INDEX

S.NO. ASSIGNMENTS PAGE NO. DATE SIGN

1 What is computer ? list and explain some important

characterstics of computer. 3 22-12-2021

2 What is Operating System(OS) write various functions

performed manually by Operating System. 6"

3 Describe the following 7"

(i) Computer Network
(ii) FTP
(iii) Telnet
(iv) Multi media and its applications

4 Write short notes on:- 9"

(i) RAM
(ii) ROM
(iii) Flash Memory
(iv) Cache Memory

5 Discuss the different features of Windows Operating System. 11 "

1
S.NO. ASSIGNMENTS PAGE NO. DATE SIGN

INDEX
ASSIGNMENT - 1
Q1) What is computer? List and explain important characteristics of computer.

Ans. A computer is a machine that can be programmed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical
operations automatically. Modern computers can perform generic sets of operations known
as programs. These programs enable computers to perform a wide range of tasks. A computer
system is a "complete" computer that includes the hardware, operating system (main software),
and peripheral equipment needed and used for "full" operation. This term may also refer to a group of
computers that are linked and function together, such as a computer network or computer cluster.

Important Characteristics of Computer:-

1
1. Speed of Computer

Characteristics of computer speed

 Computers are much faster to perform mathematical calculations than human.

 The computer is capable of performing millions of tasks per second.

 It takes an hour or a day for a person to do a mathematical calculation or any work, to do the
same calculation or work to a computer do in microseconds or nanoseconds.

 This means that while it takes some time for humans to do a small calculation, a computer can
do millions of additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions in the same amount of time.

 The computer is so fast that it can do work in the blink of an eye. Let us understand this
through an example.

 The song plays as you instruct the computer to play the song. As soon as you give the
instruction, the computer completes that instruction at full speed.

 If you want to get more information about computer speed, then you can read the post given
below.

2. Accuracy of Computer

 A computer is very accurate. It does not make any kind of mistake in calculating. Sometimes
we get some error but these are because of the mistake performed by us.

 The Accuracy of the computer is constantly high and it can perform hundred of operation
with the carry-out calculation and analysis accurately and speedily.

 It is also a feature of the computer that the computer completes any work with absolute
accuracy, this means that any instruction received from the user is done by the computer with
full accuracy and speed.

 A computer never gives us wrong results under any circumstances. You can absolutely trust
the output of the computer.

 To know more about Computer Accuracy, you can read the post given below.

3. Diligence of Computer

 Diligence means that the computer is capable of doing any work for a long time without
getting tired and getting stops.

 This is also one of the special features of the computer. Let us understand it in detail.
  A person gets tired of doing some work in a few hours and a computer has the ability to do
any work continuously for many hours, days, months.

 Even after the computer has worked for such a long time, there is no decrease in its ability to
work and the accuracy of the result.

 The computer does work without any discrimination. A computer is free from monetary and
tiredness.

 Even if the computer does any work for weeks in a row, then the computer will do that work
with the same speed and accuracy.

 No matter how long the computer works, but it never gets boring.

4. Reliability of Computer

 Reliability is a very big characteristics of computer. Today almost all the big industries or
big e-Commerce companies like Amazon and Flipkart, and big search engine companies like
- Google and Bing, all these companies are dependent on computers.

 Today every major industry and companies in the world have full confidence in their
computers, and their entire business is running from computers.

 Today the work of all companies is being done through computers. These companies store all
their data in the computer, the data of these companies are many types of data such as the
amount to be paid, the date of payment and many other types of data, which will be used in
future when the time comes for that data use.

 Data place to another place is transported through a computer in a very short time.

 The computer does all its work very honestly. Night or day, the computer continues its work
without being tired. Today this is the reason why big e-commerce companies and industries
blindly trust computers.

5. Versatility of Computer

 Versatility means that the computer is capable of doing any kind of work. Let us understand
computer Versatility in detail.

 It means The computer is capable of performing any type of instruction given by the user,
such as playing videos, downloading, running the Internet, the computer is capable of doing
all these instructions.

 Versatility is the Characteristics of a computer. Its means is that the computer is capable of
working in almost every field.
  Today computers are being used almost everywhere like schools, colleges, hospitals, offices,
railway stations, hotels etc.

 A computer system is multitasking so that you can do two tasks very easily at the same time.

6. Storage Capacity of Computer

 Computer systems have a very large capacity to store any type of data. A computer can store
and resell any information due to its storage capacity.

 Computers have the ability to store all types of data such as data, pictures, files, programs,
games, and sound for many years and later we can get any data in a few seconds at any time
for taking that information and for future retrieval.

 Computer storage is also called permanent storage because once in this store any data means -
file, folder, text data, video, image is stored, then that data is stored for life, and when As long
as you do not delete any data, the data is saved in your computer's storage.

 This storage unit is present in every computer system. The storage device is also called the
main part of the computer.

7. Automatic

 Automation is also a special feature of computers.

