × 3Sin30o = 6
6
1m ∴E= = 4N
3Sin30o
6N
Centre of Gravity
Centre of m ass (c. m .) : This is the theoretical point at which the total mass
of a body or system is concentrated. (It may also be stated as the point which acts
as though the total mass of the object were at that point).
Centre of gravity (c. g.) : This is the point through which the earth’s
gravitational force acts on the object. It is the point through which passes the
resultant of the gravitational forces acting on the different parts of the body.
Centre of mass &

gravity of the loop
W1 W2 W3 W4
W
(Resultant weight)
Most bodies or objects which are uniform in cross-section and texture, their centre of
gravity is always halfway along the length of the axis.
Slinging and hoisting

A useful feature of the centre of gravity is that any freely supported body will hang
with its centre of gravity vertically below the point of suspension.
This characteristic is so important when moving machinery or some such heavy load by
means of a crane or lifting tackle. For safe handling the slings should be of adequate
length to allow the hook of the lifting gear to be positioned above the centre of gravity
of the object being lifted.
Ex am ple 2.9
A tractor has two axles which are 2 m apart. The vehicle is positioned with its front
axle on a weighbridge, which gives a reading of 8 000 N. When the axle is positioned
on the weighbridge, the reading is 12 000 N. Find:
(a) the weight of the tractor

(b) the longitudinal position of its centre of gravity.
25
Solution
N1 (a) N2 W = N1 + N 2
= 8000 + 12000
= 20kN
(b) Let the centre of gravity be x m behind the front axle
Taking moments about the front axle,
Σ CM o = Σ ACM o
(3-x)m 20000 × x = 2 × N 2
W ∴ 20000 x = 2 × 12000
xm
⇒ x = 1.2m behind the front axle
Ex ercise 2.1
A lay shaft has two gear wheels keyed onto it in the positions shown below. The
shaft is of uniform cross-section and weighs 10 N. The gear wheels 4 N and 6 N
respectively. Determine the centre of gravity of the system.
2 cm 10 cm
2 cm 4 cm 4 cm
d
6 cm
3 cm
4N 6N 10 N
Solution
Sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces
i.e. W = 4 + 10 = 20 N
Taking moments about P,

20d = (4 × 3) + (10 × 6)
12 + 60 + 60
∴ d=
20
= 6.6 cm
26
Moment of Area and Centroid
The centre of area can be defined as the point at which the area may be considered
concentrated. In engineering it is often required to know the position of the centre of
area. For example, in order to calculate the stresses set up in a loaded beam, it is
necessary to know the position of the centre of area of the beam section.
The position of the centre of area of a simple shape is usually obvious.
P roperties of sim ple areas
Centroid Moment of
Description of
Diagram Area area about
the area x y
neutral axis
Rectangle with
X X b h bh3
base b, height h bh IX =
h/2 2 2 12
b/2
Isosceles
bh b h bh3
triangle base b, IX =
h/3 2 2 3 36
height h
b/2
πr 2
Circle with IX =
πd 4
4
radius r πr 2 = r r
4 πd 2
=
64
I X = 0.11r 4
Semicircle of πr 2 πd 4 r 4r
4r/3π = πr 4
radius r 2 8 3π Iy =
8
r
Quadrant of
πr 2 4r 4r
radius r 4r/3π I X = 0.55r 4
4 3π 3π
4r/3π
Definition: In analogy to the moment of force, the moment of area is defined as

the product of the magnitude of the total area A of the body and the distance s from
the axis of rotation to the centroid of the area.
M o = sA
A
i.e.
The centroids of some simple regular figures are listed in the table above. These are
normally provided in exams apart from the first three.
27
To determine the position of the centroids of more complex regular areas, proceed
as follows:
1. Separate the body into simple areas in which the centroids are either known or
may easily be determined.
2. Construct a convenient perpendicular coordinate system on the diagram of the

body.
3. Determine the coordinates of the centroids and calculate the magnitudes of the
simple areas.
4. Determine the net area A of the body by subtracting the sum of the areas of the
holes from the sum of the solid areas. Since the weight is proportional to the
area, solid areas are directed downwards whereas the holes are directed
upwards.
5. The centroid of the body is where the net area A appears to act. If the
coordinates of the centroid are (x, y) take moments about the y-axis; the
resultant moment of area is the algebraic sum of the moments of the simple
areas.
sA = ∑ M x
A
= Σ(simple area)(x-coordinate)
∑M
A
Therefore the x-coordinate of the centroid is: x= x
∑M
A
Similarly the y-coordinate of the centroid is: y= y
Ex am ple 2.10
Determine the position of the centroid of the regular area in the figure below:
Assume three significant figures.
Y
6 cm 3 cm
B H
A
A4
3 cm
3 cm
2 cm
6 cm
A2 C
3 cm A1
G
6 cm
F
4 cm
5 cm
A3
X
I E D
5 cm
28
Solution
Choose the areas and the coordinate system as in the figure on the right as above
the table containing centroids on page 6.
Area Magnitude of Area Coordinates of

centroid (cm)
A1 (AHDI) (9 cm) (11 cm) = 99.0 cm (4½, 5½)
A2 (Circle) π(1 cm)2 = 3.14 cm (3, 8)
A3 (GFEI) (4 cm) (5 cm) = 20.0 cm (2, 2½)
A4 (BCH) ½(3 cm) (3 cm) = 4.5 cm (8, 10)
Net area, A = A1 − A2 − A3 − A4 = 99.0 cm 2 − 3.14 cm 2 − 4.50 cm 2 = 71.4 cm 2
Moment of net area = Sum of moments of the holes.
i.e. A x = A1 x1 + A2 x2 + A3 x3 + A4 x4
∴ 71.4 cm 2 x = (99cm 2 )(4.5cm) + (−3.14cm 2 )(3cm) + (−20cm 2 )(2cm) + (−4.5cm 2 )(8cm)
(99cm 2 )(4.5cm) + (−3.14cm 2 )(3cm) + (−20cm 2 )(2cm) + (−4.5cm 2 )(8cm)

∴ x=
71.4 cm 2
∴ x = 5.04 cm 2
i.e. A y = A1 y1 + A2 y2 + A3 y3 + A4 y4
∴ 71.4 cm 2 y = (99cm 2 )(5.5cm) + ( −3.14cm 2 )(8cm) + ( −20cm 2 )(2.5cm) + (−4.5cm 2 )(10cm)
(99cm 2 )(5.5cm) + (−3.14cm 2 )(8cm) + (−20cm 2 )(2.5cm) + (−4.5cm 2 )(10cm)

∴ y=
71.4 cm 2
∴ y = 5.94 cm 2
∴ The centroid is: x = 5.04 cm 2 , y = 5.94 cm 2

1. A crowbar 2 m long is used to lift a load of 350 N. The fulcrum is placed 10 cm from
the end of the bar where the load is situated. What force is required at the other end
of the crowbar to lift the load?
2. A man exerts a total force of 28 N on the handles of a pair of shears. If his hands are
43.2 cm from the pivot and the work being cut is 3.6 cm from the pivot, what cutting
force is being exerted on the work?
3. A nut must be tightened to a torque of 65 Nm. If you can apply a maximum force of
250 N, what should be the length (in cm) of the spanner you need to do the job?
4. A crate is 1.5 m long and weighs 150 N. Determine the upward force that must be
applied to one end of the crate in order to tilt it so that the sling can be passed
underneath?
5. A metre rule is found to balance at the 49 cm mark. When a mass of 50 g is

suspended at the 10 cm mark, the balance point is found to be at the 36 cm mark.
Calculate the mass of the rule.
6. A uniform plank 10 m long and weighing 84 N projects 3 m over the edge of the cliff.
How far out over the cliff can a boy weighing 60 N walk before the plank tips over?
29
7. (a) State and explain the principle of moments.
(b) A crane has an arm 13 m long and lifts a load of 2 tonnes. Find the turning
moment which will tend to topple the crane when the jib makes an angle of
600with the horizontal.
8. A non-uniform rod AB of length 20 m rests horizontally on the supports C and D,

where AC = BD. The greatest mass that can be hung from A without disturbing the
equilibrium is 80 kg, and the greatest that can be hung from B is 10 kg. Find the
mass of the rod and the centre of its gravity from A.
9. A uniform plank, 9 m long, of mass 80 kg, is supported horizontally by two vertical

strings attached at distances 1 m and 8 m from one end. What mass should be
placed on the plank at one end so that :
(a) the tension in one of the strings just vanishes

(b) the tension in one string is double the tension in the other?
10. An overhead beam of uniform section and weighing 100 N is 5 m long and rests
supports at its ends. The beam carries a travelling hoist 50 N. What is the load at the
supports when the hoist is 1.5 m from A and supporting a load of 300 N?
11. A uniform ladder weighing 100 N is 3 m long and has its centre of gravity 1.2 m from
the lower end. It leans against a vertical wall with which it makes an angle of 30o.
When a 00 N boy stands halfway up the ladder, what forces are exerted by the wall
and the ground on the ladder? (Assume there is no friction between the ladder and
the wall).
12. A uniform door 1.8 m wide and 0.8 m wide weighs 500 N. It is supported by two
hinges from the top and bottom of the door. Find the reaction from the hinges.
13. A cranked lever AFB has a horizontal lever AF 15 cm long and an arm FB 6 cm long.
The lever has a pivot at F and the angle is 120o. Determine the vertical pull at B
necessary to give a horizontal pull of 30 N in a string attached at A.
14. A motorcycle footbrake lever shown below consists of a bell-cranked lever pivoted to
the chassis at O. If the rider’s foot applies a vertical force of 75 N, what will be the
tension T in the horizontal connecting cable? Find also the reaction on the motorcycle
chassis at O.
75 N
20o
T
100 mm
250 mm
30
CHAPTER 3
RECTILINEAR MOTION
3.1 Introduction
Rectilinear motion means linear motion in a straight line.
If a car travels in a specified direction and covers a distance s metre in time t

seconds, then its mean or average velocity in that direction is s/t in ms-1.
v
i.e. Average velocity =
t
3.2 Displacement is distance covered in a specified direction.
3.3 Speed and Velocity

A vehicle moving along a winding road or circular track at 80 km/h is said to have a
speed of 80 km/h. Speed is therefore a scalar quantity, where as velocity is a vector
quantity. At each point on the track the velocity is 80 km/h in the direction of the
tangent to the track at the point.
V
V
3.4 Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement.
3.5 Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.

If a train accelerates steadily from 54 km/h to 36 km/h in 10 seconds, the constant
(uniform) acceleration is:
v−u
a=
t (54 km/h = 15 ms-1 and 36 km/h = 10 ms-1)
= 10 - 15 = -0.5ms -1
This is a deceleration (-ve sign). It is an acceleration in the opposite direction to its
initial velocity. The train is said to have undergone a retardation.
∴ Retardation/deceleration = 0.5 ms-2.
3.6 Equations of Motion

The following equations describe the motion of bodies which are moving with
constant (uniform) acceleration. They do not apply to non-linear motion.
v = u + at (1) where s = displacement,

s = ½(u + v)t (2) u = initial velocity,
s = ut + ½at 2 (3) v = final velocity,
a = acceleration and
v 2 = u 2 + 2as (4)
t = time taken
31
3.7 Derivations of the Equations
Suppose the velocity of a body with constant acceleration, a, increases from u to v in
time t and changes from 0 to s,
The acceleration = Rate of change of velocity

v−u
⇒ a=
t
∴ v = u + at (Equation 1)
initial velocity + final velocity

Average velocity =
2
i.e. v av = ½(u + v)
Displacement = average velocity × time
i.e. s = ½(u + v)t (Equation 2)
From equation 1, v = u + at , substituting v by u + at in equation 2 we get:

s = ½{u + (u + at)}t
i.e. s = ut + ½at 2 (Equation 3)
v−u
From equation 1, t= . Substituting this in equation 2 we get:
a
s = ½(u + v)t
(v - u)
s = ½(u + v)
a
Rearranging the equation we get:
(Equation 4)
Ex am ple 3.1
A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to 15ms-1 in 5 seconds.
(a) What is its acceleration?
(b) How far does it travel after 5 seconds?
Solution
(a) Using equation 1, v = u + at
v − u 15 − 0
⇒ a= = = 3ms − 2
t 5
(b) Using equation 2, s = ½(u + v)t = ½(0 + 15) × 5 = 37.5 m
N.B. Equations 3 or 4 can be used to solve part (b) since ‘a’ has already been
determined.
A graph can also be used to solve this problem.
32
Ex ercise 3.1
A car initially travelling with a velocity of 30 ms-1 is slowed down by applying brakes.
If the acceleration is –8 ms-2,
(a) What is its velocity after it has covered 50 [10 ms-1]

(b) How long does it take to travel this 50 m? [2.5 s]
3.8 Vertical Motion
The most common example of uniformly accelerated motion is that

of bodies freely falling under the influence of gravity. It is an
experimentally known fact that all bodies if allowed to drop at a
given place on the earth’s surface have the same acceleration
(provided that air resistance is neglected. The experiments
conducted by Galileo at the leaning tower of Pisa are a good example of this). This
acceleration is called the “acceleration due to gravity” and is denoted by the symbol
‘g’. The value of g varies from one part of the earth to another. The usual average
value of g is 9.81 ms-2. (At the University of Zambia, UNZA, its value is 9.78 ms-2).
When solving problems, use the given value of ‘g’ which may be 9.81 ms-2 or 10 ms-
2
).
Some examples of vertical motion

1. A parachute is designed to make air resistance as large as possible. With a
parachute the terminal velocity is 8 ms-1.
2. Rain drops, snowflakes, etc all fall at their terminal velocity.
At the terminal velocity, the forces on the object are at balance (i.e. there is
no net resultant force).
i.e. Force of gravity (weight acts downwards) = force of air resistance

(upwards)
When using the equations of motion to solve problems, it is necessary to

bear in mind that u , v , a and s or h are vectors. If, say, the positive
direction is taken to be down, then:
(i) The velocity of a body which is moving down is positive

(ii) Points above the starting point have negative values of s or h
(iii) Upward directed accelerations are positive.
The equations of linear motion equally apply to vertical motion since it is also
linear. These are as follows:
Linear motion Motion under gravity

v = u + at v = u + at
s = ½(u + v)t h = ½(u + v)t
h = ut + ½ at 2 h = ut + ½ gt 2
v 2 = u 2 + 2as v 2 = u 2 + 2 gh
Ex am ple 3.2
A parcel is dropped from the top of a tower, 50 m high. Find:
(a) How long it takes to hit the ground
(b) Its velocity when it reaches the ground
(c) Its average velocity during the fall.
(Take the acceleration due to gravity as 10 ms-2)
33
34
Solution
(a) h = ut + ½ gt 2 (b) v 2 = u 2 + 2 gh
⇒-50 = 0 + ½(-10)t2 = 0 + 2(-10)(-5)
t2 = 10 = 1 000
t = 3.2 s ∴ v = 32 ms-1
(c) v av = ½(u + v) = ½(0 + 32) = 16 ms-1 downwards
Ex ercise 3.2
A ball is thrown upwards with a velocity of 15 ms-1, from a bridge 20 m above a river:
(a) find for how long the ball rises
(b) find how high it goes
(c) find its velocity as it passes the bridge
(d) find the velocity when it strikes the water
(e) find its average velocity for the whole motion (flight)
(f) find its average speed for the whole flight.
(Take the acceleration due to gravity as 10 ms-2)
Solution data: u = +15 ms-1, g = -10 ms-2

(a) v = u + gt
∴t = (v – u)/g = (0 – 15)/(-10) = 1.5 s
(b) v 2 = u 2 + 2 gh ∗or h = ½(u + v)t

∴ h = (v − u ) / 2 g = ½(15 + 0)×1.5
2 2
2
= (0 – 15 )/2×(-10) = 11.25 m
= +11.25 m = 11.25 m above the bridge
= 11.25 m above the bridge
(c) v 2 = u 2 + 2 gh (d) v 2 = u 2 + 2 gh
= 152 + 0 = 225 + 2(-10)(-20)
⇒ v = ± 15 ms-1 ⇒ v = ± 25 ms-1
= 15 ms-1 downwards = 25 ms-1 downwards
Totaldis tan ce
(e) v av = ½(u + v) (f) Averagespeed = .
Totaltimetaken
11.25 + 11.25 + 20
= ½(15 - 25) =
4
= -5 ms-1 = 10.6 ms-1
= -5 ms-1 downwards
35
3.9 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF UNIFORM MOTION
Graphs can be used to represent the motion of a body which is moving in a straight
line and many problems can be solved using graphs.
Displacement – Time Graphs
S S S
Time t Time t Time t

This represents constant
This represents constant This represents zero
negative velocity
positive velocity velocity (body is stationary)
(zero acceleration)
(zero acceleration)
The gradient of each of the above graphs gives the velocity of the body.
Velocity – Time Graphs
v u
v
u v
Time t Time t Time t

This represents constant This represents constant This represents constant
acceleration (velocity Velocity (i.e. acceleration is zero deceleration (velocity
increasing uniformly) decreasing uniformly)
B ∗ Gradient of a curve = acceleration

A
v ∗ Area under a curve = displacement
∴Displacement
= area of {∆OAE + ABDE + ∆BCD}
= ½ vt1 + vt 2 + ½ vt 3
= area of trapezium OABC ∗
E D C
u=0
t1 t2 t3
Time t
O–A Constant acceleration

A–B Constant velocity (zero acceleration)
B–C Constant deceleration
36
1. A ball with an initial velocity of 10ms-1. After it has travelled 15m with constant
acceleration, its velocity is 5 ms-1.
(a) Find its acceleration.
(b) Find the time taken for it to travel this 15 m.
(c) Find its average velocity during this time.
(d) Find its total displacement when it comes to rest.
2. A car with initial velocity 2 ms-1 accelerates uniformly for 20 seconds after which its
velocity is 22 ms-1.
(b) What is its displacement in the first 10-second interval?
(c) What is its displacement in the second 10-second interval?
(d) What is its average velocity in the second 10-second interval?
3. A boy throws a ball upwards (from ground level), and it reaches the ground after 4
seconds.
(a) With what velocity was it thrown?
(b) What was the maximum height reached?
(c) Plot a velocity-time graph of the motion of the ball.
4. A stone is thrown from the top of a building 36 m high with a downward velocity of
3 ms-1.
(a) How long does it take to reach the ground?
(b) With what velocity does it strike the ground?
5. An object, initially at rest, is subjected to a constant acceleration of 2 ms-1 from

t = 0 to t = 2.5 s; the acceleration is zero from t = 2.5 s to t = 4 s; the acceleration
is –4 ms-2 from t = 4 s to t = 8 s. What are the displacements and velocities of the
object at:
(a) t = 3 s? (b) t = 5 s?
6. A parachutist jumps from an airplane at an altitude of 2 000 m. For the first 10

seconds he falls freely; then he pulls the ripcord, the parachute opens, and he falls
with a deceleration of 20 ms-2 until the downward speed is 5 ms-1 (terminal velocity).
After that, he falls at constant velocity. How long does the entire trip take?
7. A train starting from rest is uniformly accelerated during the first 0.4 km, runs 1.2 km
at the maximum speed attained and is afterwards brought to rest in 0.2 km. If the
time for the whole journey is 5 minutes, find the uniform acceleration at the start.
8. A car starts on a straight road at a speed of 90 km/h
37
CHAPTER 4
PROJECTILE MOTION
4.1 Introduction
A projectile is a particle, which is given an initial velocity and then moves under the
action of its own weight alone. For example, a ball, which is thrown, is a projectile –
it describes projectile motion from the moment it leaves the thrower’s hand until its
flight is interrupted.
Other examples of projectiles:

1. Rockets (after they have burned their fuel have no propulsion and therefore are
subjected to the effect of gravity only).
2. A golf ball in flight.
3. A tennis ball in flight.
4. A bullet in flight.
Etc
The path of a projectile is called a trajectory
If the initial velocity is vertical the particle moves in a straight line (vertical motion) –
acceleration due to gravity.
If the initial velocity is not vertical, the particle moves in a curve and its flight can be
analysed by considering its vertical and horizontal components of its velocity and
displacement. There is no horizontal component of acceleration.
Consider a ball that is thrown with an initial velocity u at an angle θ to the horizontal
(θ is also referred to as the angle of projection).
4.2 Horizontal & Vertical Components of a projectile

Vector horizontal com ponent Vertical com ponent
Displacement sx sy
Velocity vx vy
Acceleration ax = 0 ay = -g
Y Y
uy
u
(x,y) ux
ux
θ X
uy
X
0 0
Range R Range R
Throughout the flight the only force acting on the ball is its own weight, so its
acceleration is g vertically downwards.
i.e. ax = 0
and ay = -g
Hence:
1. the horizontal velocity component is constant.
2. vertically there is motion with constant acceleration.
38
Hence, at any time t during the flight, components of velocity are as follows
Horizontal com ponent Vertical com ponent
vx = u x + at v y = u y + a yt
= uCosθ + 0 v y = uSinθ − gt
vx = uCosθ
The magnitude of the resultant velocity vector at any instant is:
v= vx + v y
2 2
at an angle of :
θ = tan −1 (v y / vx ) with the horizontal
Further, components of displacement are as follows:
Horizontal com ponent Vertical com ponent
s x = u x t + ½ at 2 s y = u y t + ½ at 2
R = utCosθ h = utSinθ − ½ gt 2
and
s= sx + sy at θ = tan (s y / s x ) with the horizontal
2 2
N. B. when solving problems:

1. It is advisable to sketch position – time graphs for the horizontal and vertical
motion of a projectile.
2. Do not memorise these equations. It is best to start from first principles (linear
motion equations).
Example 4.1
An aircraft flying horizontally at 300m/s, drops a bomb from an altitude of 500m.
(a) How long will it take for the bomb to reach the ground?
(b) What is the horizontal distance that the bomb will travel to hit the target?
Solution
(a) s y = u y t + ½ at 2 u x = 0, a = − g = −10 ms −1 , h = 500m

∴ h = −½ gt 2
2h 2 × (−500)
∴t = = = 10 sec onds
g − 10
(b) Range s x = u x t + ½ at 2 But a x = 0

∴ R = uxt
= 300 × 10 = 3 000 m
##
Example 4.2
A ball is thrown with an initial velocity of 20ms-1 at an angle of 300 above the
horizontal. Find:
(a) The speed of the ball 2 seconds after projection.