 A computer is an automatic machine because once started on a job they carry on until the job
is finished without any human assistance.

 Let us understand this with an example, suppose you have to copy 100 or 200 files of your
computer in Pen drive.

 As soon as you gave the computer the instruction to copy all the files, then the computer starts
copying all your 100 or 200 files to the Pen drive, then you do not need to give instructions to
copy every file again and again.

 This whole process of a computer is called automation. I hope you understand.

8. Quick Decision

 The computer takes the decision very quickly, given by the user which is the instruction
arithmetic data or logic data.

 All Mathematical data is called arithmetic data.

 Copy Document, Delete file, open camera etc this type of data is called Logical data.
9. Multitasking

 Multitasking is also a very special feature of computers. A user can do different types of tasks
on the computer at the same time.

 Like we are using MS Word in computer as well as listening to songs and also getting
printouts.

 We can do a lot of work at the same time.

10. No Feeling

 In computers, like humans, there is no feeling and emotion, nor does the computer have any
knowledge and experience, because a computer is a machine which works continuously on
the instruction of humans without any selfishness and without tiredness.

11. Power of Remembering

 Power of remembering is also very special Characteristics of the computer.

 You can store many types of information and data on your computer in very large quantities.
Whenever you need this data in future, you can get that data in a few seconds matter why.

 You can get the data even after a long time. It depends on you, after how long or after how
many years you need the data.

Q2) What is Operating System (OS)? Write various functions performed normally by
Operating System.

Ans. An operating system (OS) is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a
boot program, manages all of the other application programs in a computer. The application programs
make use of the operating system by making requests for services through a defined application
program interface (API). In addition, users can interact directly with the operating system through a
user interface, such as a command-line interface (CLI) or a graphical UI (GUI).

An operating system brings powerful benefits to computer software and software development.
Without an operating system, every application would need to include its own UI, as well as the
comprehensive code needed to handle all low-level functionality of the underlying computer, such as
disk storage, network interfaces and so on. Considering the vast array of underlying hardware
available, this would vastly bloat the size of every application and make software development
impractical.
Instead, many common tasks, such as sending a network packet or displaying text on a standard
output device, such as a display, can be offloaded to system software that serves as an intermediary
between the applications and the hardware. The system software provides a consistent and repeatable
way for applications to interact with the hardware without the applications needing to know any
details about the hardware.

As long as each application accesses the same resources and services in the same way, that system
software -- the operating system -- can service almost any number of applications. This vastly reduces
the amount of time and coding required to develop and debug an application, while ensuring that users
can control, configure and manage the system hardware through a common and well-understood
interface.

Once installed, the operating system relies on a vast library of device drivers to tailor OS services to
the specific hardware environment. Thus, every application may make a common call to a storage
device, but the OS receives that call and uses the corresponding driver to translate the call into actions
(commands) needed for the underlying hardware on that specific computer. Today, the operating
system provides a comprehensive platform that identifies, configures and manages a range of
hardware, including processors; memory devices and memory management; chipsets; storage;
networking; port communication, such as Video Graphics Array (VGA), High-Definition Multimedia
Interface (HDMI) and Universal Serial Bus (USB); and subsystem interfaces, such as Peripheral
Component Interconnect Express (PCIe).
Functions of an Operating System

1. Security-
The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar other
techniques. it also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data.

2. Control over system performance-

Monitors overall system health to help improve performance. records the response time
between service requests and system response to having a complete view of the system health.
This can help improve performance by providing important information needed to
troubleshoot problems.

3. Job accounting-

Operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks and users, this
information can be used to track resource usage for a particular user or group of users.

4. Error detecting aids –

The operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and avoid the
malfunctioning of a computer system.

5. Coordination between other software and users

Operating systems also coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers, assemblers, and other
software to the various users of the company systems.

6. Memory Management -

The operating system manages the Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is made
up of a large array of bytes or words where each byte or word is assigned a certain address.
Main memory is fast storage and it can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be
executed, it should be first loaded in the main memory. An Operating System performs the
following activities for memory management:

It keeps track of primary memory, i.e., which bytes of memory are used by which user
program. The memory addresses that have already been allocated and the memory addresses
of the memory that has not yet been used. In multiprogramming, the OS decides the order in
which processes are granted access to memory, and for how long. It Allocates the memory to
a process when the process requests it and deallocates the memory when the process has
terminated or is performing an I/O function.
 7. Processor Management-

In a multi-programming environment, the OS decides the order in which processes have

access to the processor, and how much processing time each process has. This function of OS
is called process scheduling. An Operating System performs the following activities for
processor management.

8. Device Management –

An OS manages device communication via their respective drivers. It performs the following
activities for device management. Keeps track of all devices connected to the system.
designates a program responsible for every device known as the Input/Output controller.
Decides which process gets access to a certain device and for how long. Allocates devices in
an effective and efficient way. Deallocates devices when they are no longer required.

9. File Management –

A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain other directories and other files. An Operating System carries out the
following file management activities. It keeps track of where information is stored, user
access settings and status of every file, and more… These facilities are collectively known as
the file system.

Moreover, Operating System also provides certain services to the computer system in one form or the
other.
The Operating System provides certain services to the users which can be listed in the following
manner:

1. Program Execution: The Operating System is responsible for the execution of all types of
programs whether it be user programs or system programs. The Operating System utilizes
various resources available for the efficient running of all types of functionalities.

2. Handling Input/Output Operations: The Operating System is responsible for handling all sorts
of inputs, i.e, from the keyboard, mouse, desktop, etc. The Operating System does all
interfacing in the most appropriate manner regarding all kinds of Inputs and Outputs.
For example, there is a difference in the nature of all types of peripheral devices such as mice
or keyboards, the Operating System is responsible for handling data between them.

3. Manipulation of File System: The Operating System is responsible for making decisions
regarding the storage of all types of data or files, i.e, floppy disk/hard disk/pen drive, etc. The
Operating System decides how the data should be manipulated and stored.
 4. Error Detection and Handling: The Operating System is responsible for the detection of any
type of error or bugs that can occur while any task. The well-secured OS sometimes also acts
as a countermeasure for preventing any sort of breach to the Computer System from any
external source and probably handling them.

5. Resource Allocation: The Operating System ensures the proper use of all the resources
available by deciding which resource to be used by whom for how much time. All the
decisions are taken by the Operating System.

6. Accounting: The Operating System tracks an account of all the functionalities taking place in
the computer system at a time. All the details such as the types of errors that occurred are
recorded by the Operating System.

7. Information and Resource Protection: The Operating System is responsible for using all the
information and resources available on the machine in the most protected way. The Operating
System must foil an attempt from any external resource to hamper any sort of data or
information.

All these services are ensured by the Operating System for the convenience of the users to make the
programming task easier. All different kinds of Operating systems more or less provide the same
services.

Q3) Describe the following:-

1. Complier Network

In computing, a compiler is a computer program that translates computer code written in

one programming language (the source language) into another language (the target language).
The name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-
level programming language to a lower level language (e.g. assembly language, object code,
or machine code) to create an executable program.

There are many different types of compilers which produce output in different useful forms.
A cross-compiler produces code for a different CPU or operating system than the one on
which the cross-compiler itself runs. A bootstrap compiler is often a temporary compiler, used
for compiling a more permanent or better optimised compiler for a language.

Related software include, a program that translates from a low-level language to a higher
level one is a decompiler ; a program that translates between high-level languages, usually
called a source-to-source compiler or transpiler. A language rewriter is usually a program that
translates the form of expressions without a change of language. A compiler-compiler is a
 compiler that produces a compiler (or part of one), often in a generic and reusable way so as
to be able to produce many differing compilers.

A compiler is likely to perform some or all of the following operations, often called
phases: pre-processing, lexical analysis, parsing, semantic analysis (syntax-directed
translation), conversion of input programs to an intermediate representation, code
optimization and code generation. Compilers generally implement these phases as modular
components, promoting efficient design and correctness of transformations of source input to
target output. Program faults caused by incorrect compiler behaviour can be very difficult to
track down and work around; therefore, compiler implementers invest significant effort to
ensure compiler correctness.

Compilers are not the only language processor used to transform source programs.
An interpreter is computer software that transforms and then executes the indicated
operations. The translation process influences the design of computer languages, which leads
to a preference of compilation or interpretation. In theory, a programming language can have
both a compiler and an interpreter. In practice, programming languages tend to be associated
with just one (a compiler or an interpreter).

2. FTP( File Transfer Protocol)

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard communication protocol used for the transfer
of computer files from a server to a client on a computer network. FTP is built on a client–
server model architecture using separate control and data connections between the client and
the server. FTP users may authenticate themselves with a clear-text sign-in protocol, normally
in the form of a username and password, but can connect anonymously if the server is
configured to allow it. For secure transmission that protects the username and password, and
encrypts the content, FTP is often secured with SSL/TLS (FTPS) or replaced with SSH File
Transfer Protocol (SFTP).
 The first FTP client applications were command-line programs developed before operating
systems had graphical user interfaces, and are still shipped with most Windows, Unix, and
Linux operating systems. Many FTP clients and automation utilities have since been
developed for desktops, servers, mobile devices, and hardware, and FTP has been
incorporated into productivity applications, such as HTML editors.

In January 2021, support for the FTP protocol was disabled in Google Chrome 88, and
disabled in Firefox 88.0. In July 2021, Firefox 90 dropped FTP entirely, and Google followed
suit in October 2021, removing FTP entirely in Google Chrome 95.