(b) The displacement of the ball from its point of projection 2 seconds after
being thrown.
39
Solution
3
(a) vx = uCosθ = 20Cos 30o = 20 × = 10 3
2
v y = uSinθ − gt = 20 Sin30o − 10 × 1 = −10
v= vx + v y = (10 3 ) 2 + ( −10) 2 = 20ms −1

2 2
3
(b) s x = utCosθ = 20 × 1× = 10 3 m
2
s y = utSinθ − ½ gt 2 = 20 × 1× Sin30 o − ½ × 10 × 12 = 10 − 5 = 5 m
s= sx + sy = (10 3 ) 2 + 5 2 = 18 m
2 2
Ex am ple 4.3
A stone is thrown from the top of a tower, which is 11m high and stands on
horizontal ground. The speed of projection is 12ms-1 at 600 with the vertical,
downward. Find the time taken for the stone to reach the ground. Find also the
direction of motion just before it hits the ground.
Solution
v = u + at , s = ½ (u + v)t
Y 1
s = ut + at 2 , v 2 = u 2 + 2as
2
s = ut + ½ at 2
0 30o
∴ h = utSinθ − ½ gt 2
o
60
i.e.11 = 12tSin( −30 o ) − ½ × 10t 2
h
∴ 5t 2 + 6t − 11 = 0 ⇒
t = 1, 2.2 Take earlier time of t = 1 sec
θ X
v x = u x + at v y = u y + at
= uCosθ + 0 = uSinθ − gt
−1
= 12Cos ( −30 ) = 6 3ms
o
= 12 × Sin( −30 o ) − 10 × 1
= −16ms −1 (i.e.downwards )
 vy   16 
θ = tan   = tan 
  = 57 o with the horizontal
 x 
v  6 3 

4.3 Time of Flight

1 2
s y = u yt + at
Y 2
i.e .h = utSinθ − ½ gt 2 Equation (1)
u B
At po int A, h = 0
∴ 0 = utSinθ − ½ gt 2
h
= t (u sin θ − ½ gt )
θ 2uSinθ
A X ⇒ t = 0 or t =
0 g
R
2uSinθ
i.e.time of flight t =
g
40
4.4 Greatest Height
Example 4.4
A particle is projected with a sped of 20ms-1 and reaches its greatest height above
the point of projection 1 second later. Find:
(a) the angle of projection

(b) The greatest height
½
Solution
(a) v y = u y + at
= uSinθ − gt
u 2 Sin 2θ
(b) h=
At the greatest height , v y = 0 2g
20 2 Sin 2 30 o
= = 5m
∴ 0 = 20 Sinθ − 10 × 1 2 × 10
10
∴ Sinθ =
20
∴ θ = 30 o
4.5 The Horizontal Range

At ant time t,
S x = (uCosθ )t
2uSinθ
But at A, t =
g
(uCosθ )(2uSinθ )
∴ sx =
g
2uSinθCosθ
=
g
u 2 Sin 2θ
=
g
u 2 Sin 2θ
∴ Range, R =
g

4.6 The Maximum Horizontal Range
u 2 Sin 2θ
The range, R = is max imum when Sin 2θ = 1 i.e .θ = 45 o
g
u2
∴ Maximum range = when the angle of projection is 45 o
g
Ex am ple 4.5
From the edge of a cliff, 60m high, a stone is thrown into the air with a speed of
10ms-1 at an angle of 300 to the horizontal. Find:
(a) The time of flight

(b) How far from the foot of the cliff it strikes the sea
(c) The velocity with which it strikes the water.
41
Solution
(a) h = u x t + ½at 2
Y
− 60 = (uSinθ )t − ½gt 2
u = 10
− 60 = (10 Sin30 o )t − ½gt 2
∴ t 2 − t − 12 = 4
o
0 30 ⇒ t = 4 sec onds
(b) Range, R = u x t
60m
= (uCostθ )t
X = (10Cos 30 o ) × 4 = 34.64m
Range R
(c ) v y = uSinθ − gt
= 10 Sin30 o = −35 = 35 ms −1 Upwards
v x = uCosθ = 10 × 0.866 = 8.66ms −1
v = vx + vy = 35 2 + 8.66 2 = 36.06ms −1
2 2
θ = tan −1 (v y / v x ) = tan −1 (35 / 8.66 ) = tan −1 4.04 = 76.1o
4.7 The Equation of the Trajectory

If x metres and y metres are the coordinates of the projectile t seconds after
projection, its coordinates may be given as:
x
x = (uCosθ )t ⇒ t =
vCosθ
y = (uSinθ )t − ½ gt 2
 x   x2 
= (uSinθ )  − ½ g  2 
 uCosθ   u Cos θ
2

gx 2
y = x tan θ −
2vCos 2θ
gx 2 sec 2 θ
= x tan θ −
2u
This is the equation of the path
42
1. An aircraft in level flight at an altitude of 320m fires a rocket with an initial speed of
300 kmh-1.
(a) How long does it take for the rocket to reach the ground?
(b) What horizontal distance from the firing point will the rocket travel before it
strikes the ground?
2. An electron in a cathode ray tube travels 60mm horizontally with respect to the
earth’s surface at a speed of 3×106 ms-1. If its initial velocity was zero, what is its
vertical deflection caused by acceleration due to gravity?
3. A golfer drives a ball horizontally at 60 ms-1 from the top of a vertical cliff 45m above
the sea.
(a) How long does it take the ball to hit the water?
(b) How far from the foot of the cliff does the ball land?
(c) What is the velocity of the ball just before it hits the water?
4. A missile is launched from the earth’s surface with an initial speed of 100 ms-1 at an
elevation of 300. Calculate:
(a) The greatest height attained
(b) The time of flight
(c) The horizontal range.
5. What is the maximum range of an arrow if it can be launched with a speed of 100
ms-1?
6. A canon shell is fired with a speed of 300 ms-1at an elevation of 400. Determine the
horizontal distance it travels and the time of flight.
7. If the shell in problem 6 above strikes the side of a hill at a horizontal distance of
300m from the firing point, how high above the level at which the shell was fired did
it land?
8. From the edge of a cliff 60m high, a stone is thrown into the air with a speed of
10ms-1 at an angle of 300 to the horizontal. Find:
(a) The flight time
(b) The range
(c) The velocity with which it hits the ground.
9. A golf ball is struck at an angle of θ where tanθ = 4/3, with an initial speed of 25ms-1.
Find:
(a) The time when the ball is 15m above the ground.
(b) The distance of the ball 15m above the ground.
10. A stone is thrown from the top of a cliff 70m high at an angle of 20o from the bottom
of the cliff. Find the initial speed of the stone and the direction in which it is moving
when it hits the sea 2 seconds after projection.
11. An aircraft gun fires a shell form the ground with an initial speed of 600 ms-1 at an
elevation of 600 with the horizontal, and an aircraft in level flight is flying at a
constant speed of 200ms-1 towards the gun at an altitude of 1, 000m. In order to hit
the aircraft, at what horizontal range between the aircraft and the gun must the gun
be fired?
12. A particle P is projected from a point O with an initial velocity of 60ms-1 at an angle
of 300 to the horizontal. At the same instant a second particle Q is projected in the
opposite direction with an initial velocity of 50ms-1 from a point level with O and
100m from O. If the particles collide find the angle of projection of Q and find when
the collision occurs.
43
CHAPTER 5
ANGULAR (ROTATIONAL) MOTION
5.1 Definition of Angular Motion
When a body rotates about an axis it is said to have angular motion.
5.2 The Radian

There are three units used for measuring angles. These are:
(i) the degree For plane angles
(ii) the radian (SI unit)
(iii) the steradian For solid angles (e.g. topic on Illumination)
5.3 Definition of the Radian

The radian is defined as the angle subtended by an arc whose length is equal to the
radius of the circle.
B
Notation
s=r
θ radians ≡ θ rad
r
1 ≡θc
O
r A
≡θr
5.4 Relationship between the degree and the radian

Taking ratios of similar shapes,
Arc length AB ( s = r ) Angle AOB

=
Circumference of circle Total angle in acircle
r 1 radian
i.e. =
2πr 360o
∴ 2π radians = 360o
∴ Half revolution is π radians = 180o
π
and = 90o
one right angle is
2
1 radian ≈ 57.2958o ≈ 57.3o (to3s. f .)
Other angles which are simple fractions of 180o can easily be expressed in radians in
terms of π , using the relationship 180o = π .
π π
e.g. 60o = 60 × =
180 3
π 3π
135o = 135 × =
180 4
7π 7π 180o
and conversely = × = 210o
6 6 π
44
5π 5π 180o
= × = 300o
3 3 π
5.5 Arc length: Let s be the arc length subtending an angle θ radians at the centre of a
circle
Then arc length s θ radians

=
Circumference Tota langle in a circle
s θ radians
i.e. =
2πr 2π radians
θ
⇒ s = θr (θ in radians ) {s = × 2πr if θ is in deg rees)
360 o
Ex am ple 5.1
A vehicle’s wheel of diameter 560mm turns through an angle of 1500. Calculate the
distance moved by a point on the tyre tread of the wheel.
Solution
 πrad . 
s = θr θ = 150 = 150 ×
o o

 180 o 
πrad .
= 150 o × × 280 = 733mm
180 o
5.6 Angular Velocity

Angular velocity is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement (i.e. the
angle turned through per unit time). If speed is constant, the
Angle turned through (in radians )

Angular velocity (ω ) =
Time taken (in sec onds )
θ
i.e. ω = rad / s (rads −1 ) {where ω = small Greek letter ' Omega'}
t
5.7 Relationship Between N and ω

The common unit for rotational speed is the number of revolutions per minute (i.e.
rev/min or r.p.m.) denoted by N. However this is not the SI unit for angular velocity.
The SI unit is ω (rads-1).
Consider 1 cycle or revolution:
1 revolution = 2π radians
1revolution 2πradians
∴ =
1 min ute 1 min ute
Nrevolutions 2πNradians
∴ =
1 min ute 1 min ute
i.e. 2πNradians
Nrev =
60 sec onds
2πN
i.e. ω= rad / s
60
45
Ex am ple 5.2
A shaft has an angular velocity of 200 r.p.m. Find the time it would take to make
35m complete revolutions.
Solution
θ
ω=
t
θ 2πN
∴t = = 350 × 2π ÷ = 10.5s
ω 60
5.8 Angular Acceleration

Angular acceleration is defined as the rate of change of angular velocity.
If the angular velocity of a point moving in a circular path changes uniformly from ω1
to ω2 rad/s
ω1 + ω 2
Then α =
t `
⇒ ω 2 = ω1 + αt
Where ω1 = initial angular velocity

ω2 = final angular velocity
α = Angular acceleration (Small Greek letter ‘Alpha’)
5.9 Equations of Motion

Generally equations of linear and angular motions are identical. Equations for angular
motion are derived in the same manner as those for linear motion.
Translational or linear Rotational or angular or circular

v = u + at ω 2 = ω 1 + αt
s = ½(u + v)t θ = ½(ω1 + ω2)t
s = ut + ½at 2 θ = ωt + ½αt2
v 2 = u 2 + 2as ω22 = ω12 + 2αθ
Where: s = linear displacement (m) θ = angular displacement (rad)

u = initial linear velocity (ms-1) ω1 = initial angular velocity (rad-1)
v = final linear velocity (ms-1) ω2 = final angular velocity (rad-1)
a = linear acceleration (m-2) α = angular acceleration (rads-2)
5.10 Relationship Between Linear and Angular Motion

Arc length s = θr (θ in radians )
displacement
But linear velocity v =
Time taken
s θr (θ )r
i.e v= = = = ωr
t t t
i.e v = ωr
i.e. linearvelocity = angularvelocity × radius
46
linear velocity v ωr
Similarly , linear acceleration, α = = = = αr
time taken t t
. i.e. a = αr
i.e .linear acceleration = angular acceleration × radius
Ex am ple 5.3
A grinding wheel of diameter 20 cm and rotating at 47.75 rev/min accelerates
uniformly at 0.5 rads-2 for 30 s. Find:
(a) The final angular velocity

(b) The final peripheral (circumferential) speed
(c) The angle turned through by the wheel during this time.
Solution
(a) ω2 = ω1 + αt = 5 + (0.5 × 30) = 20 rads-1
(b) v = r ω = 0.2 × 20 = 4ms-1
(c) θ = ½(ω1 + ω2)t = ½(5 + 20) × 30 = 375 rad
Alternatively, θ = ω1t + ½αt2 = (5 × 30) + (½ × 0.5 × 302) = 375 rad
Linear speed for angular motion is also known as tangential or peripheral or

circum ferential speed.
47
1. What is the angular speed of the following hands of a watch:
(a) the second hand?
(b) the minute hand?
(c) the hour hand?
2. A playing (phonograph) record on a turntable rotates at 33 rev/min. What is the

linear speed at the needle at:
(a) the beginning and
(b) the end of the recording?
(The distances of the needle from the turntable axis are 15cm and 7cm respectively,
at the two positions).
3. The angular speed of a two-speed drilling machine is increased from 1, 200 rev/min
to 3, 000 rev/min in 12 seconds.
(a) What is its angular acceleration, assuming it to be uniform?
(b) How many revolutions does the rotor make during this time?
4. A wheel has a constant angular acceleration of 3 rad/s2. In a 4-second interval, it

turns through an angle of 120 radians. Assuming the wheel started from rest, how
long had it been in motion from the start of this 4-second interval?
5. What is the angular speed of a car rounding a circular turn of radius 80m at 72
km/h?
6. A flywheel has a speed of 300 r.p.m.

(a) What is its angular velocity?
(b) What angle will be generated in 0.2 seconds
(c) How much time is required for the wheel to rotate through 628 radians?
7. A wheel rotating at 490 rev/min accelerates uniformly at 0.5 rad/s2 for 30s. Find:
(a) the angular velocity after 30s
(b) the pulley’s peripheral speed if its diameter is 20 cm
(c) the angle turned through by the wheel during this time.
8. A grinding wheel has a diameter of 200mm. If it rotates at 2, 100 rev/min, what is

the circumferential grinding speed?
9. An electric motor is rotating at 900 rev/min and when it is switched off it is brought
to rest with uniform retardation in 420 revolutions. Find the time taken to bring the
motor to rest and the angular retardation.
10. If the fan blades make 25 complete revolutions in 12s, what is the rotating speed in
rev/min and in rad/s? What is the angle turned through in radians by a point on the
tip of one fan blade in 5 seconds?
48
CHAPTER 6
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
6.1 Mass and Inertia Isaac Newton
Mass is the quantity of matter in a body. The tendency of a body to remain at rest
(or if it is moving, maintain uniform motion in a straight line) is called inertia
(laziness).
Inertia depends on mass. Large masses are difficult to start moving if they are at rest
and to stop if they are moving than those with less mass.
6.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion

The study of mechanics is based on three laws which were first formulated by Isaac
Newton:
1. Everybody will continue in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line

unless acted on by an unbalanced external force (law of inertia).
2. The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the unbalanced

force acting on it and takes place in the direction of a force.
3. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
6.3 Newton’s First Law

This law in effect defines force because it can be summarized as follows:
(a) If a body has acceleration there is a resultant force acting on that body.
(b) If the body has no acceleration the forces acting on the body are in equilibrium.
If a body has zero acceleration, it can either be at rest or moving with uniform
velocity. This should dispel the notion that because the body is moving with uniform
velocity, there is a force responsible for the maintenance of that velocity. There is
not! It is possible to imagine a perfectly smooth path offering no resistance to
motion; once started motion would continue indefinitely. In practice, however, air
resistance and friction will bring to rest a moving vehicle when its engine is switched
off. If these forces were not there, the vehicle would continue in its motion in a
straight line.
Application of the first law - vehicle safety and inertia

 Passengers who are standing in a moving bus always move forwards when the
bus is stopped suddenly. The opposite is true, if the bus moves suddenly from
rest. To prevent this handles are fitted on the roof of a bus.
 Seat belts save lives by preventing passengers from driving through the
windscreen during head-on-collisions.
 Headrests prevent neck injuries called whiplash when a stationary vehicle with
passengers is hit from behind. The reason for the above is inertia.
 Further, the back and front of cars are made in such a way that they give in
during impacts without causing as much damage to the cabin.
 Modern cars are fitted with airbags on the steering wheel and glove
compartments. These are activated during collisions thereby protecting the
occupants from head and bodily injuries.
49
6.4 Newton’s Second Law
Newton actually stated this law in terms of momentum. However, if the mass and
acceleration are constant, the law can be stated thus:
d (mv) mv − mu m(v − u )
F∝ = =
dt t t
v−u
∴F = ma since =a
t
This means that when a force is applied to a body causing it to accelerate, the
acceleration is proportional to the force.
6.5 Newton’s Third Law

This means that if one body exerts a force on a second body, then the second body
exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.
6.6 Application of New ton’s Law s - The Solution of P roblem s