3. Telnet

Telnet is an application protocol used on the Internet or local area network to provide a
bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a virtual terminal
connection. User data is interspersed in-band with Telnet control information in an 8-bit byte
oriented data connection over the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

Telnet was developed in 1969 beginning with RFC 15, extended in RFC 855, and
standardized as Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet Standard STD 8, one of the
first Internet standards. The name stands for "teletype network".
 Historically, Telnet provided access to a command-line interface on a remote host. However,
because of serious security concerns when using Telnet over an open network such as the
Internet, its use for this purpose has waned significantly in favor of SSH.[citation needed]

The term telnet is also used to refer to the software that implements the client part of the
protocol. Telnet client applications are available for virtually all computer platforms. Telnet is
also used as a verb. To telnet means to establish a connection using the Telnet protocol, either
with a command line client or with a graphical interface. For example, a common directive
might be: "To change your password, telnet into the server, log in and run the passwd
command." In most cases, a user would be telnetting into a Unix-like server system or a
network device (such as a router).

4. Multimedia and its Applications

The word multi and media are combined to form the word multimedia. The word “multi” signifies
“many.” Multimedia is a type of medium that allows information to be easily transferred from one
location to another. Multimedia is the presentation of text, pictures, audio, and video with links
and tools that allow the user to navigate, engage, create, and communicate using a computer.
Multimedia refers to the computer-assisted integration of text, drawings, still and moving
images(videos) graphics, audio, animation, and any other media in which any type of information
can be expressed, stored, communicated, and processed digitally. To begin, a computer must be
present to coordinate what you see and hear, as well as to interact with. Second, there must be
interconnections between the various pieces of information. Third, you’ll need navigational tools
to get around the web of interconnected data. Multimedia is being employed in a variety of
disciplines, including education, training, and business.
Components of Multimedia

Multimedia consists of the following 5 components

a) Text

Characters are used to form words, phrases, and paragraphs in the text. Text appears in all
multimedia creations of some kind. The text can be in a variety of fonts and sizes to match the
multimedia software’s professional presentation. Text in multimedia systems can communicate
specific information or serve as a supplement to the information provided by the other media.

b) Graphics

Non-text information, such as a sketch, chart, or photograph, is represented digitally. Graphics

add to the appeal of the multimedia application. In many circumstances, people dislike reading
big amounts of material on computers. As a result, pictures are more frequently used than words
to clarify concepts, offer background information, and so on. Graphics are at the heart of any
multimedia presentation. The use of visuals in multimedia enhances the effectiveness and
presentation of the concept. Windows Picture, Internet Explorer, and other similar programs are
often used to see visuals. Adobe Photoshop is a popular graphics editing program that allows you
to effortlessly change graphics and make them more effective and appealing.

c) Animations

A sequence of still photographs is being flipped through. It’s a set of visuals that give the
impression of movement. Animation is the process of making a still image appear to move. A
presentation can also be made lighter and more appealing by using animation. In multimedia
applications, the animation is quite popular. The following are some of the most regularly used
animation viewing programs: Fax Viewer, Internet Explorer, etc.

d) Video

Photographic images that appear to be in full motion and are played back at speeds of 15 to 30
frames per second. The term video refers to a moving image that is accompanied by sound, such
as a television picture. Of course, text can be included in videos, either as captioning for spoken
words or as text embedded in an image, as in a slide presentation. The following programs are
widely used to view videos: Real Player, Window Media Player, etc.

e) Audio

Any sound, whether it’s music, conversation, or something else. Sound is the most serious aspect
of multimedia, delivering the joy of music, special effects, and other forms of entertainment.
Decibels are a unit of measurement for volume and sound pressure level. Audio files are used as
part of the application context as well as to enhance interaction. Audio files must occasionally be
distributed using plug-in media players when they appear within online applications and
webpages. MP3, WMA, Wave, MIDI, and RealAudio are examples of audio formats. The
following programs are widely used to view videos: Real Player, Window Media Player, etc.

Applications of Multimedia

Multimedia indicates that, in addition to text, graphics/drawings, and photographs, computer

information can be represented using audio, video, and animation. Multimedia is used in:

 Education

In the subject of education, multimedia is becoming increasingly popular. It is often used to

produce study materials for pupils and to ensure that they have a thorough comprehension of
various disciplines. Edutainment, which combines education and entertainment, has become
highly popular in recent years. This system gives learning in the form of enjoyment to the user.

 Entertainment

The usage of multimedia in films creates a unique auditory and video impression. Today,
multimedia has completely transformed the art of filmmaking around the world. Multimedia is the
only way to achieve difficult effects and actions.
The entertainment sector makes extensive use of multimedia. It’s particularly useful for creating
special effects in films and video games. The most visible illustration of the emergence of
multimedia in entertainment is music and video apps. Interactive games become possible thanks
to the use of multimedia in the gaming business. Video games are more interesting because of the
integrated audio and visual effects.

 Business

Marketing, advertising, product demos, presentation, training, networked communication, etc. are
applications of multimedia that are helpful in many businesses. The audience can quickly
understand an idea when multimedia presentations are used. It gives a simple and effective
technique to attract visitors’ attention and effectively conveys information about numerous
products. It’s also utilized to encourage clients to buy things in business marketing.

 Technology & Science

In the sphere of science and technology, multimedia has a wide range of applications. It can
communicate audio, films, and other multimedia documents in a variety of formats. Only
multimedia can make live broadcasting from one location to another possible.
It is beneficial to surgeons because they can rehearse intricate procedures such as brain removal
 and reconstructive surgery using images made from imaging scans of the human body. Plans can
be produced more efficiently to cut expenses and problems.

 Fine Arts

Multimedia artists work in the fine arts, combining approaches employing many media and
incorporating viewer involvement in some form. For example, a variety of digital mediums can be
used to combine movies and operas.
Digital artist is a new word for these types of artists. Digital painters make digital paintings, matte
paintings, and vector graphics of many varieties using computer applications.

 Engineering

Multimedia is frequently used by software engineers in computer simulations for military or

industrial training. It’s also used for software interfaces created by creative experts and software
engineers in partnership. Only multimedia is used to perform all the minute calculations.

Q4) Write short notes on :-

1. RAM

Random-access memory (RAM) is a form of computer memory that can be read and changed in
any order, typically used to store working data and machine code. A random-access memory
device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of
the physical location of data inside the memory, in contrast with other direct-access data storage
media (such as hard disks, CD-RWs, DVD-RWs and the older magnetic tapes and drum
memory), where the time required to read and write data items varies significantly depending on
their physical locations on the recording medium, due to mechanical limitations such as media
rotation speeds and arm movement.

RAM contains multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry, to connect the data lines to the
addressed storage for reading or writing the entry. Usually more than one bit of storage is
accessed by the same address, and RAM devices often have multiple data lines and are said to be
"8-bit" or "16-bit", etc. devices.

In today's technology, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuit (IC) chips with
MOS (metal-oxide-semiconductor) memory cells. RAM is normally associated with volatile types
of memory (such as dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) modules), where stored
information is lost if power is removed, although non-volatile RAM has also been developed.
Other types of non-volatile memories exist that allow random access for read operations, but
 either do not allow write operations or have other kinds of limitations on them. These include
most types of ROM and a type of flash memory called NOR-Flash.

The two main types of volatile random-access semiconductor memory are static random-access
memory (SRAM) and dynamic random-access memory (DRAM). Commercial uses of
semiconductor RAM date back to 1965, when IBM introduced the SP95 SRAM chip for their
System/360 Model 95 computer, and Toshiba used DRAM memory cells for its Toscal BC-1411
electronic calculator, both based on bipolar transistors. Commercial MOS memory, based on
MOS transistors, was developed in the late 1960s, and has since been the basis for all commercial
semiconductor memory. The first commercial DRAM IC chip, the Intel 1103, was introduced in
October 1970. Synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) later debuted with the
Samsung KM48SL2000 chip in 1992.

2. ROM

Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other
electronic devices. Data stored in ROM cannot be electronically modified after the manufacture of
the memory device. Read-only memory is useful for storing software that is rarely changed during
the life of the system, also known as firmware. Software applications (like video games) for
programmable devices can be distributed as plug-in cartridges containing ROM.

Read-only memory strictly refers to memory that is hard-wired, such as diode matrix or a mask
ROM integrated circuit (IC), which cannot be electronically[a] changed after manufacture.
Although discrete circuits can be altered in principle, through the addition of bodge wires and/or
the removal or replacement of components, ICs cannot. Correction of errors, or updates to the
software, require new devices to be manufactured and to replace the installed device.

Floating-gate ROM semiconductor memory in the form of erasable programmable read-only

memory (EPROM), electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) and flash
memory can be erased and re-programmed. But usually, this can only be done at relatively slow
 speeds, may require special equipment to achieve, and is typically only possible a certain number
of times.

The term "ROM" is sometimes used to mean a ROM device containing specific software, or a file
with software to be stored in EEPROM or Flash Memory. For example, users modifying or
replacing the Android operating system describe files containing a modified or replacement
operating system as "custom ROMs" after the type of storage the file used to be written to.

3. Flash Memory

Flash memory is an electronic non-volatile computer memory storage medium that can be
electrically erased and reprogrammed. The two main types of flash memory, NOR flash and
NAND flash, are named for the NOR and NAND logic gates. NOR and NAND flash use the same
cell design, consisting of floating gate MOSFETs. They differ at the circuit level depending on
whether the state of the bit line or word lines is pulled high or low. In NAND flash, the
relationship between the bit line and the word lines resembles a NAND gate; in NOR flash, it
resembles a NOR gate.

Flash memory, a type of floating-gate memory, was invented at Toshiba in 1980 and is based on
EEPROM technology. Toshiba began marketing flash memory in 1987. EPROMs had to be
erased completely before they could be rewritten. NAND flash memory, however, may be erased,
written, and read in blocks (or pages), which generally are much smaller than the entire device.
NOR flash memory allows a single machine word to be written – to an erased location – or read
independently. A flash memory device typically consists of one or more flash memory chips
(each holding many flash memory cells), along with a separate flash memory controller chip.