1. Newton’s laws of motion can be used to solve many types of problems. The
procedure is as follows:
2. Draw a free body diagram, if necessary. All reaction forces must be included
and masses must be converted into weights.
3. List the quantities and those to be found in terms of their symbols. It may be
necessary to choose a positive direction.
4. Use Newton’s second law and kinematics equations to find the unknown
quantities.
Ex am ple 6.1
Determine the force that a 75kg man exerts on the floor of an elevator.
(a) When it ascends with a constant speed of 1.2m/s
(b) When it descends with a constant acceleration of 2m/s2 and
(c) When it ascends with a constant acceleration of 2m/s2
#
Solution
(a) Constant velocity ⇒ a = 0 (b) W – R = ma
T ∴ No resultant force
T g - R =ma
∴W-R = 0 R = m (g-a)
R= W =75(10-2)
a = mg = 600N
= 75x 10 a
= 750N
W
W
50
T
(c) W = ma
R - mg = ma
R = m (g + a)
a = 75(10 + 2) = 900N
Ex am ple 6.2
Masses m1 = 1 kg and m2 = 3kg are formed by a light string which passes over a
frictionless pulley below. If the masses are allowed to fall freely, what is the
acceleration of the system and the tension in the strings?
Solution
The system moves with same acceleration.
On the one 1kg mass:
Resultant T - m1g = m1a

i.e. T- 1 x 10 = a
∴ T – a = 10
T On the 3kg mass:
Resultant force m2g –T = m2a

3 x 10 –T = 3a
m2
m1
(1 kg) ∴ T+ 3a = 30
(1 kg)
Solving eqns. A and B Simultaneously:
2
Acceleration, a = 5m/s
Tension, T = 15N
Ex am ple 6.3
What constant horizontal force is required to accelerate a 1500kg car uniformly from
rest to 90km/h in 12.5 seconds on a horizontal road if 60% of this force must be
used to overcome friction and other retarding effect?
Solution
u = 0, v = 90kmh-1 = 25ms-1, t = 12.5s
v − u 25 − 0
a= = = 2ms − 2
t 12.5
Retarding force: F – 60% of F = ma
i.e F – 0.6F = ma
or 0.4F = ma
ma 1500 × 2
∴ F= = = 7500 N
0.4 0.4
51
Ex am ple 6.4
A constant horizontal force of 20N is exerted on a 10kg block that is at rest on a
horizontal, frictionless surface.
(a) What is the acceleration of the block?
(b) How far will the block move in 5seconds?
(c) What is the speed of the block in 5 seconds?
Solution
(a) Net F (Resultant) = 20, U = 0, m = 10kg, a =?
Net F = ma
NetF 20
∴a = = = 2ms − 2 horizontally
m 10
(b) t = 5 seconds, u = 0, a = 2, s =? (c) u =? v = u + at

= ut + at2 = 0 +2x5
= 0 +  (2) x 52 = 10ms-1
=25 m

Take the acceleration due to gravity as 10ms-2
1. What is the tension in the cable of a 1 000 Kg elevator:
(a) if it ascends with an acceleration of 5 ms-2?
(b) if it descends with an acceleration of 5 ms-2?
(c) if it descends with an acceleration of 10 ms-2?
2. A loaded 1 000 Kg elevator is pulled upwards by a 12 000N force on the cable. What
is the upward acceleration?
3. Determine the total thrust developed by the five engines of a 2.82×106 Kg Saturn
rocket at the instant of blast off from the earth’s surface if its acceleration is 2.6 ms-2
upwards.
4. A 1.8×104 Kg aircraft starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 3 m-2 to its take-off
speed of 198 Kmh-1. Calculate:
(a) the length of runway used
(b) the time required to attain take-off speed and
(c) the net force on the aircraft
5. A net force of 24N acts on a 3 Kg object for 8 seconds. If the object was initially at rest;
(b) What is its final speed?
(c) How far does it travel in 8 seconds?
6. A light string passes over a light frictionless pulley and has a 500g load attached to one
end and a 200g load attached to the other. If the system is allowed to fall freely, what is:
(a) the acceleration of the system?

(b) the tension in the string?
7. A cable can withstand a maximum tension of 750N. If the cable is used to hoist a 50 Kg
load vertically from rest through 15m;
(a) What is the maximum acceleration of the load?
(b) Calculate the minimum time required.
52
CHAPTER 7
MOMENTUM
7.1 Definition
Linear momentum, p , is equal to mass x velocity
i.e. p = mv ( Ns )
It can be transmitted from one body to another. For (momentum is impetus that a
moving body possesses). For example, a heavy truck ever moving at a slow speed
has a relatively large linear momentum.
7.2 Newton’s 2nd law

The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the unbalanced force
acting on it and takes place in the direction of a force.
∆P mv − mu m(v − u )
i.e. F = = =
t t t
v−u
∴ F = ma sin ce =a
t
Ex am ple 7.1
A fireman’s hose throws 10 kg of water per second with a velocity of 30 m/s-1 at a
door. Calculate the force acting on the door if the water does not rebound.
Solution
m(v − u ) 10(0 − 30)
i.e. F = = = −300 N
t 1
the negative sign implies that it is a retarding force on the water by the door.)
7.3 Impulse
m(v − u )
The equation F=
t
⇒ Ft = mv − mu
The equation Ft = mv − mu is known as impulse. Therefore Impulse = Change of

linear momentum ( Ns as for momentum.)
Ex am ple 7.2
A 0.25 kg ball is thrown with an initial speed of 20 m/s-1 to a batter who hits back
along its original path with a speed of 30 m/s-1. If the duration of the impact was 10
ms, what was the magnitude of the average force on the ball?
Solution
m(v − u ) 0.25(−30 − 20)
F= = = −1,200 N
t 10 × 10− 3
Therefore F = 1250 N in the direction of the batter.
53
7.4 Conservation of Momentum
Consider two isolated masses m1 and m2 colliding. Let m2 be at rest for simplicity.
During collision
m1 m2
F F
Impulse = change of momentum ( Ft = mv − mu )
Before After
m1 m2
u1 v1 v2
u2=0
Momentum m1u1 0
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1
Total momentum = m1u1
i.e. m1u1 − m1v1 = m2v2
By Newton’s third law, the forces acting on the two masses during collision are equal
and opposite. In addition, the time that the collision lasts is the same for both. Thus
the impulse slowing the first mass down is the same as that speeding the second
mass up.
Hence the first mass losses momentum, whilst the second mass gains equal
momentum.
Therefore, sum of momenta before = sum of momenta after.
This is the principle of conservation of momentum.
7.5 Collisions
When two bodies collide, the laws of conservation of momentum and of conservation
of energy are both applicable. However, in some collisions part of the kinetic energy
of the bodies is transformed into some non-mechanical form of energy such as heat
or sound.
The three major types of collisions are:

1. P erfectly inelastic - collision in which the bodies stick together. ie. a bullet
fired into a block of wood and becomes imbedded in it.
2. P erfectly elastic collisions - collisions in which both kinetic energy and

momentum are conserved. Collisions between atomic nuclei, atoms,
molecules and electrons are often perfectly elastic. Such an ideal situation is
never achieved with large-scale objects.
3. P artially elastic collisions in which some energy is lost and the bodies
separate. This is the commonest of the collisions and it falls between the two
extreme cases in 1. and 2. Examples: a football and the ground, collisions
between billiards etc.
54
In all the three cases, therefore, Sum of m om entum before = Sum of
m om entum after.
i.e. m1 u1 + m 2 u 2 = m1 v1 + m 2 v 2
∴ m1 (v1 − u1 ) = −m 2 (v 2 − u 2 )
E k before ≥ E k after
i.e. ½ m1 u1 + ½ m 2 u 2 ≥ ½ m1 v1 + ½ m 2 v 2
2 2 2 2
Inelastic collisions
Only the principle of conservation of momentum is needed for calculations involving

inelastic collisions.
Ex am ple 7.3
A gun of mass 5 kg recoils with a speed of 0.2 m/s-1 when it fires a bullet of mass 5
grams.
(a) Find the speed with which the bullet is fired (sometimes called the muzzle
velocity)
(b) If the bullet imbeds its self in a 1.995 kg block at rest on a horizontal table,
find the velocity with which the block begins to move.
(c) If the block and bullet stop after moving 0.1 m, find the coefficient of friction
between the block/ bullet and the table.
Solution
Let gun’s recoil have – ve direction
Let the mass of the bullet be ( mb )
Let the mass of the gun be ( mg ),
Let the velocity of the bullet after firing be ( vb )
Let the recoil velocity of the gun be ( vr )
(a) ∑ momenta before collision = ∑ momenta after collision

i.e. 0 = mb vb + mg vg
mg v g − 5 × (−0.2)
∴ vb = = = 200
mb 0.005
-1
The bullet was fired with a speed of 200 m / s
(b)
VB Vb+B
vb
MB
mb
Before After
∑ momenta before collision = ∑ momenta after collision

∴ mb vb = (mb + M B )vb& B
mb vb
∴ vb& B =
mb + M B
0.005 × 200
= = 0.5
0.005 + 1.995
55
The block begins to move with a velocity of 0.5m/s-1
(c) v2 = u2 + 2as where v = 0

− u 2 − (0.5) 2
∴ a= = = −1.25ms − 2
2s 2 × 0.1
F = ma = 2 × (−1.25) = −2.5 N
(The negative sign means that motion is being opposed by friction)
F f = µN
Ff Ff 2.5
∴ µ= = = = 0.125
N mg 2 × 10
The coefficient of friction between the block and bullet and the table is
0.125.
Ex am ple 7.4
A ballistic pendulum consists of a 1kg block that is suspended at rest from two light
strings. When a 1.5 g bullet imbeds itself in the block, the block swings through a
vertical displacement of h = 7.18 cm. Determine the speed of the bullet just before it
strikes the block.
Solution
This is a perfectly inelastic collision; therefore both momentum and energy are
conserved.
Top of the swing
v
M
m h
Energy at commencement of swing = Energy at end of swing.
i, e, K .E. ( Ek ) before + P.E. ( E p ) before = K .E. ( Ek ) after + P.E. ( E p ) after

½(m + M )v 2 + 0 = 0 + (m + M )gh
∴ v = 2 gh = 2 × 10 × 7.18 × 10− 2 = 1.198 ms −1
∑ momenta before collision = ∑ momenta after collision

∴ mu + 0 = (m + M )v
(m + M )v (1 + 1.5 × 1o − 3 ) × 1.198
∴ u= = −3
= 80 ms −1
m 1.5 × 10
56
P erfectly elastic collisions
Ex am ple 7.5
A 0.02 kg particle, travelling to the right with the speed of 0.4 m / s-1, strikes a 0.04
kg particle travelling to the left with a speed of 0.02 m / s –1. If the collision is
perfectly elastic, find the final speeds of the particles?
Solution
Both momentum and kinetic energy will be conserved.
Momentum:
i.e. m1u1 + m 2 u 2 = m1 v1 + m 2 v 2
∴ m1 (u1 − v1 ) = m 2 (v 2 − u 2 ) [1]
Kinetic energy:
i.e. ½ m1u1 + ½ m 2 u 2 = ½ m1 v1 + ½ m 2 v 2
2 2 2 2
(
∴ m1 u1 − v1
2 2
) = m (v
2 2
2
− u2
2
) [2]
Divide equation [2] by equation [1]
u1 + v1 = v 2 + u 2 [3]
0.4 + v1 = v 2 + (−0.2)
∴ v1 = v 2 − 0.6 [4]
Solving equations [1] and [4] simultaneously we have:

m1 (u1 − v2 + 0.6) = m2 (v2 − u2 )
i.e. 0.02(0.4 − v2 + 0.6) = 0.04(v2 + 0.2)
0.008 − 0.02v2 + 0.012 = 0.04v2 + 0.008
∴ 0.06v2 = 0.012
∴ v2 = 0.2
From equation [4] : v1 = v2 − 0.6
= 0.2 − 0.6 = −0.4
So, the 0.02 kg moves to the left at 0.4 ms −1 after collision.
The 0.04 kg mass moves to the right at 0.2 ms −1
P artially or sem i- elastic(im perfectly) collisions

From equation [3] for a perfectly elastic collision:
u1 + v1 = v 2 + u 2 [3]
Or u1 − u 2 = v 2 − v1
Or u1 − u 2 = −(v1 − v 2 ) [5]
Equation [5] may be re-written as:

(v1 − v2 )
− =1 ( Perfectly elastic collision )
(u1 − u2 )
In the case of a perfectly inelastic collision, the masses stay together.

57
and so v1 = v2
(v1 − v2 )
and ∴ − =0 ( Perfectly inelastic collision )
(u1 − u2 )
Newton studied collisions between many types of spheres and concluded that in
general the velocity of separation was equal to a constant times the velocity of
approach.
i.e. − (v1 − v2 ) = e(u1 − u2 )

(v1 − v2 )
Or − =e
(u1 − u2 )
For inelastic collisions,  = 0

For elastic collisions, =1
For imperfectly or semi-elastic collisions, 0 <  < 1.
The constant  is called the coefficient of restitution . It is zero when materials

stick together and approaches unity for highly elastic materials.
Ex am ple 7.6
A 0.01 kg particle travelling to the right with a speed of 0.5 ms –1 strikes 0.02 kg
particle travelling to the left with a speed of 0.15 ms –1. Find the final velocities of the
particles if the coefficient of restitution for the collision is 0.5.
Solution
Take the right hand side as positive.
− (v1 − v2 ) = e(u1 − u2 )
∴ v2 − v1 = e{0.5 − (−0.15)}
∴ v2 = 0.325 + v1 [1]
By the law of conservation of momentum:
i.e. m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

m1u1 + m2u2 − m1v1
∴ v2 =
m2
(0.01 × 0.5) + 0.02(−0.15) − 0.01v1
=
0.02
= 0.1 − 0.5v1 [2]
Equating equations [1] and [2] we have:
v1 + 0.325 = 0.1 − 0.5v1

∴ v1 = −0.15
and v2 = 0.325 − 0.15 = 0.17
–1
The 0.01kg particle moves to the left at 0.15 m s and
–1
the 0.02kg moves to the right at 0.175 m s .
58
1. A 20 000 kg truck and a 1 500 kg car collide head-on. Just before impact, the truck’s speed
was 8 ms-1 and the car’s speed was 5 ms-1. The two vehicles mesh during the collision and
stick together. Calculate:
(a) the velocity of the wreck immediately after collision
(b) the average force experienced by each driver
(Assume each driver has a mass of 100 kg which is already included in the above masses and
the duration of impact is 0.2 seconds. Question 3 of August 1988 P110 paper, University of
Zambia)
2. Two trucks travelling in the same straight line collide and remain locked together after
impact. Truck A, mass 1000 kg, has a velocity of 2.0 m/s due West. Truck B, mass 800 kg,
has a velocity of 1.5 m/s due East. Determine the magnitude and direction of the velocity of
the trucks after impact. {Question 7 (d) of November 1999 FO 101 Forest Engineering paper,
CBU}
3. (a) State the principle of conservation of linear momentum

(b) A stream of water from a hose ejecting 2.5 kg of water per second at a velocity of 24
m/s is directed against a wall. If the water does not rebound, what force does it exert
on the wall?
(c) Two trucks travelling in the same straight line collide and remain locked together
after impact. Truck A, mass 1000 kg, has a velocity of 2.0 m/s due West. Truck B,
mass 500 kg, has a velocity of 1.5 m/s due East. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the velocity of the trucks after impact.
{Question 4 of Metal Fabrication Physics, 2002}
4. A 17.5g bullet moves horizontally with a speed of 5 560 cm/s, strikes an 8.45 kg block resting
on a table and bounces straight back with a speed of 1 260 cm/s. determine:
(i) the speed of the block immediately after collision
(ii) the friction force between the block and the table if the block moves
132 cm before stopping.
{Question 7(a) of Engineering Science Mock Exam, NORTEC 2000}
5. A 0.5 kg object is moving in a straight line with an initial speed of 2.0 ms-1 when it collides
head-on with a 1 kg object moving in the opposite direction with an initial speed of 5.0 ms-1.
If the coefficient of restitution, e = 0.8, what are the final velocities of the two objects?
(Question 4 of 1997 Mock exam, NORTEC)
6. (a) Define the term ‘linear momentum’

(b) A 0.2 kg ball is moving in a straight line with a speed of 5 m/s when it collides head
on with a 0.35 kg ball that is moving at a speed of 3 m/s. If the coefficient of
restitution is 0.6, calculate the terminal speed of each ball:
(i) If they were initially travelling in the same direction
(ii) If they were initially travelling in opposite directions
{Question 9 of Metal Fabrication Physics, 2002}
7. (a) (i) Define ‘impulse’ and ‘momentum’

(ii) State the law of conservation of linear momentum
(b) A 2g bullet is fired into a 2.398 kg block of wood suspended from a long cord. The
bullet is embedded in the block and the two start off together with a speed of 0.7
m/s. Find the speed of the bullet just before collision and to what vertical height
does the block rise?
{Question 9 of Engineering Science Mock Exam, NORTEC 2003}
59
CHAPTER 8
WORK, POWER, & ENERGY
Recap
Average velocity, v = s/s (ms-1)
A body moving in a straight line is said to have linear velocity
A rotating body has angular velocity, ω = θ/t. (rad/s)
8.1 WORK (MECHANICAL)

Mechanics is the science of forces. When a force moves its point of application in the
direction in which the force is moving it is said to do mechanical work.
It is necessary to say along its line of action because a force, which merely moves
sideways, does no work. For instance a crane does no work on a load when it moves
the load horizontally without either lifting it or letting it fall. A train does no work
against gravity if it is moving along a level track.
Definition
The amount of work done is the product of the force and the distance through which
a body moves in the direction of the force.
OR
The amount of work done is the product of the force and the displacement of the
body and the component of the applied force in the direction of the displacement.
If F = applied force
d = distance moved
then W = Fd F and d being parallel (Units: W = Nm or J)

Or ∗ W = F dCosθ F and d having an angle θ between them.
(When θ = 0, the last formula becomes W = F d since Cosθ = 1 )
F
d
θ
Fx
θ
B A
dCosθ
The work done in moving from A to B:
W = F dCosθ
Or W = FCosθ × d where Fx = FCosθ
∴ Work = force × distance moved in the direction of the force

Or Work = Component of the force in the direction of motion × distance moved.
Ex am ple 8.1
60
How much work is done when a mass of 20 kg is lifted vertically through 5m?
(Take ‘g’ = 10ms-1).
Solution
F = mg = 20 × 10 = 200N
W = Fd
= 200 × 5 = 1000 J = 1 kJ
Ex am ple 8.2
A man moves a trolley of machinery 12m over a flat horizontal surface by pulling on
the handle with a force of 20N (see diagram below). If the handle is inclined at 300
with the horizontal, how much work does the man do?
Solution
W = F dCosθ
= 20× 12Cos30 o
= 207.85 J
Ex am ple 8.3
A motor is used to drag a 1 200kg container 15m up a 200 ramp at a constant
velocity. If the coefficient of kinetic friction µk = 0.30:
(a) What is the tension in the hoisting cable?
(b) How much work is done by the motor?
Motor
Hoisting cable
Container 200
Solution
mgSin200
200
Ff
mgCos200
T = mgSin20 + Ff = mgSin20 + µkN

0 0
(a)
= 1 200 × 10Sin20 + 0.3 × 1 200 × 10Cos20
0 0
= 7 487N
(b) W = Fd
= Td
= 7 487 × 15
= 112 300N
61
8.2 POWER
Power is the rate at which work is done by a force.
Workdone W Fd
i.e. Power = = =
time t t
 Fs  d d
Or   = F × = Fv since = v
 t  t t
∴ P = Fv
Ex am ple 8.4
During a filing operation the constant force against the work piece is 640N. The file
cuts over a length of 75 mm in 0.25s. Calculate the power consumed at each cutting
point.
Solution
d = 75 mm = 0.075 m
v = d/t = 0.075/0.25 = 0.3 ms-1
Power = Fv
= 640 = 192 W
Ex am ple 8.5
A Boeing 747 aircraft has 4 engines each capable of exerting a thrust of 200kN.
When the aircraft is cruising at 1 000km/h, each engine is delivering 3×107W.
(a) Find the drag.