The NAND type is found mainly in memory cards, USB flash drives, solid-state drives (those
produced since 2009), feature phones, smartphones, and similar products, for general storage and
transfer of data. NAND or NOR flash memory is also often used to store configuration data in
numerous digital products, a task previously made possible by EEPROM or battery-powered
 static RAM. A key disadvantage of flash memory is that it can endure only a relatively small
number of write cycles in a specific block.

Flash memory is used in computers, PDAs, digital audio players, digital cameras, mobile phones,
synthesizers, video games, scientific instrumentation, industrial robotics, and medical electronics.
Flash memory has fast read access time, but it is not as fast as static RAM or ROM. In portable
devices, it is preferred to hard disks because of its mechanical shock resistance.

Because erase cycles are slow, the large block sizes used in flash memory erasing give it a
significant speed advantage over non-flash EEPROM when writing large amounts of data. As of
2019, flash memory costs much less than byte-programmable EEPROM and had become the
dominant memory type wherever a system required a significant amount of non-volatile solid-
state storage. EEPROMs, however, are still used in applications that require only small amounts
of storage, as in serial presence detect.

Flash memory packages can use die stacking with through-silicon vias and several dozen layers of
3D TLC NAND cells (per die) simultaneously to achieve capacities of up to 1 tebibyte per
package using 16 stacked dies and an integrated flash controller as a separate die inside the
package.

4. Cache Memory

In computing, a cache is a hardware or software component that stores data so that future
requests for that data can be served faster; the data stored in a cache might be the result of
an earlier computation or a copy of data stored elsewhere. A cache hit occurs when the
requested data can be found in a cache, while a cache miss occurs when it cannot. Cache
hits are served by reading data from the cache, which is faster than recomputing a result
or reading from a slower data store; thus, the more requests that can be served from the
cache, the faster the system performs.

To be cost-effective and to enable efficient use of data, caches must be relatively small.
Nevertheless, caches have proven themselves in many areas of computing, because
typical computer applications access data with a high degree of locality of reference. Such
access patterns exhibit temporal locality, where data is requested that has been recently
requested already, and spatial locality, where data is requested that is stored physically
close to data that has already been requested.

Q5) Discuss the different features of windows Operating System.

An Operating System (OS) is a software that acts as an interface between computer

hardware components and the user. Every computer system must have at least one
operating system to run other programs. Applications like Browsers, MS Office, Notepad
Games, etc., need some environment to run and perform its tasks.

The OS helps you to communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the
computer’s language. It is not possible for the user to use any computer or mobile device
without having an operating system.
Best Features of Windows Operating System

1. Speed

Even aside from incompatibilities and other issues that many people had with Vista, one
of the most straightforward was speed – it just felt too sluggish compared to XP, even on
pumped up hardware. Windows 7 brings a more responsive and sprightlier feel and
Microsoft has spent a lot of time and effort getting the Start Menu response just right.

Microsoft has also recognized the need for improved desktop responsiveness, which gives
the impression that the computer is responding to the user and that they are in control –
something that was often lacking with Vista.

You can also expect faster boot times. And the boot sequence is now not only prettier
than it was with Vista, but it’s speedier too.

2. Compatibility

In simple terms, compatibility on Windows 7 will be far better than it was with Vista.
Many programs that individuals and companies used on Windows XP did not work
immediately and required updates, but with Windows 7 almost all applications that work
on Vista should still run.

3. Lower Hardware Requirements

Vista gained a reputation for making even the beefiest

hardware look rather ordinary. Windows 7, however, will run well on lower end
hardware, making the transition from Window XP less painful.
Microsoft is even pushing Windows 7 for netbooks. This could provide a modern
replacement for Windows XP, which has found a new lease of life as the OS of choice on
netbooks, supplanting Linux. The downside is that Windows 7 Starter Edition, as it will
be called, will be limited to only three applications running at the same time.

4. Search and Organization

One of the best things about Windows 7 is the improved search tool, which now rivals
Mac OS X’s Spotlight to be able to find what you need quickly and easily. For example,
typing ‘mouse’ will bring up the mouse option within the control panel or typing a word
will display it and split it up neatly into files, folders and applications.

Also introduced is the concept of Libraries, which takes the ‘My Documents’ concept a
stage further. The various Libraries, such as Documents and Pictures, will watch multiple
locations which you can add yourself, so you don’t have to keep everything in one place.

5. Safety and Security

New security features in Windows include two new authentication methods tailored
towards touchscreens (PINs and picture passwords), the addition of antivirus capabilities
to Windows Defender (bringing it in parity with Microsoft Security Essentials) Smart
Screen filtering integrated into Windows, and support for the "Secure Boot" functionality
on UEFI systems to protect against malware infecting the boot process. Family Safety
offers Parental controls, which allows parents to monitor and manage their children's
activities on a device with activity reports and safety controls. Windows 8 also provides
integrated system recovery through the new "Refresh" and "Reset" functions, including
system recovery from USB drive. Windows 8's first security patches would be released
on November 13, 2012; it would contain three fixes deemed "critical" by the company.

6. Interface and Desktop

Windows introduces significant changes to the operating system's user interface, many of
which are aimed at improving its experience on tablet computers and other touchscreen
devices. The new user interface is based on Microsoft's Metro design language, and uses
a Start screen similar to that of Windows Phone as the primary means of launching
applications. The Start screen displays a customizable array of tiles linking to various
apps and desktop programs, some of which can display constantly updated information
and content through "live tiles". As a form of multitasking, apps can be snapped to the
side of a screen. Alongside the traditional Control Panel, a new simplified and touch-
optimized settings app known as "PC Settings" is used for basic configuration and user
settings. It does not include many of the advanced options still accessible from the normal
Control Panel.

Microsoft Windows 10

7. Taskbar/Start menu

At first glance, the task bar looks like nothing has much has changed since Vista. In fact,
that’s not the case and it’s a lot more powerful. Microsoft is now making best use of its
aero technology. By default, taskbar icons are now larger and items are grouped together
and are not labelled with clumsy text.

If you have multiple Word documents or Windows Explorer windows open then you’ll
see a stack appear on the task bar. Hover the mouse over the app and each Window will
be visible in a thumbnail. Hover over each thumbnail and it will become visible, while all
other open windows temporarily disappear, save for their outlines. You can close each
document or Window down from the thumbnail directly or click on it to bring it to the
front.

In the Start menu, a small arrow to the right of applications such as Word now expands to
give a list of recent documents and any can be pinned so you can keep one permanently
on the list.
ASSIGNMENT- II
Q1) What is Word Processor in computer system?

A word processor (WP) is a device or computer program that provides for input, editing,
formatting, and output of text, often with some additional features. Early word
processors were stand-alone devices dedicated to the function, but current word processors
are word processor programs running on general purpose computers. The functions of a word
processor program fall somewhere between those of a simple text editor and a fully
functioned desktop publishing program. However, the distinctions between these three have
changed over time and were unclear after 2010.

The earliest word processors were standalone machines similar to electric typewriters that
debuted in the 1960s. The great advantage of these early machines over using a typewriter
was that you could make changes without retyping the entire document. Over time, the
devices acquired more advanced features, such as the ability to save documents on a disk,
elaborate formatting options, and spell-checking.

While there are still some standalone word processors in use today, word processing began to
move to personal computers in the 1980s. In the early days of the PC, a word processor called
WordPerfect became one of the most widely used applications of any kind. Over time,
however, What You See Is What You Get (WYSIWYG) word processors that showed users
exactly what would print on their final documents became more popular. One of those
WYSISWG word processors, Microsoft Word, became dominant in the 1990s.

Q2) What is Word Processing in Application?

Word processing application, such as Microsoft Word or Corel WordPerfect, is very good at
working with basic text. If you want to type fast, check your spelling and grammar, automate
repetitive typing tasks, create outlines, track changes to the text, write reports with footnotes,
make and organize tables of data, and print to desktop printers, then you should choose a
word processor as your application.
What word processing applications are not good at is working with colors or creating high-
end graphics. The drawing features found in word processors should be used only to create
artwork for documents that will be printed directly from the word processing program onto
desktop printers. Don’t ever take your word processing document to a service bureau for
professional, high-end output. If they don’t flatly refuse to do the job, they may charge you
extra for recreating the job using a professional page layout program.

Word processors are also not very good at professionally formatting text—they just don’t
have the sophisticated features for adjusting the spacing and position of text characters,
controlling hyphenation, or wrapping text around an image. If you want truly fine and
beautiful type, insert your word-processed text into a page layout application such as Adobe
InDesign or QuarkXPress.

The software vendors try to delude you into thinking you can create entire newsletters and
brochures in word processors. Technically, you can, sort of, but it’s so much trouble and
there are so many limitations that believe me, you’ll have much more fun creating your
newsletter in a page layout application. The internal structure of a word processing page just
doesn’t allow you the freedom you need to make something like a newsletter, fancy brochure,
advertisement, or other designed piece.

Most people start off typing their text in a word processing program and then importing or
placing it into a page layout application. If you are preparing text in a word processor that
you or someone else is going to insert into a page layout application, here are some
guidelines to follow

 If you use tabs to separate columns of information, insert only one tab character
between each column. Even if the text doesn’t line up correctly, don’t add any extras
tabs. Those extra tabs are going to cause huge gaps and uneven columns in the page
 layout application. If you find it difficult to read the columns, use the tab stops to even
out your columns.

 Use only one space after periods. The old rule of two spaces after a period applies
only to typewriters.