(b) What ratio of its maximum thrust is each engine delivering?
Solution
1000 × 103 104

(a) v = 1000km / h = = m/s
60 × 60 36
(b) P = Fv
104
i.e. 4 × 3 × 107 = Fdrag ×
36
⇒ Fdrag = 4.32 × 105 N
Deliveredthrust (drag )
(c) Ratio of thrust =
4 × exertedthrustbyeachengine
4.32 × 105
= = 0.54 = 54%
4 × 200,000
8.3 ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work. It is stored energy. In other words ‘it is the
property something has which enables it to do work’.
Energy can take many forms – chemical, thermal, electrical, nuclear, and mechanical
energy, which can itself, take many forms.
Every kind of energy falls into one of the three general categories:
(a) Kinetic energy
(b) Potential energy and
(c) Rest energy
62
Potential Energy (P.E.) is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position.
There are many different kinds of potential energy. Some examples are as follows:
(i) Gravitational
(ii) Elastic
(iii) Chemical, etc.
Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its

position in a gravitational field. If a body is lifted h metres against a force of mg
Newtons (its weight), then
Work done, W = Fd
P.E. = mgh Joules (J)
Work = mgh
P.E. = P.E.at B – P.E.at A

B
= mgh
h If P.E.at A = 0,
Then P.E. = mgh (+ve. i.e. increase)
Ex am ples of potential energy

 Water in a reservoir on a mountain has potential energy relative to the domestic
and industrial users on a lower level.
 A motorcar descending a hill – it gives up P.E. due to the force of gravity. It is
moving from a higher level to a lower one.
Elastic potential energy

Because work must be done by an applied force to stretch or compress an object, the
object has elastic potential energy.
(Restoring force: when an elastic object such as a spring is stretched or compressed,

a restoring force appears that appears to return the object to its normal length. It
is this restoring force that must be overcome by the applied force in order to deform
the object.
From Hooke’s law, the force, F, is proportional to the displacement, s, provided the
elastic limit is not exceeded.
Hence Fr = -ks
where Fr = restoring force
k = (spring) force constant
s = displacement
The minus sign is required because the restoring force acts in the opposite direction
to the displacement.)
63
y
δW =Fδs
b
F = ks ∴ W = ∫ Fds
a
Force F
b
δF i.e. P.E. = ∫ ksds
a
2
= ½ ks Joules
x
O
a δs b (i.e. P.E. = Area under the curve)
Displacement, s
When a deformed elastic object is released, its elastic potential energy turns into
kinetic energy or into work done on something else.
Ex am ple of elastic potential energy
 Wound up watch springs and

 Stretched elastic bands have potential energy because of their strained condition.
Kinetic Energy
The energy a body has by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy, K.E.
Consider a body accelerated uniformly from rest through a distance s by a force F

with acceleration a;
Work done = Fs
i.e. K.E. = mas since F =ma
= m × ½v2 since from v2 = u2 + 2as ⇒ v2 = o + 2as ∴as =½v2
∴ K.E. = ½mv2
This result holds even if the acceleration is not uniform.
Ex am ples of kinetic energy

 Moving bullets and hammer heads. These are able to do work by overcoming
forces when they strike something.
 A heavy flywheel stores energy in the form of motion and so keeps an engine
running smoothly between the working strokes of its engine.
 An earth-moving machine levels the ground as it exerts a force and does work
because of the K.E. it possesses as a result of its motion.
Rest Energy
Matter can be converted to energy and energy to matter. The rest energy of a body
is the energy it has by virtue of its mass alone. Thus mass can be regarded as a form
of energy. The rest energy of a body is in addition any K.E. or P.E. it might have.
If the mass of a body is mo when it is at rest, its rest energy is:

Rest energy, Eo = moc2
Where c = velocity of light
= 3 × 108 ms-1
∗ The rest mass mo is specified here because the mass of a moving body
increases with its velocity. The increase is significant only at extremely high
velocities, however.
64
Other Forms of Energy
Energy may also be exhibited in other forms such as:

 Electrical energy
 Heat energy
 Sound (sonic) energy
 Light energy
 Magnetic energy
 Nuclear energy
 Chemical energy, etc
8.4 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Energy can exist in various forms (e.g. position – P.E., motion – K.E., thermal,
chemical, etc)
The principle of the conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created nor
destroyed, although it can be transformed from one form to another.
Ex am ple 8.6
An object suspended from a rope swings in an arc of a circle so that it just rises
0.1m. Calculate the velocity at the bottom of the swing. (g = 10ms-1)
Solution
At the bottom of the swing (O), all the P.E. at A will have been converted to K.E.
K.E. at O = P.E. at A
l ∴ ½mv2 = mgh
A (P.E.) ∴ v2 = 2gh = 2 × 10 × 0.1

0.1m
∴
-1
v = 1.4 ms
O
(K.E.)
Ex am ple 8.7
In passing through a wooden block 8cm thick the velocity of a bullet is reduced from
700ms-1 to 300ms-1. If the mass of the bullet is 10g, find the average resistance to
penetration.
Solution
Let the resistive force be F
Amount of work done by the bullet in penetrating the block is W =Fd.

The K.E. of the bullet will be reduced by the same amount.
1 2 1 1 0.01(300 2 − 700 2 )
i.e. Fd = mv − mu = m(v − u ) =
2 2 2
= 25,000 N
2 2 2 2 × 0.08
∴ Resistive force = 25kN
Ex am ple 8.8
Calculate the velocity of an electron as it strikes the anode of a radio valve if the pd
between anode and cathode is 150V. Assume that the velocity of the electron is
negligible as it emerges from the cathode and that its mass is 9.1 × 10-19 coulombs.
65
Solution
Work done on the electron by the field = kinetic energy gained by the electron
i.e. Charge × p.d. = K.E. of the electron

eV = 1 mv 2
2
2eV 2 × 1.6 × 10 −19 × 150
∴ v= = −31
= 7.3 × 10 6 ms −1
m 9.1 × 10
8.5 TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY

Energy can be transformed/changed from one form to another by suitable devices.
No energy-transforming device is perfectly efficient. In the case of the electric motor,
some useful energy is lost in the electrical windings and some in the friction of
bearings.
The principle of the conservation of energy can be expressed as:
Energy in the first form = energy in the second form + unavoidable forms
of wasted energy (sound, heat)
Ex am ples
(i) Battery charging: Electrical energy → chemical energy
(ii) Using a battery: Chemical energy → electrical energy
(iii) Electric motor: Electrical energy → mechanical energy
(iv) Generator/alternator Mechanical energy → electrical energy
(v) Microphone: Sound energy → electrical energy
(vi) Telephone earpiece: Electrical energy → sound energy
(vii) TV camera: Changes light to electrical energy
(viii) Electrical receiver: Changes electrical energy to sound
(ix) Steam engine: Heat energy → mechanical energy
(x) Electric heater: Electrical energy → heat & light energy
(xi) Lamp (electric): Electrical energy → light & heat energy
(xii) Hydroelectric power: P.E. of water → K.E. of turbine (mechanical) →
electrical energy from generator
66
Robert Einstein showed that mass is a form of energy, and in nuclear energy,
W = mc 2 (J) Where c = speed of light = 3 × 108 ms-1. (Refer to rest energy).
Some heat
energy lost up
the chimney
Heat energy conveyed

Boiler
Coal burnt, releasing chemical

Coal possessing
in the steam
energy in the form of heat
chemical energy
Shaft drive
Generator Turbine
Power lines
Mechanical energy Energy content of the

converted to steam converted to
electrical energy mechanical energy
Electrical energy
Motor Heater Battery
Mechanical Heat Chemical

energy energy energy
8.6 WORK AND POWER DONE BY A CONSTANT TORQUE

Torque may be defined as a twisting moment.
B Torque τ = F ×r
θ
If the point of application of F moves from A to B
r along arc of radius r,
F The work done by the constant torque is:
Work, W = Force × distance moved

= F × rθ
= Frθ
W = τθ Joules where θ is in radians
Workdone
Power =
time
W τθ θ
i.e. = P= But =ω (Note that also P = Fv )
t t t
∴ P = τω
πNτ
Or P = where N = speed in revs/min.
30
67
Consider 1 cycle or revolution:
1revolution = 2πradians
1revolution 2πradians
∴ =
1 min . 1 min .
Nrevolutions 2πNradians
∴ =
1 min . 1 min .
2πradians
i.e. Nrev / min =
60 sec .
2π
i.e. ω= rad / sec )
60
Ex am ple 8.9
A shaft transmits a torque of 1 400 Nm at a speed of 660 rev/min. Calculate the
angular velocity of the shaft and the power it is transmitting.
Solution
P = τω
πNτ π × 660 × 1400
P= = = 96.8kW
30 30
Power Transmitted by Belt Drives

Ts
R
r
Driver
Tt
Follower
Tt = tight side of the belt

Ts = slack side of the belt
Tt > Ts
The difference in the two tensions causes the pulley (follower) to rotate.
Resultant tension T = Tt − Ts
∴ Effective torque (on load pulley) τ = (Tt − Ts ) × R
Note: Tt and Ts do not form a couple as they tend to turn the pulley in opposite
directions. {This is similar to the bicycle chain: the driver (crank) is bigger
while the follower (hub) is smaller. The tight side is on top whilst the slack
side is below.}
Ex am ple 8.10
The ratio of the tensions of a belt wrapped round a pulley is 1.8 to 1. If the
maximum tension in the belt is 1 440N and the pulley has a diameter of 400mm:
(a) What turning moment is exerted on the pulley shaft?
(b) Calculate the power transmitted if the pulley rotates at 210rev/min.
68
Solution
Tt T 1440
(a) = 1.8 ⇒ Ts = t = = 800 N
Ts 1.8 1.8
τ = (Tt − Ts )r
= (1440 − 800) × 0.2 = 128 Nm
πN π × 210
(b) ω= = = 22rad / sec
30 30
P = τω = 128 × 22 = 2.816kW
Ex am ple 8.11
A shaft of diameter 80mm revolves in a bearing at a peed of 420rev/min. The
bearing supports a load of 15 000N. If the coefficient of friction between the ball
bearings and the bearing race is 0.012, calculate the power lost in the bearing.
Solution
N
Frictional force F f = µN = µW
τ = F f r = µWr
∴ P = τω
= µWrω
Ff
= 0.012 × 15,000 × 0.04 × 44
= 316.8W
W
69
1. In which of the following cases is work done on the sack? A forklift:
(a) Carries a sack along a level surface with increasing velocity;
(b) Drags a sack along a level surface at constant speed;
(c) Carries a sack up a hill at constant velocity;
(d) Carries a sack along a level road at constant velocity.
2. A man climbs a ladder carrying a hammer of mass 0.5kg. If the ladder makes an
angle of 300 with the vertical and is 3m long, how much work does the man do on
the hammer?
3. Find the power exerted in each of the following cases:

(a) A man does 6 00J of work in 2 minutes.
(b) An ox pulls a cart along a level road at 5km/h with a force of 300N.
(c) A man pushes his car, which has broken down, along a level road for 2km with a
force of 400N. If it takes him 1 hour, what is the average power he supplies?
4. A tractor is towing a barge. The pull on the towrope is 8 000N and the towrope is
inclined at 300 to the direction of motion of the barge. The tractor travels at 9km/h.
Calculate:
(a) The force on the barge in the direction of motion
(b) The power, in kW, provided by the tractor
5. The power output of an internal combustion engine is measured by a device called

dynamometer. The dynamometer shows a torque of 20Nm at 4 200rev/min.
Calculate the power output in kW.
6. A bar is rough-turned to a diameter of 105mm and then finish-turned to a diameter

of 100mm. The tangential cutting force is 1 600N for the rough turning at 100rev/min
and 400N for the finish turning at 315rev/min. What power is being used in each
case?
7. (a) A small electric motor runs at 1 400rev/min. What torque is being

provided by an output of 1.1kW?
(b) If the work diameter is 80mm, what is the maximum tangential force that
can be exerted on a cutting tool?
8, A bus moving along Kwacha Road derives its source of energy ultimately from
electromagnetic radiation from the sun. We can show this in the following way:
Electromagnetic Energy stored in Chemical Kinetic

radiation from vegetation by energy of energy of
the sun photosynthesis diesel bus
(Diesel is refined from oil, which is formed from

ancient rotting vegetation)
Draw energy conversion diagrams similar to the above example for the following,
showing how in each case the ultimate source of energy is from the sun:
(a) A pot boiling on a wood fire
(b) A man walking along a path
(c) Copper being deposited on electrodes by electrolysis in the tank house at Nkana
Copper Refinery (remember where Zambia’s supply of electricity comes from).
9. A mass, m kg, is moved up a frictionless inclined plane at constant velocity. If the

plane makes an angle of 300 with the horizontal, and is 10m long:
(a) Find the work done.
(b) Find the change in the gravitational potential energy of the mass.
70
(c) If the mass were lifted straight up to the top of the plane, what would be the
work done?
(d) What would be the change in the gravitational potential energy be for part (c)?
10. A mass, m kg, on top of a cliff is lifted up 3m above the cliff to level A then dropped
over the cliff to the bottom, which is 20m below A.
(a) Calculate its potential energy at the top of the cliff relative to the bottom of the
cliff.
(b) Calculate its potential energy at the top of the cliff relative to level A.
(c) Calculate its potential energy at level A relative to the bottom of the cliff.
11. A mass, m kg, is thrown from level ground at an angle θ0 to the horizontal, with an
initial velocity of u ms-1. If the height it reaches is h metres, find:
(a) Its initial kinetic energy.
(b) Its kinetic energy at height h.
(c) Its change in kinetic energy between ground level and height h.
(d) What is the gravitational kinetic energy of the mass relative to the ground, when
it is at height h?
(e) Show, by considering the change in potential energy as the mass returns to
ground level, that its velocity as it strikes the ground is the same as its initial
velocity.
12. A pendulum bob, mass 0.5kg, hangs from a weightless cord of length 2m. If the bob
is pulled aside until it makes an angle of 450 with the vertical.
(a) Calculate its kinetic energy:
(i) When it is at the bottom swing
(ii) When the cord makes an angle of 50 with the vertical
(iii) When the cord makes an angle of 300 with the vertical
(iv) When the cord makes an angle of 450 with the vertical
(b) Calculate the velocity of the bob for each of the positions in (a)
13. The ratio of the tensions in a flat belt drive is 2.5 to 1. If the maximum tension in the
belt is 700N, and the belt drives a pulley of diameter 500mm, calculate:
(a) The torque transmitted to the pulley.
(b) The power transmitted if the pulley rotates at 420 r.p.m.
14. The tensions on the tight and slack side of a belt driving a pulley are 760N and 180N
respectively. The pulley is 90cm diameter and is revolving at 160 rev/min. What is
the power delivered to the pulley?
15. An electric motor is driven from a 500-V supply and takes 20A. If 80% of this power
is converted into mechanical power, what torque is delivered to the shaft of the
motor revolving at 1 800 r.p.m?
16. A belt transmits 4kW to a pulley 18cm diameter running at 210 rev/min. What are
the tensions in the tight and slack sides of the belt if the tension on the tight side is
three times the tension on the slack side?
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CHAPTER 9
FRICTION
9.1 Definition
Friction is a force which opposes relative motion between two surfaces in sliding
contact.
When one surface moves (or attempts to move) over another, the resistance offered
to the sliding is called friction . It acts tangentially to the surfaces.
9.2 Laws of ‘dry’ friction (applicable without lubricants)

For many different kinds of surfaces in rubbing contact, it has been experimentally
concluded that:
(i) Frictional force always opposes motion (i.e. it acts in the opposite direction to
motion)
(ii) Friction depends on the nature of the surfaces involved (‘smooth’, ‘rough’,
etc).
(iii) Friction depends on the type of surfaces involved (e.g. wood on metal, wood
on concrete, etc)
(iv) Friction, F f , is directly proportional to the normal reaction, N .
(v) Friction is independent of:

a) The area of the surfaces in contact
b) The sliding speed (applicable at low speeds. F f decreases at higher
speeds).
9.3 Static Friction ( FS )
The magnitude of the frictional force, F f , increases (from zero) as the tendency to
move a body with a force, F , increases, up to a lim iting value (maximum). The
value of this friction is called the lim iting friction ( F f ).
9.4 Kinetic Friction ( FK )
When a body is sliding with uniform velocity, the value of the friction force is less
than that of the limiting friction. This friction force is called kinetic or dynam ic or
sliding friction .
9.5 Coefficient of Friction
When F increases, F f , (friction) also starts to act in the opposite direction. As F

increases further, an instant is reached when the body just starts to slide. The value
of this friction is called the lim iting static friction ( F f ). Note that the frictional
force may have values between zero and the limiting value.
Static or dynamic friction is related to the normal reaction in the following way:
72
N Frictional force
Ff ∝ N
F
∴ F f = µN
Ff
Where µ = coefficient of friction
For a body at rest: FS = µ S N (limiting friction)

For a body moving at constant speed: FK = µ K N
Where FS = static friction
FK = Kinetic friction
µ S = Coefficient of static friction
µ K = Coefficient of kinetic friction (also known as the coefficient of sliding
or dynamic friction)
(µ = Greek letter ‘mu’)
For a particular material which is sliding over another (e.g. cork on steel), the
coefficient of friction, µ, is constant. Also the coefficient of static friction is always
greater than that of sliding (kinetic) friction i.e. µ S > µ K . Static friction force can
have values ranging from zero to a maximum. This maximum static friction is known
as the lim iting friction force .
At constant speed (i.e. the system is in a state of equilibrium), the component of the
force parallel to the direction of motion is equal to the frictional force. These forces
act in opposite directions.
Typical values of coefficients of friction between two surfaces
SURFACE µS µS
Ball & roller bearings
Brake lining material on cast iron 0.40
Cast iron on cast iron 0.15
Clutch lining material on cast iron 0.35
Glass on glass 0.95 0.20
Rubber tyre on dry concrete/tarmac 0.90 0.70
Rubber tyre on wet concrete/tarmac 0.60 0.35
Steel on brass 0.15
Steel on concrete 0.50 0.33
Steel on steel 0.70 0.50
Steel on steel (lubricated) 0.20 0.15
Steel on wood 0.55 0.40
Wood on brick 0.60 0.25
Wood on concrete 0.55 0.35
Wood on metal 0.40 0.20
Wood on wood 0.35 0.30
Ex am ple 9.1
A steel block of mass 50 kg is on a concrete floor. Determine the force required:
(a) To start the block sliding
(b) To keep the block moving at constant speed.
Solution
(a) (b) FK = µ K N
73
= µ S mg = µ K mg
= 0.5 × 50 × 10 = 0.33 × 500
= 250 N = 165 N
A force can be applied in three different ways on a body in an attempt to move it:
N N N
F
θ
Fy θ F
Fy
Fx
F Fx
Ff Ff Ff
W W W
N =W N = W − FV N = W + FV
F f = µW = µmg F f = µ (W − FV ) F f = µ (W + FV )
Ex am ple 9.2
What force acting at 600 to the horizontal is necessary (a) to push and (b) to pull a
box of mass 20 kg with a constant velocity along a horizontal surface, the coefficient
of friction being 0.2?
Solution
(a) (b) N
N F
θ Fy
F θ
Fy
Fx
Fx
Ff Ff
W W
N = W + FV N = W − FV
∴ F f = µ (W + FV ) ∴ F f = µ (W − FV )
At constant speed, At constant speed,
FX = F f FX = F f
i.e. FCosθ = µ K N .e. FCosθ = µ K N

= µ K (W + FV ) = µ K (W − FV )
= µ K (mg + FSinθ ) = µ K (mg − FSinθ )
⇒ F (Cosθ − Sinθ ) = µ K mg ⇒ F (Cosθ + Sinθ ) = µ K mg
µ k mg µ k mg
⇒ F= ⇒ F=
Cosθ − µ k Sinθ Cosθ + µ k Sinθ
0.25 × 20 × 10 0.25 × 20 × 10
= =
Cos 60 0 − 0.25Sin60 0 Cos 60 0 + 0.25Sin60 0
74
= 176.4N = 67.78N
9.6 Friction on an Incline

Consider a block of mass m kg at the point of slipping down a plane inclined at an
angle of θ0 to the horizontal. The friction force Ff acts up the plane.
After resolving mg into components parallel

and perpendicular to the plane, and since
the system is in equilibrium:
mgSinθ = F f
But F f = µN
Ff
∴µ =
N
mgSinθ
µ = = tan θ
mgCosθ
Where µ = Coefficient of static friction
This particular angle of inclination is known as the angle of repose. If the plane is
inclined at an angle greater than the angle of repose, the mass will slide down. If the
inclination is less than the angle of repose, the body will remain at rest. This gives a
method of obtaining the coefficient of static friction, µ , by experiment. This would
be done by raising the incline until the mass just begins to slide down. The tangent
of the angle at which this happens is the value of the coefficient of static friction for
the materials in contact.
Ex am ple 9.3
Determine the coefficient of static friction between a block and an incline if the angle
of friction (repose) is 300.
Solution
µ = tan θ
= tan300 = 0.577
Ex am ple 9.4
A 1 500 kg piece of machinery on a wooden slide is lowered at a constant velocity
down a 350 concrete ramp by means of a cable that is attached to the machinery and
is parallel to the incline. If the coefficient of friction between wood and concrete is
0.35, find the tension in the cable.
Solution
Motion is down the plane
⇒Friction is up the plane.
(Opposite to the direction of motion)
Speed is constant ∴ the system is in equilibrium.
∴ T = mgSin35 o − µN
= mgSin35 o − µmgCos35 o
= mg ( Sin35 o − µCos35 o )
= 1 500 × 10(0.5736 – 0.35 × 0.8192)
= 4 303 N
75
Ex am ple 9.5
A force of 540N acting parallel a plane inclined at 200 to the horizontal is required to
just move a body of mass 60 kg up the plane. (a) Find the coefficient of friction
between the surfaces (b) Find the force parallel to the plane required to drag the
body down the plane at a steady speed.
Solution
(a) N 540N Motion is up the plane
⇒ Friction is down the plane.
mgSin 20 o + F f = 540
mgSinθ
Ff
θ
mgSin 20 o + µmgCos 20 o = 540
mgCosθ
540 − mgSin 20 o
∴µ =
mgCos 20 o
mg 540 − 60 × 10 × 0.342
= = 0.594
60 × 10 × 0.9397
mg
(b) N
Ff Motion is down the plane
⇒ Friction is up the plane.
mgSinθ ∴ F + mgSin 20 o = F f
F
θ mgCosθ F = µmgCos 20 o − mgSin 20 o
= mg ( µCos 20 o − mg ) Sin 20 o
= 60 × 10(0.595 × 0.9397 − 0.342)
mg
= 130 N
Angle of Friction
In all the cases considered so far, the body is in equilibrium under the action of four
forces – F , m g , N and F f . The method of resolution of forces will solve all problems
of this type (irrespective of whether the applied force is parallel to the plane or not).
However a simpler method of calculation exists for certain problems. This makes use
of the resultant, R , of the friction force F f , and the normal reaction, N , together with
the angle, θ, between R and N , This angle is known as the angle of friction .
b a Since F f and N are at right

angles, then θ is given by:
R
ab F f µN
tan θ = = = =µ
F (Pull) oa N N
θ
Ff
O
The direction in which R must be drawn is determined by the fact that its tangent
component F f must oppose motion i.e. R is always drawn backwards to the direction
of motion. If R lies inside, the angle of friction is less than the limiting value and
slipping cannot take place.
When N and F f are replaced by one force R , the forces F , m g and N form three
forces in equilibrium and a triangle of forces can be drawn.
76
Note : In the absence of friction, F f , the only force possible between two surfaces is
the normal to the surfaces, N .
Ex am ple 9.6
(a) A rubberised block of mass 20 kg moves at constant speed on a concrete
ramp, inclined at 200 to the horizontal by applying a horizontal push of 300N
to the block. Calculate:
(i) the friction force
(ii) the coefficient of kinetic friction between the rubber and concrete.
(b) The block is then transferred to another concrete ramp inclined at 150 to the
horizontal. Find the value of a pull at 200 to the horizontal that will make the
block move up the ramp at uniform speed.
Solution
(a) (i) N
300Cos200
P = 300N
200Sin200 Ff 300Sin200
200
200Cos200
mg = 200N
Resolving m g and P into components

parallel and perpendicular to the plane and
the forces N and F f .
The block is moving at constant speed therefore it is in equilibrium.

F f + 200Sin 20 o = 300Cos 20 o
F f + 200 × 0.342 = 300 × 0.9397
F f = 213.5 N
(ii) N = 200Cos 20 o + 300Sin 20 o

= 200 × 0.9397 + 300 × 0.342 = 290.5 N
Ff 213.5
µ = = = 0.73
N 290.5
P
(b) (i) Psin50
50
N Pcos50
0
20
Ff
o
mgSin150 mgCos150
15
mg = 200N
Resolving m g and P into components parallel and perpendicular to the plane
and the forces N and F f
77
Since the block is moving at constant speed therefore it is in a state of
equilibrium.
Equating parallel forces:

Parallel to the plane:
mgSin15 o + F f = PCos5 o
∴ F f = PCos5 o − mgSin15 o Equation 1
Normal to plane:
N + PSin5 o = mgCos15 o
∴ N = mgCos15 − PSin5
o o
But F f = µN
= µ (mgCos15 o − PSin5 o ) Equation 2
Equating equations 1 & 2
∴ PCos 5
o
− mgSin15 o = µ (mgCos15 o − PSin5 o )
∴ P = 182N after solving for P
9.7 Effects of Friction

Friction has advantages as well as disadvantages. Consequently friction plays an
important role in our everyday life. This is especially so in the engineering field.
Som e Advantages of Friction

1. Friction enables walking; without friction between the soles of ones shoes
and the floor, a person would have great difficulty in moving about.
2. Friction facilitates the gripping of objects:

 jaws of a vice grip work pieces because of friction
 the hands can grip a steering wheel and control a vehicle
 belts cling to pulleys and drive machinery
 a wire stripper is able to remove a piece of insulation from a cable
because of friction.
3. Screws and nails stay in place in objects into which they are driven by means
of friction.
4. Friction enables the braking of machinery and vehicles.
5. Friction clutches transmit motion from the flywheel to the input shaft by
means of friction.
Som e Disadvantages of Friction

1. External effort is required to produce motion. Friction always tends to
prevent movement of one part over another. External effort is therefore
needed to cause movement.
2. Friction causes wear and tear; friction always causes wear between moving
surfaces (piston rings, cylinders, shoes, tyres, etc). In some cases it can
cause moving parts to seize up.
78
3. Heat generation; friction often causes heat to be generated in moving parts.
In many cases this heat needs to be removed by using a cooling liquid or
coolant or use of cooling fins cooled by air.
9.8 Effects of Lubrication (Reduction of Friction)
Using lubricants such as carbon/graphite dust, grease, sand and oils between
moving parts reduces friction by separating the surfaces in sliding contact. For the
hovercraft and v-rail, this is achieved by using a cushion of air. A lubricant separates
the moving parts so that they are not in direct contact.
Lubricants reduce friction by falling in the cavities on the surfaces

thereby making them smoother than they really are.
F
F
F
F
Lubricated (fluid friction) i.e.

Unlubricated (Dry friction) i.e.
surfaces separated by a lubricant
surfaces in direct contact
Friction may also be reduced by using:

 Bearings
 Polished surfaces in sliding contact
 Chrome-plated surfaces in sliding contact
For a lubricant to be effective it must have the following properties:

(i) It must have viscosity i.e. adhesive properties of the molecules of the
lubricant from being squeezed out from between the surfaces.
(ii) It must not have an injurious effect on the surfaces. For example water is not
used as a lubricant because it is corrosive to most metals. (N.B. However
water is used as a coolant in motor vehicles).
(iii) It must not lose viscosity under varying temperature conditions. All oils
become less viscous when hot.
(iv) It must not be too viscous or it would absorb too much (heat) energy.
79
1. State four examples in the workshop where:
(a) friction is desirable
(b) friction is undesirable
2. A packing case weighs 100N, and it requires a horizontal force of 60N to slide it
across a workshop floor. What is the coefficient of friction between the case and the
floor? What force would be required to move a similar packing case weighing 160N?
3. A man weighing 800N is to pull a load along a shop floor. The coefficient of friction
between his boot soles and the floor is 0.5 and that between the load and the floor is
0.3. How big a load can the man pull?
4. During an experiment to determine a coefficient of friction, a slider was pulled along

a horizontal surface at constant velocity. Masses were put on the slider and the force
F needed to maintain motion was noted, providing the following data:
M (Kg) 1 2 3 4 5 6
F (N) 9.80 11.80 13.72 15.68 17.60 19.60
Plot these values and hence, using your diagram, determine:

(a) the coefficient of friction
(b) the mass of the slider
5. During an experiment to find the value of the coefficient of friction at a journal

bearing, the following results were obtained:
Power absorbed 80W

Rotational speed 420 rev/min
Weight carried 10 000N
Shaft diameter 40mm
Determine:
(a) the frictional torque resisting motion,
(b) the coefficient of friction for these particular circumstances.
6. A box of weight 400N rests on a horizontal floor ( µ K = 0.15 )

(a) Once the box is moving, what horizontal force will keep it moving with constant
velocity?
(b) Is the box in equilibrium when it is moving at constant velocity?
7. What force acting at an angle of 300 above the horizontal is necessary to push a
mass of 10Kg with constant velocity along a horizontal surface, the coefficient of
friction being 0.3?
8. The coefficient of sliding friction between a block and the floor is 0.35. A weightless
rope is attached to the block so that it can be pulled along. If a pull of 20N acting at
370 above the horizontal gives the block a constant velocity of 5ms-1, find the weight
of the block.
9. A man is pushing an 80Kg box along a level floor with a constant velocity by exerting
a force on the box at an angle of 300 downward from the horizontal. If the coefficient
of friction between the sliding surfaces is 0.4, what is the magnitude of the force?
10. A block rests on a plane that is inclined at an angle of 300 to the horizontal. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the plane is 0.2. If the block had
a mass of 10Kg and a man wishes to push it up the plane:
(a) What is the direction of the frictional force?
80
(b) What force parallel to the incline is necessary to keep it sliding up the plane?
(c) What horizontal force would be required to push it up the plane?
11. In the accompanying diagram, block A has a mass of 5Kg and block B has a mass of
10Kg. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the blocks and the surface is 0.4.
Force F is applied to pull B up the plane at constant speed. Assume that there is no
friction between the ropes and the pulleys.
(a) Draw free-body diagrams for A and B, showing all the forces acting on each
block.
(b) Find the tension in the cord between A and B.
(c) Find the magnitude of F.
A
30o F
12. In the accompanying diagram below, m1 = 3 kg, m2 = 8 kg and the coefficient of

kinetic friction between the block and the incline is 0.45. If the system of masses
moves in one direction, calculate the acceleration of the system.
m1 m2
45o 60o
13. A uniform door rests against an upright wall. If the limiting coefficients of friction at
the floor and the wall are 0.25 and 0.20 respectively, what is the angle that the
ladder can make with the floor without slipping?
81
CHAPTER 10
PROPRTIES OF MATERIALS
(Force & Material, & Hooke’s Law)
10.1 FORCE AND MATERIALS
Many of the engineering components are subjected to loads placed on them. The
behaviour of materials when subjected to loading is very important both to the
engineer and designer – not least to the technician.
Therefore a number of mechanical properties of a given material have to be taken

into account before it can be considered suitable for a given job.
Some of these properties are:

(i) Strength: This is the state or ability of a material of being able to resist the
application of loads (forces) without breaking. Steel, for example, will
withstand larger forces than aluminium.
(ii) Elasticity: This is the ability of a material of being resilient. That is being
able to retain its original shape after suffering deformation from an applied
load. Rubber is very elastic whereas ceramics are not.
(iii) Plasticity: This is the property a material has of being pliant or to

permanently deform without breaking (rupturing). It is the very opposite of
elasticity. Plasticity is necessary for forging. Metals may be rendered plastic
by heating them. Steel becomes plastic when red-hot.
(iv) Ductility: This is the quality of a material of being drawn out into wires,
bars or tubes without breaking while a material is cold. A ductile material
must be both strong and plastic e.g. lead wire is difficult to draw because its
strength is low. Copper, wrought iron and mild steel are among ductile
materials.
(v) Malleability: This is the property of a material of being moulded into

various shapes by hammering, pressing or rolling without breaking. It
requires the metal to be plastic but not necessarily strong. For instance lead
is a very malleable metal. Other metals such as wrought iron and steel are
malleable when hot.
(vi) Hardness: The hardness of a metal is the measure of its ability to with
stand scratching, wear, abrasion and indentation by harder bodies, marking
by a file and to mark with a centre punch. A rough, but often reliable test for
the hardness of a hardened tool is to check if the edge of a file will touch it.
(vii) Brittleness: This is the state of being easily broken, shattered or fractured
because a material is hard but not flexible. Cast iron is a brittle material
because its structure is split up by flakes or graphite. Brittleness is often
referred to as shortness. Hot or red-shortness in steel is when it is brittle in
the red-hot state. Cold-shortness means that the material is brittle when
cold.
(viii) Toughness: This is the property, which enables a material to absorb the
energy of shock loading without permanent deformation. Materials, which
can withstand repeated blows with a hammer without breaking are said to be
tough. A measure of toughness of a metal may be obtained by nicking it.
Placing it in a vice and striking the end with a hammer. Mild steel and
hickory (wood used for sledge hammer shafts) are tough materials.
10.2 TYPES OF LOADING (FORCES)

82
1. Tensile Forces: Tensile loadings tend to stretch a material thereby putting it
in a state of tensile stress.
Exam ples:
 Coil spring.
 Copper being drawn into
wires.
 Tow-bar when used for
Internal Resistance towing vehicles.
F F
 Overhead cables
(transmission lines).
 Tightened bolts/studs.
 Tug-of-war rope.
2. Compressive Loadings: These tend to squash or compress a material thus

putting it in a state of compressive stress.
Exam ples:
 Coil spring (compressive)
F Internal Resistance F  Nail driven by a hammer
 Brick in a wall
 The leg of a bed or chair
3. Shearing loading: Shear loads come about when one material slides
against another or tends to cut another.
F
F F
Rivet in double shear

F
Exam ples:
• Grinding a work piece
• Kingpin on a horse and trailer
• Rivet
• Brake shoe or brake pad lining and wheel drum or disc.
4. Bending Loading: These are loads which are applied in such a way that
they tend to make one layer or portion slide over another layer or portion
and putting the material into a state of shear stress.
Examples:
F (Load)
 See-saw (titter-totter)
 Beam in a building
 Leaf spring
R1 R2  Bimetallic strip
 Chassis of a vehicle
Bending loading also causes a material to be subjected to tension,

compression and shear.
In the beam above:

 The upper part is in a state of compression.
 The lower part is in a state of tension
 The molecules/layers in between are in a state of shear.
83
5. Torsional Loading: This is a twisting force.
Ex am ples:
 Propeller shaft
 A bolt being tightened
 A screwdriver shaft when in use
Tensile and compressive forces are referred to as direct stresses. Such direct forces
will be found to arise also when bodies are heated or cooled or in vessels under
pressure.
10.3 ELASTICITY
When a body is subjected to loading (forces), it will be deformed i.e. it will be
strained. The magnitude of the force it can withstand depends upon:
(i) The material from which it is made.

(ii) The cross-sectional area (CSA) bearing the load.
(iii) The direction of the applied force.
A bolt of steel can support a much bigger load than a bolt of the same dimensions
made out of brass can.
Similarly, a body with a large CSA can withstand a much larger force than one with a
small CSA of the same material.
In order to compare strengths of different materials it is necessary to calculate the

force per unit area (stress) and the change in dimensions.
Stress (σ)
Stress (or pressure) is defined as force per unit cross-sectional area.
Force
Stress (σ ) = in N/m 2 or Pa
CSA
Ex am ple 10.1
A bar 20mm x 20mm in cross-section carries a tensile load of 20N (figure below). If
the bar tapers in to 10mm x 10m at its centre, determine the stress:
(a) At XX (b) At YY
X Y
20 N 20 N
X Y
Solution
F 20
a) Stress at XX = = = 0.05N/mm 2 = 0.05MN/m 2
A 20 x 20
F 20
b) Stress at YY = = = 0.2N/mm 2 = 0.2MN/m 2
A 10 x 10
Note that the maximum stress is at the point where the CSA is least.
84
Ex am ple 10.2
The fig below shows a load-bearing bracket fastened to a machine casting by two
bolts of 12mm diameter. Calculate the shear stress in each bolt.
Solution
1,500
Load born by each bolt = = 750 N
2
CSA = πr 2 =π x6 2 ≈ 113.1mm²
F 750
1 500N Shear stress (σ ) = =
CSA 113.1
= 6.63N/mm²
= 6.63MN/m²
Ex ercise 10.1
A gudgeon pin of external diameter 16cm and internal diameter 12mm is subjected
to a load of 5.28kN. Calculate the shear stress in the pin (and this case the pin is in
double shear stress. Both sides are resisting the load).
Solution
CSA = πR 2 − πr 2 = π ( R 2 − r 2 ) = π (8 2 − 6 2 ) = 28π
F 5.28 × 10 3
Stress = = = 3,001.2 ≈ 3kN / mm 2
2 x CSA 2 × 28π
Strain
The deformation that a material experiences when loaded is known as strain. It is
defined as the ratio between the changes in dimension to the original dimension.
change in dim ension

i.e. Strain, ε =
original dim ension
∆l l − l o
Longitudinal strain = = Unitless!
lo lo lo lo
l
∆d d o −d
Lateral strain = =
do do
do
d
mg
Ex am ple 10.3
Calculate the tensile strain in a member of a strut 2m long, which extends 0.03cm
when under load.
85
Solution
∆l
Strain, ε =
l
0.03cm
=
2 × 100cm
= 1.5 x 10-4
Thermal strain
Change of temperature in a material gives rise to a thermal strain. The extension in
a bar of length l is given by:
Extension, ∆l = αlt
Where α = Coefficient of linear expansion

l = Original length
t = Change in temperature
The thermal strain is given by:
∆l α lt
ε= = = αt
l l
(See questions 14 and 16 on the evaluation exercise on page )
Elasticity and Hooke’s Law

All materials are elastic to some extent, that is, they will return to their original
dimensions on the removal of the distorting forces provided the elastic limit is not
exceeded. Beyond the elastic limit the material loses its elastic properties and
becomes plastic. Any deformation caused by stresses after the elastic limit has been
exceeded is called plastic deformation.
Load/Extension Graph for Mild Steel
D
E
B • •
• •
Load (kN)
A•
Stress
O Extension (mm) O Strain
0A = Limit of proportionality
0B = Elastic limit (elastic deformation)
BE = Plastic deformation
C = Yield point
D = Maximum load (UTS)
E = Fracture or breaking point
86
Robert Hooke showed that:
Stress α strain
∴ Stress = k strain
Stress
∴ K=
Strain
Stress
Or E=
Strain
This is known as Hooke’s Law and is valid within the limit of proportionality of the
material
E = Y = young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity.
E is a measure of a material’s resistance to changes in dimensions. The bigger the

value of E, the stronger the material.
For instance, E for natural rubber ≈ 1 x 106 N/M2

E for mild steel ≈ 2 x 1011 N/M2
Ex am ple 10.4
A 2.6 kg mass is attached to the end of a vertical wire of length 2m and diameter
2mm. If the wire extended by 0.08mm. Calculate:
(a) The tensile stress

(b) The tensile strain
(c) Young’s modulus (use g = 10m/s2)
Solution
F mg 2.6 x10
(a) Stress, E = = = = 8.28 N/mm2
CSA πr 2
πx12
= 8.28 MN/m2
∆l 0.08
(b) Strain, ε = = = 4x10-5
l 2 x103
Stress
(c) E= = 2.07 x1011N/m2
Strain
Force Constant
The amount by which a material gets deformed depends on:
(a) The dimensions
(b) The material’s structure
For instance a compressive load of the same magnitude would compress a copper
coil spring and a steel coil spring by different amounts. Similarly two steel coil
springs of different sizes would be compressed by different amounts with the same
loading. The force constant is defined as the force per unit extension of
compression.
F
F = k∆l ∴ k = {See question 10 on the evaluation exercise on page 11}
∆l
87
Ultimate Tensile and Compressive Stresses (Tests to Destruction)
The ultimate tensile stress (U.T.S.) or tensile strength is the stress in a test piece at
maximum load and the cross-sectional area on which the load acts is taken to be the
original area of section of the specimen.
Tensile tests are conducted on ductile materials (e.g. steel, brass, copper, aluminium,
etc). For some materials, however, it is the ultimate compressive stress (U.C.S)
or crushing strength, which is important (e.g. brick, cast iron, copper, etc)
Original diameter
• • Original Specimen
C D
Gauge length
Extension
Specimen undergoes plastic

• • deformation between C & D
C D
Extension
Specimen raptures
• • between C & D
C D
Fracture
The ultimate tensile strength is given by:

Maximum load
U .T .S . (Or Tensile Strength =
Original CSA
Ex am ple 10.6
Find the maximum tensile load, which may be attached to a steel wire of diameter
2.1mm if the permitted strain must not exceed 10-3. Modulus of elasticity for steel is
about 26 pa.
Solution
UTS = Max.load
CSA
∴ Maximum Load = UTS x CSA
=
Max.stress = CSA
Stress
But
Stress =E
Strain
∴ Stress = E x Strain
= 2x109 x 10-3
= 2x106Nm-2
88
Failure: Factor of Safety
The tensile strength (UTS) of a material is of vital importance in the design of the
various components in engineering. A component must not be stressed beyond the
allowable safe working stress and this must be below the elastic limit of the material.
The designer must ensure that the component remains elastic i.e. it retains its
original shape when the distorting forces are removed. To obtain the working stress
it is usual to divide the tensile strength of the material by a suitable number called
the factor of safety.
UTS (Ultimate Tensile Strength)

Thus working stress =
Factor of safety
UTS
∴ Factor of safety =
Working Stress
Ex am ple 10.7
(a) A rectangular cross-section steel bar 7.5cm wide is hung vertically and carries
a tensile load of 12 000kg. Find the thickness of the bar if the ultimate tensile
strength of steel is 550MN/m2 and the loading requires a safety factor of 4.
(11.5mm).
(b) Find the thickness of the bar in (a) if a safety factor of 5 is used.
Solution
75 mm
(a) 7.5cm
CSA x
UTS
Factoro of Safety = =4
Safe Working Stress
550 × 10 6
i.e. =4
Force
CSA
Force 550 × 10 6
∴ =
CSA 4
4 × Force
⇒ CSA =
550 × 10 6
4 × mg 4 × 12 000 × 10
i.e. 0.075x = ⇒x= = 0.011 64m ≈ 11.6mm
550 × 10 6
550 × 10 6 × 0.075
(b)
5 × 12 000 × 10
x=
550 × 10 6 × 0.075
= 0.0145m ≈ 14.5mm
89
Take the acceleration due to gravity as 10ms-2
1. A coil spring is stretched 2cm when a 5kg load is suspended from it. What is its force
constant if it were subjected to a 12kg load? (2 450 N/m, 48 mm)
2. (a) A tow-bar 50mm diameter carries a load which produces a tensile stress of
42 MPa, determine the load, in kN (82.47 kN).
(b) The bar is attached to a bracket held by four bolts. Determine the load in each bolt.
(20.62kN).
(c) If the cross-sectional area of each bolt is 625 mm2, determine the stress induced in
each bolt in MPa. (33 MPa).
3. A steel bar of cross-sectional area 16mm2 is 2m long. When a tensile force of 8,000 N is
applied to it, the length increases by 0.5mm. Find the Young’s modulus for the material.
(200 GN/m2).
4. A steel bar in a roof truss has a diameter of 2cm and is 4m long. It supports a tensile
load of 8 000N. Given that the Young’s modulus for the steel is 200 GN/m2, find the
elongation caused by this load. (5.1 mm).
5. What force will break a wire of 0.000 000 25 m2 cross-section if it has an ultimate tensile
strength of 1 GN/m2? (250 N).
6. A pipe of outside diameter 80mm and inside diameter 60mm and length 1.5m is used as
a strut and subjected to a compressive load of 44 000N. Calculate the amount that the
strut shortens due to the loading. The modulus of elasticity for the material is
2×1011N/m2. (0.15 mm).
7. A strain gauge attached to a structural member of 80mm × 25mm section extended by

0.4mm over a length of 3.2 m. If the modulus of elasticity is 2×1011 N/m2, determine the
load carried by the member.
8. A tie bar having a 25 mm square section is 1.6m long. When carrying a load of 40 kN, it
extends by 0.5 mm. Another tie bar of 20 mm square section and of the same material
has a length of 1.0 m and carries a load of 25 kN. What will be the extension of the
second tie bar?
9. A cast iron column has a hollow square section. If the external size is 10cm × 10cm and
the metal is 1cm thick, calculate the compressive stress when the column is supporting
95kN.
10. A steel tie bar of rectangular section 50mm × 5mm × 2mm thick bears a load which
produces an extension of 0.5mm. Calculate the load if the modulus of elasticity for steel
is 200GN/m2. Also calculate the ultimate stress if under the above conditions, the factor
of safety is 8. (F = 21 kN, UTS = 168 GN/m2).
11. Calculate the diameter of a mild steel bolt under load of 93N if the ultimate shear stress
is 3 700 MN/m2 and the factor of safety is 5. (10 mm).
12. What is the total cross-sectional area of the steel cables supporting a 5 000kg elevator
that has a maximum acceleration of 4ms-1 if the safety of factor is 6? (0.000 863 m2).
13. (a) Why is a ‘factor of safety’ used by structural engineers?

(b) What is the danger in designing a concrete pillar, to support a building, with
a safety factor of 2?
90
14. (a) State Hooke’s law.
(b) A steel cable with a length of 100 m and a cross-sectional area of 1.0 cm2 is
subjected to a tensile force of 500 N. Find:
(ix) The final length of the wire

(x) The stress
(xi) The strain
(xii) The force constant
(xiii) Is the elastic limit exceeded?
(Young’s modulus for steel = 20×1010 Pa, Elastic limit for steel = 2.4×105 Pa)
15. An aluminium wire with an initial length lo = 25 m and a diameter d = 2.0 mm is

used to lift a 10 kg load. Determine:
(a) The factor of safety

(b) The maximum load that the wire can support.
(Ultimate tensile strength =1.4×108 Pa, Young’s modulus for aluminium = 7×1010Pa).
91
CHAPTER 11
HEAT
11.1 Introduction
Heat is a form of energy. It is therefore measured in Joules (J).
Some examples of ‘heat’ engines that make use of heat energy that is released when
fuel is ignited:
1. Motor vehicle: - chemical → heat → mechanical

2. Thermal power station: - chemical → heat → mechanical → electrical
11.2 Temperature
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body, measured against some
standard hotness. It is independent of size and physical nature of the body.
Two bodies are said to be at the same temperature if no heat flows from one to the
other when they are brought in contact with each other.
Heat energy is directly proportional to temperature.
11.3 Temperature Scales

The temperature scales, which are commonly used, are the Kelvin (absolute) and
the Celsius. The Fahrenheit (still used in the USA) is rarely used.
9 Where K = Kelvin scale

F = C + 32
5 C = Celsius
F = Fahrenheit
5 T(K) = Absolute temperature in Kelvin
C = ( F − 32) T = Temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit
9
T(K) = t(oC) + 273(.15)
K ELVI N CELSI US FAHREN HEI T

373 K 100o C 212o F Boiling point of water
273 K 0o C 32o F Freezing point of water
0K -273o C -459o F Absolute zero
233 K -40o C -40o F
11.4 Relationship Between Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales

Let t be the required temperature.
This is (t – 32)o F above the freezing point
And to C above the freezing point.
Fahrenheit Scale
The temperature range between the freezing and boiling points is (212o – 32o)=180o
i.e. 180o ≡ (t - 32)o F
1
∴ 1o ≡ (t − 32) o F Equation (i)
180
92
Celsius Scale
The temperature range between the freezing and boiling points is (to – 0o) = 100o
i.e. 100o ≡ to C
to
∴ 1o ≡ C Equation (ii)
100
Equating equations (i) and (ii) we get:
to 1
C≡ (t − 32) o F
100 180
5
∴ t o C ≡ (t − 32) o F
9
9
Or t o F ≡ t o C + 32
5
Fixed Points
CELSI US K ELVI N
0o C 0o F Lower fixed point
100o C 373o F Upper fixed point
11.5 Instruments of Temperature Measurement – Thermometers

A thermometer is a device for measuring temperature. Its principle of operation is
based on some of the effects of heat – expansion, increase in pressure or electrical
changes. The following are some of the common types of thermometers.
1. Liquid-in-glass thermometers. These depend on the expansion of the

liquid (though the expansion of the glass affects the readings slightly, it is
assumed to be constant). Both mercury and alcohol are commonly used.
Mercury has the advantage of being easily seen and having a large working
range (400oC). Alcohol, however, has six times the expansivity and a greater
range at the lower end.
Melting point Boiling point

(m.p.) (b.p.)
(a) Mercury-in-glass 0- 40o C 360o C
thermometer
(b) Alcohol-in-glass thermometer -117o C 110o C
Both can be used as clinical thermometers and in school experiments
2. Constant volume gas thermometers. If the volume of a gas is kept

constant, its pressure depends on the temperature and increases steadily
with rising temperature. The constant volume gas thermometer uses the
pressure at constant volume as the thermometric property.
As long as the mercury in the left

manometer tube remains at
h the same position on the scale (zero), the
volume of the gas will be constant. The
meniscus can always be brought to zero
position by raising or lowering reservoir R .
or each temperature measurement the

height h is recorded. The unknown
temperature can be calculated from
R
93
o
θ Pt − Po h − ho
= = t sin ce P = ρgh
100 P100 − Po h100 − ho
(A barometer for measuring ρ is usually

incorporated).
3. Thermo-electric thermometers (pyrometers). These depend on the

e.m.f. developed in a circuit consisting of two different metals where the
junctions are at different temperatures. Usually one junction is maintained at
0o C in melting ice whilst the other one acts as the thermometric probe. The
galvanometer is calibrated to read temperature directly.
A number of metal combinations are commonly

used e.g.
Copper/constantan up to 500o C
Chromel/alumel (two alloys) up to 1 500o C
Rhodium/platinum up to 1 800o C
Pyrometers are used for measuring very high

temperatures in kilns and ovens
4. Platinum resistance thermometers use the change of resistance of a fine

platinum wire with temperature.
Platinum is chosen because of its resistance to corrosion.
Wire is wound on a mica former. There are two pairs of
leads from the probe to the Wheatstone bridge, one pair
goes to the platinum resistor, R, the other pair are
dummy leads to compensate for the temperature
changes affecting the first pair. Thus only the resistance
of the platinum wire is measured and is given by
R P
= Or R = S if P = Q
S Q
11.6 Heat Transfer

Heat energy is transferred from one point to another when there is a temperature
difference between them. Energy moves from a hot source (higher potential) to a
cold body (lower potential) by:
(i) Conduction
(ii) Convection
(iii) Radiation
Conduction: This takes place in one material by moving from one point to another
(the material itself serving as a conductor) or takes place between bodies in actual
contact by moving from one body to another. Generally metals are good conductors
of heat. An example of a poor conductor is glass.
Convection: Heat is transmitted by actual movement of a hot fluid (liquid or gas)

causing convection currents.
For example, heat from an electric radiator (so called heater) warms the air
throughout the room by convection. At the radiator the heated air expands, becomes
less dense and rises. Cooler air moves towards the radiator to take the place of the
warmer air that rose. Convection currents thus are set up in the room.
94
Some examples of convection
1. People sitting on a beach on a hot day feel cool because of the cool breeze
blowing from the sea.
2. Dry-fry cooking pans have recently been developed. Such pans

have an internal cooking tower that creates a fast-moving
convection current of super-hot air. This gives the same effect
as frying without drowning the food in harmful oil (cholesterol).
These pans are made of carbon-steel with an advanced non-
stick surface for easy cleaning.
Why are air conditioners near the ceiling in rooms?
Radiation: Heat is transmitted from one point to another through empty space (no
medium) by waves e.g. electromagnetic waves. While radiative heat transfer does
not require a material medium, it can travel through media. Radiative heat passes
through air and glass, for example.
Applications of heat transfer (Automotive engineering)

(i) Conduction: transfer of combustion chamber heat through the cylinder
walls to the cooling system.
(ii) Convection: transfer of heat by convection currents in the engine coolant.
(iii) Radiation: transfer of heat from the cooling system (water jacket, sinks-
fins, radiator) to the atmosphere.
Heat lost by one body equals heat gained by the receiving body, neglecting any heat
lost during the transfer.
11.7 Heat Sinks

A heat sink is any mechanism that is incorporated on a heat-producing machine,
equipment or device so as to extract or take away some of the heat so that the
functioning of the device is optimised (not operating in excessive heat). Some
examples of heat sinks are as follows:
(i) The cooling system on a water-cooled vehicle; Heat from the combustion
chambers in the cylinders is passed on to the water in the water jacket by
conduction, the hot water in turn goes to the radiator (inlet at the top) where
it is cooled by air sucked in by the fan behind the radiator. The cooler water
is then sent back to the water jacket (from the bottom outlet of the radiator)
to repeat the process, assisted by the water pump.
(ii) The radiator/grill (known as condenser) behind the refrigerator dissipates

heat from the fridge.
(iii) Hit fins on air cooled engines are designed in such a way that their surface
area is as large as possible so as to dissipate as much heat as possible to the
atmosphere.
(iv) Big electric motors and generators have fans mounted on them to remove
excessive heat from the bearings
(v) The computer processor; The computer processor produces a lot of

undesired heat which needs to be extracted by means of a fan or lots of
aluminium columns mounted on top.

95
11.8 Calculations Involving Heat Transfer By Conduction
Consider a bar of metal (e.g. copper) that has a length l and a cross-sectional area A.
Thermometer Cold water
Steam
T3
T1 T2
Hotter water
l
Steam Rod
If the two ends of the bar are maintained at different temperatures by heating one
end at temperature T1 and the other at temperature T2, then heat flows continuously
by a conductive process from the “hotter” to the “cooler” areas (see above).
If the temperatures T1 and T2 are constant, then
Q A(T1 − T2 ) Where t = is the time in seconds

Φ= ∝ k = thermal conductivity (coefficient of
t l
proportionality)
 = conductance
Q kA(T1 − T2 )
∴ = Q = heat energy
t l
And (T1 − T2 ) = temperature gradient

l
k is expressed in Wm-1K-1 and is nearly constant for a particular material.
Typical Therm al
Conductivities
Substance W m -1 K -1
Air 0.025
Aluminium 209
Brick 0.6
Concrete 1.08
Copper 385
Cork 0.043
Fibreglass 0.038
Glass 0.65
Hydrogen 0.18
Iron 46
Water 0.599
Wood 0.113
Latent heat of vaporisation of water (H2O) is 2.26 × 106 J/Kg
Ex am ple 11.1
An 8 mm thick glass window of a house is 2m wide and 1.5 m high. If the outside
temperature is –20o C and the inside temperature is 23o C, how much heat does it
conduct in one hour? (Thermal conductivity of glass is 0.65 Wm-1K-1).
Solution
8 mm = 8 × 10-3 m
96
Q kA(T1 − T2 )
=
t l
Q= =
{
kA(T1 − T2 )t 0.65(2m × 1.5m) × 23 0 C − (−20 o C ) × (60 s ) 2
= 38MJ
l 8 × 10 −3 m
Ex am ple 11.2
An aluminium heat sink 1s 3cm thick and has a CSA of 48 cm2. How much heat does
it conduct in 10 minutes if one side is attached to an amplifier at 70o C and at the
other side is maintained at 20o C? (Thermal conductivity of aluminium is 209 Wm-1K-
1
).
Solution
Area = 48 cm2 = 48 × 10-4 m2
l = 3 cm = 0.03 m
t = 10 min. = 10 × 60 sec.
Q kA(T1 − T2 )
=
t l
kA(T1 − T2 )t 209 × (48 × 10 −4 m 2 ) × (70 − 20) o C × (10 × 60) s

Q= = = 1MJ
l 0.03m
Ex am ple 11.3
The inside dimensions of a rectangular refrigerator are 1 m by 0.9 m by 2.3 m. If all
the walls are constructed of a material 1.0 cm thick that has a thermal conduction of
2.2 × 10-2 W/mK and the temperature inside and outside are –5o C and 23o C
respectively. Determine the rate of heat flow into the refrigerator.
Solution
Area = 2 × {(2.3 × 0.9) + (2.3 × 1) + (1 × 0.9)}
2
= 10.54 m
∆Q kA∆T
=
2.3m ∆t l
=
{
2.2 × 10 − 2 × 10.54m 2 × 23 − (−5)} C
o
0.9m 1 × 10 − 2
= 649.3W
1.0m
Ex am ple 11.4
In measuring the thermal conductivity of a rod (refer to the diagram on the previous
page), the following data were obtained. Temperature of incoming water = 10o C;
temperature of outgoing water = 30o C; T1 = 80o C; T2 = 60o C; distance between
thermometers = 10 cm; cross-sectional area of rod .20 cm2; mass of water flowing
through the box = 650 g in a time of 180 seconds. Find the coefficient of thermal
conductivity.
Solution
Heat gained by water = mC (T2 − T1 )
= 0.65 × 4.2 × 103 × (30 – 10) = 5.46 × 104
97
Heat energy lost by rod = heat energy gained by water
kA(T1 − T2 )t
= 54,600
l
Ql 54,600 J × 0.1m
⇒k = = = 758.3 W / mK
A(T2 − T1 )t 20 × 10 m 2 × (80 − 60) o C × 180 s
−4
11.9 Effects of Heat

Heating a substance may produce one or more of the following effects:
(i) Increase in temperature.
(ii) Change of dimensions: - Most substances expand when heated and contract
when cooled except water, which, although it behaves as other substances do
most of the time, expands when cooled between 4o C and 0o C. This is referred
to as the anomalous behaviour of water. (In cold countries you need antifreeze
additives such as ethylene glycol, in the cooling system. Water without such
solutions would crack engine blocks and radiators when water freezes).
Contraction is the reverse of expansion and is usually the result of the
extraction of heat.
(iii) Chemical change: - Some substances suffer a change of chemical composition

when heated. This is not reversed by cooling.
Ex am ples:
 Wood + heat + air → charcoal (carbon) + gases
 Fuel oil + heat + air → carbon + gases (CO, CO2)
 In industries, the manufacture of thermosetting plastics is another
example.
(iv) Pressure change: - If heat is applied to a gas, its pressure will increase
provided its volume is kept constant.
(v) Change of physical state: - Some substances change their physical state
without necessarily changing their chemical composition. For example water
exists in three states.
Ice → liquid → steam/vapour when heated

Iodine or naphthalene → gas (These two substances do not exist in
the liquid state. They are said to sublim e ).
(vi) Change of colour: - Certain materials change their colour as temperature

changes.
Ex am ples
 When heated, steel becomes blue, purple, red-hot, etc.
 Iodine volatilises from greyish black to violet coloured vapour. It is used
in the manufacture of antiseptics and dyes.
(vii) Electrical changes: -
 Heat increases the resistance of metallic conductors ( R = R o + αR o t )

 If two dissimilar metals are heated (e.g. Iridium and platinum joined
together), a small current is generated. Such a junction is known as a
thermocouple.
98
11.10 Heat Capacity:
The heat capacity of a body (of any kind) is defined as the heat required to raise its
temperature by 1o C or 1 K without change of state. Units: J/oC or J/K
11.11 Specific Heat Capacity (C):

This is defined as the heat required to raise 1kg of a substance through one degree
without change of state. Units: J/KgoC or J/KgK
Approximate values of specific heat capacities for some substances:
SP ECI FI C HEAT
SUBSTANCE CAP ACI TY (J/ K g o C)
Water 4 200
Petrol 1 800
Aluminium 900
Steel 500
Copper 400
Zinc
Lead 130
Alcohol 2 300
Brass 380
Glass 670
Pyrex 840
Glycerine 2 400
Iron 460
Lead 130
Mercury 140
Paraffin oil 2 180
Mild steel 450
Solder (tin man’s) 200
Zinc 400
The energy possessed by a body due to temperature change is given by:
Heat energy
= mass × specific heat capacity × temperature change
Q = mC ∆ T
Ex am ple 11.5
A cooling system on a vehicle contains 5 litres of water at a temperature of 16o C.
How much heat is required to raise the water temperature to 96o C? (Take the
specific heat capacity for water to be 4 200 J/KgK).
Solution
Mass of 1 litre of water ≈ 1 Kg
∴ Heat energy = mC∆T

Q = 5kg × 4 200J/kgK × (96 – 16)oC
= 1 680 000 J
= 1.68 M J
99
Ex am ple 11.6
A block of copper of mass 2 Kg has a temperature of 20o C. What will be the
temperature of the block after it has received heat energy of 240 KJ? (Take the
specific heat capacity of copper to be 400 J/KgK).
Solution
Q = mC (T2 − T1 )
Q
∴ (T2 - T1 ) =
mC
Q 240 000
∴ T2 = + T1 = + 20
mC 2 × 400
= 300 + 20
= 320 o C
11.12 Heat Exchange (Mixtures)

There are many cases of heat being exchanged from one substance to another. In
all cases heat transfer takes place from a hot to a cold substance.
Heat energy lost = heat energy gained
Ex am ple 11.7
A block of steel of mass 2 Kg at 800o C is plunged into a mass of 4 Kg of water at 15o
C. If heat losses to the surrounding are neglected, what is the final temperature of
the steel and water? (C of water = 4.2 KJ/KgK and C of steel = 0.48 KJ/KgK).
Solution
Let the final steady state temperature of water and steel be to C.
Heat given out by steel = 2 × 480 × (800 –T)
Heat received by water = 4 × 4 200 (T– 15)
Heat given out = heat gained
∴ 2 × 480 × (800 – T) = 4 × 4 200 (T – 15)
∴ T = 57 o C
11.13 Latent Heat, Change of State

All substances, under suitable conditions of temperature and pressure, can exist in
one of three states:
Solid,
Liquid or
Gas
The heat energy, which produces a rise or fall in the temperature of a substance, is
called sensible heat.
The heat energy required to change the state of a substance without changing its
temperature is called latent heat .
100
Consider 1 Kg of ice at –30o C with heat energy being added to it at 101.3 KNm-2
(101.3 Kpa):
Gas (steam)
100
Temperature 0C
Liquid (water)
Solid (ice)
-30 X
Sensible heat Latent heat
Sensible Latent
heat heat
Time
Latent heat is of two kinds:

(i) Latent heat of fusion: - Change of state of a substance from
a solid to a liquid (or vice versa).
(ii) Latent heat of vaporisation: - Change of state of a substance from

a liquid to a vapour/gas (or vice
versa).
Latent heat is given by Q = mL f
Or Q = mLv
Where L f = specific latent heat of fusion
And Lv = specific latent heat of vaporisation.

∴ Heat energy is given by: Q = QS + QL
where Q S = Sensible heat

and Q L = Latent heat
Ex am ple 11.8
Determine the heat required to melt 10 kg of lead from a temperature of 15o C if its
specific heat capacity is 130 J/kgoC and its melting temperature is 326o C. The latent
heat of fusion of lead is 23 500 J/kg. If the furnace used 0.2 kg of fuel of calorific
value 43.9 MJ/kg, What was the amount of heat energy wasted? Hence calculate the
efficiency of the furnace.
101
Solution
Heat required = Sensible heat + latent heat
Q = QS + QL
= mC (θ 2 − θ 1 ) + mL
= 10 × 130(326 – 15) + 10 × 2.35 × 104 = 639.3kJ
Heat required = Mass of oil × calorific value

= 0.2 × 43.9 × 106 = 8.78 M J
Wasted energy = Energy used by furnace – energy used to melt the lead
= 8.78 × 106 – 639 .3 × 103 = 8.14 × 10 6 M J
Heat absorbed by the lead

Efficiency = ×100%
Heat sup plied by combustion of oil
0.6393MJ
= ×100%
8.78MJ
= 7.3%
11.14 Energy Conversion

Energy can be converted from one form to another. Joules showed that mechanical,
electrical and chemical energy could all be converted into heat energy. (For example
if you rub your hands together, heat is generated. The work done to overcome
friction – mechanical work – is converted into heat and this warms your hands).
The number of units of mechanical energy necessary to produce the same increase in
internal energy as one unit of heat energy is called the m echanical equivalent of
heat.
(1 kcal = 4 186 J. NB It takes about 1 kcal to raise 1 kg of water through

1o C).
Linear Expansion
Applications of linear ex pansion:
 The bimetallic strip (thermostat)
 Thermometer
One of the effects of heat already considered is expansion.
The linear expansion (or contraction) of substances due to rise (or fall) of
temperature, can be of advantage or disadvantage in everyday life.
For instance it becomes more expensive to build structures such as bridges, rails,
steam pipes, etc as special expansion joints have to be incorporated to allow for
expansion and contraction due to the changes in temperature. In most cases this
entails use of very expensive materials. The accuracy of precision measuring
instruments is also affected by temperature. (Generally they are calibrated at 20o C).
On the other hand, the expansion can be put to good use. Interference fits in
engineering are one such example.
Different materials expand by different amounts over the same temperature range. A
number which denotes the degree of expansion is called the coefficient of (linear)
ex pansion of the material.
102
There are three types of thermal expansion:
(i) Linear; Change in length
(ii) Superficial; Change in area (2 × linear expansion value for the material)
(iii) Cubical; Change in volume (3 × linear expansion value for the material)
Hence Linear: ∆l = αl∆t

Area: ∆A = 2αA∆t
Volume: ∆V = 3αV∆t
Where α = coefficient of linear expansion.
Ex am ple 11.9
Determine the expansion of a push rod of length 200 mm when its temperature
changes from 20o C to 40o C. The coefficient of expansion for steel is 0.000012/oC.
Solution Expansion = αl (T2 − T1 )

= 1.2 × 10-5 × 200 × (40 – 20)
= 0.048 m m
Ex am ple 11.10
The cooling system of an engine contains 9 litres of water. Before starting the
engine, the temperature of water is 15o C; after a run the temperature is found to be
85o C. Calculate the volume of water lost by expansion through the overflow pipe
(Cubical expansion of water is 0.000 45/o C).
Solution Cubical expansion = αV (T2 − T1 )

= 4.5 × 10-4 × 9 × (85 – 15)
= 0.2834 litres
Ex am ple 11.11
The bore of a collar is 125 mm at 15o C, and to slide over a shaft the bore has to be
increased by 0.09 mm. If the coefficient of linear expansion of the material of which
the collar is made is 12 × 10-6 /o C, determine the minimum temperature to which the
collar must be heated to slide over the shaft.
Solution Expansion, ∆d = αd
∆d
∴ (T2 - T1 ) =
αd
0.09mm
= = 50 o C
125 × 12 × 10.8mm
∴ T2 = (50 + T1)o C = 15 + 50 = 75 o C is the required temperature
Ex ercise 11.1
Two bars, one made out of bronze and the other of steel are both at 15o C and their
lengths are 149.75mm and 150 mm respectively. To what temperature must the two
be heated to make them equal? (The coefficients of linear expansion are as follows:
bronze, α1 = 19 × 10-6/K; steel α2 = 12 × 10-6/K).
103
Solution
After heating the two bars to a temperature of T2 oC,

The length of bronze = length of steel
∴ l1 + α 1l1 (T2 − T1 ) = l 2 + α 2 l 2 (T2 − T1 )

i.e. 149.25 + 19 × 10-6 × 149.25 (T2 – 15) = 150 + 12 × 10-6 × 150(T2 – 15)
∴ 149.25 + 0.0028T2 - 0.0425 = 150 + 0.0018T2 - 0.027
∴ 0.00104T2 = 0.76554
∴ T2 = 739.11 oC
11.15 GAS LAWS

Gases differ from solids and liquids in that they are relatively compressible and
pressure, volume and temperature can change substantially. The pressure, volume
and temperature of a fixed mass of gas can be linked by simple laws and reduced to
a simple equation of state.
Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s law states that if temperature is kept constant then for a fixed mass of gas,
pressure is inversely proportional to volume.
1
I.e. If T is constant, then P∝
v
Or PV = Constant
i.e. P1V1 = P2V 2
This can be readily established experimentally using the apparatus of the figure
below.
Pressure = ρg ( H + h) = barometric height in centimetres of mercury. Volume =

lA where A equals the cross-sectional area of the glass tube and l = length of the air
sample.
Thus volume ∝ l and so a graph of pressure against 1 / l should give a straight line
if P ∝ 1 / V .
Gas under test P P
O O 1/ v
V
Rubber tubing
104
Charles’s Law
Charles’s law states that if pressure is kept constant, then for a fixed mass of gas,
volume is proportional to absolute temperature.
i.e. If P is kept constant, V ∝T

V 1
Or = Constant (coefficient of cubic expansion of a gas γ = per oC)
T 273
V1 V2
i.e. =
T1 T2
The Ideal Gas Equation

The ideal gas equation is obtained by combining Boyle’s and Charles’ laws (making a
change take place in two stages):
T2
T1
After application of heat

P2V2
P1V1
PV ∝ T
P1V1
⇒ P1V1 = kT1 ∴ k=
T1
P2V 2
and P2V 2 = kT2 ∴ k =
T2
P1V1 P2V 2
⇒ =
T1 T2
k is usually denoted by R .
∴ PV = RT for I mole
and PV = nRT for n moles
where R = Universal Gas Constant for I mole.
One mole of any gas occupies 22 .4 litres at STP.

PV
∴ R=
T
At STP, P = 1.013 × 105 Pa (1Pa = 1N/m2)

V = 22.4 × 10-3 m3
T = 273.15 K
105
1.013 × 10 5 Pa × 22.4 × 10 -3 m 3
∴ R=
273.15 K
= 8.31Jmol K −1
−1
NB In all the problems involving gas laws, it is the absolute pressure and
not the gauge pressure that is used.
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
Ex am ple 11.12
After 1.5 litres of gas at STP is subjected to a chemical; experiment, the temperature
of the gas rises to 200C and the pressure also rises to 1.2 × 105Pa. How many moles
of gas were evolved?
Solution
Compare with STP values: V1 = 22.4 litres, P1 = 1.013 × 105 Pa, T1 = 273K,
5
P2 = 1.2 × 10 Pa, T2 = 20 + 273 = 293K
P1V1 PV
= 2 2
T1 T2
P1V1T2 1.5 × 1.2 × 10 5 × 273

∴ V2 = = = 1.65litres
P2 T1 1.013 × 10 5 × 293
22.4 litres = 1 mole
1
∴ 1.65 litres = × 1.65 = 7.4 × 10 - 2 moles
22.4
Ex am ple 11.13
A vessel of volume 1.5 litres contains 5 grams of bromine at 200C. Calculate the
pressure. (Atomic weight of bromine is 79.8g).
Solution
m (mass ) 5
Number of moles in the vessel, n= =
M (atomic wt ) 79.9
5 8.31 × 293
PV = nRT = ×
79.9 1.3 × 10 −3
= 1.016 × 10 5 Pa
Ex am ple 11.14
When heated in a garage at room temperature of 240C, a motor tyre is found to have
a pressure of 120kN/m2. If the volume of the air inside remains constant, what is the
pressure after the tyre has been allowed to stand in the sun at 400C? (Take the
atmospheric pressure to be 100kN/m2).
Solution
P1V1 P2V 2
= But V1 = V2.
T1 T2
T1 = 24 + 273 = 297K
106
P1 P
= 2 P1 = (120 × 103) + (100 × 103)
T1 T2
T2 = 40 + 273 = 313K
P1T2 2.2 ×10 × 313
5
∴ P2 = = = 231,850
T1 297
∴ Gauge pressure = 231,850 – 100,000
= 131.85kN
Ex am ple 11.15
A cylinder has a volume of 0.11m3 and contains acetylene at pressure of 1,720kN/m2

and temperature of 180C. After some of the gas has been consumed, it is found that
the pressure has fallen to 1 200kN/m2 and temperature is then 100C. Determine the
volume of the gas (at STP) that has been drawn from the cylinder.
Solution
Step 1
V1 = 0.11 At STP V2 = ?
P1 = 17.2× 105 Pa P2 = 1.013 × 105 Pa
T1 = 273 + 18 = 291K T2 = 273
P1V1 P2V2 P1V1T2 17.2 × 10 5 × 0.11 × 273
= ⇒ V2 = = = 1.75m 3
T1 T2 P2 T1 1.013 × 10 × 291
5
Step 2
V1 = 0.11 At STP V2 = ?
P1 = 12× 105 Pa P2 = 1.013 × 105 Pa
T1 = 273 + 10 = 283K T2 = 273
P1V1 P2V2 PV T 12 × 10 5 × 0.11 × 273
= ⇒ V2 = 1 1 2 = = 1.26m 3
T1 T2 P2 T1 1.013 × 10 5 × 283
∴ Gas used at STP = 1.76 – 1.26

= 0.49m 3
107
1. Determine the rate of heat flow, in Watts, through a 1 cm thick cardboard that has
an area of 35 cm2 if the temperature difference between its surfaces is 30 oC.
2. Determine the heat lost in 12 hours through a 3 m × 8 m wall, which is 129 mm thick
if the inner surface is kept at 22 oC, and the outer surface is at –15 oC. The wall has a
thermal resistance of 0.36 W/mK.
3. An aluminium heat sink is 3.0cm thick and has a cross-sectional area of 48cm2. How
much heat does it conduct in 10 minutes if one side is attached to an engine block at
900oC and the other is maintained at 40oC. (Thermal conductivity for aluminium is
209 W/mK)
4. An aluminium pot is 0.3 cm thick and holds boiling water. The base of the pot has an
area of 420 cm2 and the stove maintains an average temperature of 150 oC. If only
6% of heat is transferred to the water, how much water evaporates in 5 minutes?
5. (a) (i) State three methods of heat transfer

(ii) Define ‘thermal conductivity’
(b) An iron frying pan is 4mm thick and its cross-sectional area is 120cm2. If the
pan contains boiling water and it is on a stove that maintains a temperature
of 150oC:
(i) What is the rate of heat transfer through the pan?
(ii) If only 30% of this heat is transferred to the water, how much water
is vaporised in 10 seconds?
(Latent heat of vaporisation for water is 2.26 × 106 J/kg, thermal
conductivity of iron = 46W/mK).
6. At 20 oC a bare wheel has a diameter of 71 cm and the inside diameter of a steel rim
is 70.9 cm. To what minimum temperature must the rim be heated before it can fit
over the wheel?
(Coefficient of linear expansion for steel = 12 × 10-6/K)
7. A steel tape measures the length of a copper rod as 1 m at 15 oC. What will it
indicate for the length of the copper rod to be at 40 oC? (Coefficient of linear
expansion for steel is 12× 10-6/K).
8. (a) (i) List any four effects of heat

(ii) Define the term ‘coefficient of linear expansion’
(b) A metallic rod, Young’s Modulus 1.8 × 1011 Pa, and coefficient of linear expansion
12 × 10-6/ oC has a cross-sectional area of 10cm2. If the temperature of the rod
drops from 27 oC to –1 oC:
(i) What is the thermal strain?

(ii) What is the percentage decrease in length?
(iii) What tensile force has to be applied to the ends of the rod to return it to
its original length?
9. A steel beam has a cross sectional area of 40 cm2 at 20oC. If the temperature
increases to 40oC:
(a) What is the thermal strain?

(b) What force would the beam exert along its length if it were constrained?
(Young’s modulus for steel = 20 × 1010Pa,
Coefficient of linear expansion for steel = 1.2 × 10-5/oC)
10. 100g of a metal at 150oC is added to a 75g aluminium calorimeter that contains 200g
of water at 10oC. If the final steady equilibrium temperature of the system is 15.5oC,
108
determine the specific heat capacity of the metal. (Specific heat capacity of water C
= 4 186 J/kgoC and Specific heat capacity of aluminium C = 921 J/kgoC)
11. A 0.01kg of ice at –10oC is added to 0.2kg calorimeter that contains 0.5kg of water at
20oC. If 0.01kg of steam at 100oC is then condensed in the system, calculate the final
equilibrium temperature if there are no external heat influences.
(Latent heat of ice = 336 000 J/kg, Specific heat capacity of ice = 2 100 J/kgoC,
Specific heat capacity of calorimeter = 600 J/kgoC and Latent heat of steam = 2.26 ×
106 J/kg).
12. A cylinder of nitrogen gas has an initial gauge pressure 800 kPa. If the gauge
pressure drops to 150 kPa after some nitrogen has been used, what fraction of the
gas remains in the tank?
13. Outside air at 15 oC is drawn into the furnace and is heated to 23 oC at constant
pressure. What is the percentage change in volume?
14. A tank holds 8.5 litres of nitrogen gas at a gauge pressure of 700 kPa at 20 oC.
Additional nitrogen is pumped in, raising the pressure to 1 200 kPa and the
temperature to 60 oC. How much gas was added?
15. The absolute pressure in a cylinder of a car engine rises from 4 × 105 Pa to 1.25 ×
106 Pa during combustion of the fuel and air mixture. If the initial temperature of the
mixture was 200 oC, what is the temperature after combustion?
16. A diver at the bottom of the lake where the temperature is 10oC releases an air
bubble to the surface, which increases by a factor of 1.5. If atmospheric pressure is
100kPa and the temperature at the surface is 25oC, how deep was the diver?
17. A car tyre is inflated to a gauge pressure of 22 kPa when the temperature is 35 oC. If
the volume of the tyre does not change and atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa, what is
the gauge pressure when the temperature is –2 oC?
18. (a) State two of the following:
(i) Boyle’s law (ii) Charles’s law

(iii) Pressure law (iv) The equation of state of an ideal gas
(b) A weather balloon is filled to a volume of 2 000cm3 with helium of density

0.20kg/m3 at a temperature of –3oC. It the density of helium and absolute
pressure 1 atmosphere is 0.18kg/m3, determine:
(i) The initial absolute pressure of helium in the balloon.

(ii) The volume of the balloon at an altitude where the temperature is –
33oC and the absolute pressure 0.7atmospheres.
19. (a) State the three gas laws
(b) Determine the volume of oxygen at an atmospheric pressure of 1.01 × 105 Pa

that is required to fill a cylinder of volume of 2.5L to a gauge pressure of
8.0 × 105 Pa.
(a) A Pyrex container is filled with 1.5 L of petrol at 10oC. What volume of petrol
overflows when the temperature is increased to 30oC? (Cubical expansivity
for Pyrex γ =0.026 × 10-3/oC and Cubical expansivity for petrol γ =1.1 × 10-
3 o
/ C).
109
CHAPTER 12
CIRCULAR MOTION
12.1 Definition
Circular motion is the motion of a particle round a curved path in which the axis of
rotation lies outside the particle e.g. the moon orbiting round the earth and the earth
going round the sun.
A stone attached to a string and whirled in a circular path is one such example.
Consider a stone attached to a string and whirled in a horizontal circle as shown:
Although the speed of rotation is constant the

velocity is constantly changing and change in
velocity implies change in acceleration. Therefore the
stone is accelerating as it goes round the circle. This
acceleration is directed towards the centre and is
called centripetal acceleration.
Stone A pull is felt in the string supporting the stone and

this pull is towards the centre and it is called
centripetal force.
Consider a stone that is whirled in a horizontal circle as shown below:
The rate of change in velocity from A to B is

VB
∆v = vB + (−v A )
θ B The vector diagram is as shown

From the sector theorem
A VA
∆v = vθ {Compare with s = rθ }
The rate of change of velocity from A to B
∆v vθ θ
a= = = vω (ω = )
∆t ∆t t
-VA θ VA
θ ac = vω
VB v
∆V = (rω )ω = rω 2 (Since ω= )
r
v v2
ac = rω 2 = r ( ) 2 = (m/s2)
r r
mv 2
∴ Fc = mac = mrω =
2
110
Ex am ple 12.1
An object of mass 4kg moves round a circle of radius 6m with a constant speed of
12m/s. Calculate
(a) Its angular speed

(b) The force towards the centre
Solution
v 12
(a) ω= = = 2 rad / s
r 6
mv 2 4 × (12) 2
(b) Fc = = = 96 N
r 6
12.2 Vehicle Motion on a Banked Curved Path
N y N
θ θ
Ncosθ
Fc Fc
Nsinθ
θ mg mg
Applying the 1st equilibrium condition:
mv2
∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ Nsinθ - Fc = 0 ⇒ Nsinθ -
r
=0
mv2
⇒ Nsinθ = Equation (1)
r
∑F y =0 ⇒ Ncosθ - mg = 0
⇒ Ncosθ = mg Equation (2)
Dividing equation 1 by 2:
R sin θ mv 2
= ÷ mg
R cosθ r
v2
∴ tan θ = ⇒ v = gr tan θ
gr
Ex am ple 12.2
A racing car of mass 1 tonne moves round a banked track at a constant speed of
108km/h. Assuming the total reaction at the wheels is normal to the track and the
horizontal radius of the track is 100m, calculate:
(a) The angle of inclination of the track to the horizontal.

(b) The reaction at the wheels
111
Solution
v2 (30) 2
(a) tan θ = = = 0.9 ⇒ θ = tan −1 0.9 = 420
gr 10 × 100
mg 1000 × 10
(b) Ncosθ = mg ⇒ N= = = 13.45kN
cosθ cos 420
12.3 Unbanked Curved Road

(Assume the vehicle is turning to the western side)
N Applying the 1st equilibrium condition:

mv 2
∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ Ff −
r
=0
mv 2
⇒ Ff = Equation (3)
Fc Ff r
mg ∑F y =0 ⇒ N - mg = 0
⇒ N = mg Equation (4)
Ff mv 2
Dividing equation 3 by 4: = ÷ mg = µ
N r
v2
⇒ µ=
gr
⇒ v = µgr
Ex am ple 12.3
Determine the safe speed on:
(a) A banked curve of radius 30m, angle of banking 300.

(b) An unbanked curved road of radius 30m and µ = 0.2.
Solution
(a) v = µgr = 10 × 30 × tan 300 = 13.16m / s
(b) v = µgr = 0.2 × 10 × 30 = 7.75m / s
12.4 Why roads are banked at curves

Roads are banked at curves so as to avoid skidding due to excessive speeds. The
banking helps the horizontal component of the normal to supply the required
centripetal force. When roads are banked at curves, therefore, the dependence on
friction to avoid skidding is done away with.
112
12.5 Vertical Circle`
Consider a brazier that is whirled in a vertical circle as shown below:
A At A:
mv 2
T
TA + mg =
r
mg
mv 2
B ∴ TA = − mg
r
At A, T = 0
C mv 2
∴ mg =
r
∴ v = gr
mv 2 mv 2
At B, T= At C, Tmax − mg =
r r
mv 2
∴ Tmax = mg +
r
(T − mg )
∴ vmax =
m
Ex am ple 12.4
An object of mass 8kg is whirled round in a vertical circle of radius 2m with a

constant speed of 6m/s. Calculate the maximum and minimum tensions in the string.
Solution
mv 2 v2 62
Tmax = + mg = m( + g ) = 8( + 10) = 224 N
r r 2
mv 2 v2 62
Tmax = − mg = m( − g ) = 8( − 10) = 32 N
r r 2
113
12.6 Conical Pendulum
Applying the 1st equilibrium condition:
θ
mv 2
Tcosθ ∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ T sinθ − r
=0
mv 2
T sin θ = Equation 1
Tsinθ r
r
∑F y = 0 ⇒ T cos θ − mg = 0
mg T cos θ = mg Equation 2
Dividing equation 1 by equation 2 we get:
mv 2
T sin θ v2
= r ⇒ tanθ =
T cosθ mg gr
∴ v = grtanθ
12.7 Periodic Time (Time for one complete cycle)

Circumference of circle
Time =
speed
2πr 2πr
i.e. T= ⇒ T=
v rω
2π
∴ T=
ω
Ex am ple 12.5
An object of mass 10kg is whirled round a horizontal circle of radius 4m by a
revolving string inclined to the vertical. If the uniform speed of the object is 5m/s
calculate:
(a) The tension in the string.

(b) The angle of inclination to the vertical.
Solution
v2 52
(a) tan θ = = = 0.65 ⇒ θ = tan −1 0.65 = 33.020
gr 10 × 4
mg 10 × 10
(b) Ncosθ = mg ⇒ N= = = 119.3 N
cosθ cos 33.020
114
Ex am ple 12.6
What force is necessary to keep a mass of 0.8kg revolving in a horizontal circle of
radius 0.7m with a periodic time of 0.5s? What is the direction of this force?
Solution
2πr 2πr 2π × 0.7
T= ⇒ v= = = 8.8m / s
v T 0.5
mv 2 0.8 × 8.82
Fc = = = 88.5 N towards the centre of the circle.
r 0.7
115
CHAPTER 13
ILLUMINATION
13.1 Introduction
The speed and precision with which we can do a job depends very largely on how
well we can see to do it. Architects and interior designers, when planning new
offices, factories and other buildings, have to give very careful consideration to their
illumination.
Lighting engineers, also use lighting to create atmosphere and to add variety to our
surroundings. In the theatre, for example, artistic use is made of lighting to enhance
scenic effects and to suggest mood, and the restrained lighting in clubs and coffee
bars induce an intimate atmosphere, in which people can take pleasure in meeting
and talking to their friends.
The photographer and television engineer, too, are particularly concerned with
illumination and make the most exacting demands on its control. To meet this need
for the precise control of illumination in our homes and public buildings, on film sets,
in the theatre, in the television tube and in thousands of other applications engineers
require two things:
(i) Create method of measurement

(ii) A convenient system of units.
13.2 The Candela

The candela was adopted internationally in 1948 as a standard. It is about the same
size as the candlepower.
1
The candle is defined as the luminous intensity of of a square metre of a
600,000
radiating cavity at the temperature of freezing platinum (2042K).
13.3 The Solid Angle

In order to appreciate certain aspects of light measurement, we must understand the
way in which the space around a point can be divided into solid angles.
The solid angle or steradian, as we call it, may be considered as the three –
dimensional equivalent of a radian.
(A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by a length of an arc equal
to the radius at the circumference. The three-dimensional equivalent of radian
divides the sphere around a point into areas each equal to r 2 ).
1r
r
The Radian The Steradian

(a) (b)
The steradian in three dimensions may be compared with the radian in two
dimensions.
116
A unit solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere by an area r2 on its surface.
The total number of unit solid angles surrounding a point is equal to the number of
areas r2 on the surface of the sphere.
Surface area of sphere 4πr 2

i.e. = 2 = 4π
r2 r
Thus there are 4 π = 12.57 solid angles surrounding a point.
13.4 The Lumen

If a one-candela source radiates uniformly in all directions, the amount falling within
a unit solid angle is called a lumen. The lumen is a subdivision of the candela such
that:
1 candela = 4π lumens
= 12.57lm.
13.5 Luminous Intensity

In practice sources are never symmetrical. A one-candela source will have a power
greater than unit in some directions, and correspondingly less than unity in others.
We call the effective candlepower in a certain direction luminous intensity and we
measure it by the number of lumens per unit solid angle in that particular
direction.
No. of lumens
i.e. Luminous intensity =
Solid angle
Ex am ple 13.1
Fifty per cent of the light from a source of 80 candela is evenly distributed through a
solid angle of 3 steradians. What is the luminous intensity in this direction?
Solution
No. of lumens 80 x 4π
Luminous intensity = = x 50 o o = 168 Lumens/steradian
Solid angle 3
13.6 Illumination
Illumination is the degree of concentration of light falling on a surface (see the
introduction). We now come to consider light energy as it arrives at its destination.
The illumination of a surface denoted by the letter E is simply the light flux arriving
per unit area of surface. The unit is called lux.
The lux is the illumination produced on a surface by one lumen of light flux
per square metre
One lux of illumination is produced on the inside surface of a sphere of radius 1 m

when 1cd of source is situated at the centre. (see figure below)
1m
One lumen falling on
1 Candela (cd) 1m2 produces one
lux of illumination
One steradian of solid angle

Containing one lumen of light lux
117
When we know the total number of lumens of light falling on a surface, we calculate
the illumination from the equation:
Number of lumens
E ⇒
Area
More often, however, the information given concerns the power of the source and
the position of the receiving surface.
An illumination of 50 Lux is sufficient for general interior lighting. The required

illumination increases for special purposes to 100 Lux for reading, and to 300 Lux for
fine drawing, while an operating table might require 1000 Lux. The light reflected
from the surrounding surfaces, walls and the floor, etc, contributes as much to this
illumination as the power of the source.
Ex am ple 13.2
Three quarters of the light from 150 cd source fall on a floor measuring 4m x 3m.
What is the average illumination?
Solution
3
Number of incident lumens = 150 x 4 π x
4
Number of lumens
Illumination =
Area
3
= 150 x 4 π x /(4x3)
4
= 1 181 lumens/m2
13.7 Inverse Square Law

Assuming that no absorption of light occurs, the illumination produced on a surface
varies according to an inverse square law.
1
E= α
d2
Where d is the distance of the surface from the source. The law only holds true for a
point source, i.e. one which is small compared to the distance.
We can deduce the law by considering a divergent beam from a point source falling
on each of three screens. (See fig. below).
3 Units
2 Units
1 Unit
4 Units 9 Units
1 Unit
The diagram demonstrates the inverse square law. Screen at

distance on one, two and three units have areas of one, four
and nine units respectively.
118
The total number of lumens in is the same for each screen. The screen distances are
in the ratio 1:2:3 but the area are in the ratio 1:4:9, i.e. 12:22:32. hence the
illuminations are proportional to:
1 1 1 1
, 2 , 2 , i.e. to 2
12 2 3 d
Now assuming that the illumination is directly proportional to luminous intensity of

the source, we have:
I KI
E= α Or E =
d2 d2
Where k = constant of proportionality.
Consider a source of I candelas at the centre of a sphere of radius d. By inverse

square law:
KI
Illumination E =
d2
But from the definition of illumination,
Number of lumens
E=
Area
4π I 1
= = 2
4π d 2
d
Comparing this with the above expression for E, k = I

I
∴E =
d2
13.8 INCLINED SURFACE ILLUMINATION
If light falls at an angle to the surface, the original definition of illumination is quite
valid i.e.
Number of lumens
E=
Area of surface
To allow for the inclination, we must introduce a factor in inverse square law
equation.
Consider the two surfaces A and B ( figure below)
119
The inclined areas A and B are related by the equation A = BC & Q
A is perpendicular to the source of incident light and B is inclined to A at an angle Q.

if A were removed, the amount of light falling on A would then fall on B. Since B is
greater in area, its illumination will less than that of A.
I
Illumination of B; EB α
xy
I I
Illumination of A; EA α ⇒ cos Q
xy cos Q xy
I I cos Q
And since EA = = , EB =
d 2
d2
Thus for an inclined surface
I cos Q
E=
d2
The units are again in lumens/units area.
13.9 LUMINANCE OR BRIGHTNESS
When a surface units light we say that it has a brightness or luminance. The light
may result from reflection or transmission or it may actually be generated at the
surface. The term ‘luminance’ is preferable to brightness.
The unit of luminance is the candela per square metre (cd/m2)
Total candilas emitted

Luminance =
Area
Just as a source has different strengths in different directions, so the luminance of a
surface can vary directionally according to its shape and nature.
The luminance of a surface may be due to light produced at the surface, such as with
an incandescent object. Luminance may also be a result of reflection, e.g., the light
reflected from a sheet of paper, or it may be a result of light being transmitted
through a suffusion surface such as a lampshade.
Luminance may be expressed in terms of the number of lumens per square metre in
which case since,
I cd = 4 π lm
I cd/m2 = 4 π lm/m2
120
1. A light source of 200 cd is placed 3m vertically above the center of a table. What is
the illumination at the center when the table top is:
a) Horizontal
b) Inclined at 15° to the horizontal?
2. When an unknown source is placed at a distance of 1.5m from a photometer screen,

it produces photometric balance with a standard source of 90 cd at a distance of 2m.
What is the luminous intensity of the source under test?
3. A source of light has a mean spherical intensity of 5 cd. How may lumens does it
emit? (62.8lm)
4. A source has a luminous intensity of 150 cd in a certain direction. How many, lumens
are emitted per unit solid angle in this direction? (150lm)
5. A lamp emits 200 lumens equally in all directions. What is its power? (15.9 cd)
6. A point source of 100 candelas is hung 6m above a horizontal road. What is the
illumination at the point directly below the source and at 9m from this point? (2.8 Lx;
0.47Lx)
7. A photometer measuring head is placed between two lamps, one of 160 cd. If the
lamps are 1m apart and produce equal illuminations on the photometer when it is at
800mm from the 160 cd source, what is the intensity of the other source? (10 cd.)
8. Given that E = member of lumens/area of surface and at inclined surfaces E =I

cos Q/d2
a) A light source of 200 cd is placed 3m vertically above the center of a table. What
is the illuminanation at the center when the table top is:
i) Horizontal
ii) Inclined at 15° to the horizontal
b) One of the fundamental equations of photometry on the bench is:

rt Is
2
= 2
d t d s
Test lamp. Compression lamp

(Standard lamp)
i) Three squanders of light from a 150 cd source fall on a floor measuring

4m x 3m. What is its average illumination?
ii) Luminous intensity = number of lumens/solid angle. Fifty percent of the
light from a source of 80 cd is evenly distributed through a solid angle of
3 steradians. What is the luminous intensity in this direction?
121
REFEREN CES
1. Titcom be : Fundamentals of Engineering Science
2. L Bostock and S Chandler : Mathematics – Mechanics and Probability
3. John B etts : Physics for Technology
4. Roger M uncaster : A-Level Physics
5. D Halliday and R Resnick : Fundamentals of Physics
6. Alpheus W Sm ith and John Cooper : Elements of Physics
7. F. Bueche : College Physics
8. F. Bueche : Principles of Physics
9. Nelkon and P ark er : A-Level Physics
10. Hillier and Hanna : Engineering Science for Technicians
122

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What are vectors and scalars?

What are vectors and scalars?

What is rectilinear motion?

What is rectilinear motion?

CONTENTS

Newton’s Laws of Motion ............................................................................. 49

Newton’s First Law ................................................................................. 49

CHAPTER 13 ......................................................................... 116

REFERENCES ......................................................................... 122

The handbook comes against a background of persistent poor performance by

Finally, I express my gratitude to the following:

These properties are measured respectively by:

1.2 International System of Units (SI – Système Internationale)

Physical Quantity Symbol SI Unit Description Unit Symbol Dimension

Electric Current I Ampere A A

Quantity of a substance n Mole mol n

Luminous intensity IL Candela cd I

Angle θ Radian rad -

Solid angle Ω Steradian sr -

Physical Quantity Symbol SI Unit Description Symbol Dimension

Speed, Velocity v, ν Metre per second m/s L/T

Angular velocity ϖ Radian per second rad/s -

Radiant intensity I Watt per steradian W/sr -

Derived Units with Special Names

Electric charge Q Coulomb C A.s AT

Luminance flux FL Lumen lm cd/sr I

Prefix Multiplying Factor Symbol

1.3 Conversions of Units

Ex am ple 1.1 How many nanometres equivalent to 78km?

Solution 1km = 1012nm

Ex am ple 1.2 How many cubic millimetres are there in 0.8km3?

Solution (1km) 3 = (10 6 mm) 3 = 1018 mm 3

Ex am ple 1.3 Convert 54 km/h into metre per second.

1.4 Dimensional Algebra

1. to reduce a combination of units to the simplest form;

∴ The equation is incorrect.

Carry out the following conversions:

3. 2.8 × 108W to Megawatts

5. 2.5 × 105Ω to Mega ohms

6. 0.000 04µF to millifarads

8. 7 × 10-2kJ to micro Joules

9. The speed of light is 1.08 × 109km/h.

2.2 MASS, FORCE AND WEIGHT

M ass: The mass of a body is the quantity of matter it contains.

Where G = gravitational constant

Since the earth’s mass is fairly constant, then

Ex am ples of scalar quantities: Speed, time, density, energy, area, temperature,

Vectors: Some physical quantities need to be expressed more definitely by

Ex am ples of vector quantities: Force, displacement, velocity, momentum,

(b) The X-axis Taken as a Frame of Reference

AB This means that the vector’s direction is from A to B.

BA This means that the vector’s direction is from B to A.

Thus vectors A and B above are equal

Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

2.4 CONCURRENT, COPLANAR FORCES

Three coplanar forces which are concurrent

(a) Space diagram (b) Polygon of forces

Y The components of F along the x and y

20o 30o 20o 30o