 Don’t hit the paragraph return several times to make spaces between
paragraphs. Those extra lines are only going to cause problems later on. If you need
space between paragraphs, you should create it using the “Space Before” and “Space
After” paragraph formatting. You can find these commands in your word processing
program.

 Before you use tables in the word processor, find out if your layout program can
import them. However, don’t apply fancy colors or borders to the table in the word
processor. That formatting will have to be removed in the page layout program.

 Don’t use the built-in drawing or graphics features of word processing

programs. They don’t print as well as professional graphics and can cause all sorts of
problems if you output your file using a professional process. The same thing applies
to the clip art that ships with word processing programs.

 Don’t insert graphics or photographs from other applications into a word processing
document. Instead, make a note in the text that the graphic or photo goes into that
spot. Then, the person doing the layout can add the graphic in the correct position.

 Check before using automated formatting such as drop caps, numbered lists,
footnotes, endnotes, and indexes. You want to make sure that the page layout software
will be able to import these features correctly. If not, the formatting will have to be
removed and reapplied using other techniques.

Q3) How to use mail merge in MS Word? Write down the steps to be followed?

Mail Merge is most often used to print or email form letters to multiple recipients. Using
Mail Merge, you can easily customize form letters for individual recipients. Mail merge is
also used to create envelopes or labels in bulk.

This feature works the same in all modern versions of Microsoft Word: 2010, 2013, and
2016.
1. In a blank Microsoft Word document, click on the Mailings tab, and in the Start Mail
Merge group. Click Start Mail Merge.

2. Click Step-by-Step Mail Merge Wizard

3. Select your document type. In this demo we will select Letters. Click Next: Starting
documents.

4. Select the starting document. In this demo we will use the current (blank) document.
Select Use the current document and then click Next: Select recipients.
5. Select recipients. In this demo we will create a new list, so select Type a new list and
then click Create.
o Create a list by adding data in the New Address List dialog box and
clicking OK.

o Save the list.

o Note that now that a list has been created, the Mail Merge Wizard reverts
to Use an existing list and you have the option to edit the recipient list.
o Selecting Edit recipient list opens up the Mail Merge Recipients dialog box,
where you can edit the list and select or unselect records. Click OK to accept
the list as is.

o Click Next: Write your letter.

6. Write the letter and add custom fields.

o Click Address block to add the recipients' addresses at the top of the

document.

o In the Insert Address Block dialog box, check or uncheck boxes and select
options on the left until the address appears the way you want it to.

o Note that you can use Match Fields to correct any problems. Clicking Match
Fields opens up the Match Fields dialog box, in which you can associate the
fields from your list with the fields required by the wizard.
7. Press Enter on your keyboard and click Greeting line... to enter a greeting.
8. In the Insert Greeting Line dialog box, choose the greeting line format by clicking the
drop-down arrows and selecting the options of your choice, and then click OK.

9. Note that the address block and greeting line are surrounded by chevrons (« »). Write
a short letter and click Next: Preview your letters.
 Preview your letter and click Next: Complete the merge.

 Click Print to print your letters or Edit individual letters to further personalize some or
all of the letters.
Q4) What is Microsoft Word? Define all the tabs and ribbons.

Microsoft Word is word processing software. It is developed by Microsoft and is part of

Microsoft Office Suite. It enables you to create, edit and save professional documents like
letters and reports.

Microsoft word was released in 1983 as Multi-Tool Word. Its first version was based on the
framework of Bravo which was world's first graphical writing program. Microsoft renamed
Multi Tool Word to Microsoft Word, and then in October 1983, Microsoft released its first
version for the IBM PC.

In 1985, Microsoft ported it to the Macintosh which was different from its DOS-based
counterpart, i.e. Macintosh offered various major interface changes.

In 1989, Microsoft released a new version of Word for its Windows operating systems. It was
the Microsoft Word who introduced the concept of WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You
Get), i.e. it allowed to create and display bold and italics text.

In 2014, Microsoft developed the source code for Microsoft Word for Windows 1.1a.

Title Bar

It lies next to the Quick Access Toolbar. It displays the title of the currently open document
or application. It is present on almost all windows displayed on your computer. So, if there
are several windows across the screen, you can identify each window by looking at the title
bar. In many graphical user interfaces, you can also move a window by dragging the title bar.

Ribbon and Tabs

The Ribbon is a user interface element which was introduced by Microsoft in Microsoft
Office 2007. It is located below the Quick Access Toolbar and the Title Bar. It comprises
seven tabs; Home, Insert, Page layout, References, Mailing, Review and View. Each tab has
specific groups of related commands. It gives you quick access to the commonly used
commands that you need to complete a task.
Home tab:

The Home tab is the default tab in Microsoft Word. It has five groups of related commands;
Clipboard, Font, Paragraph, Styles and Editing. It helps you change document settings like
font size, adding bullets, adjusting styles and many other common features. It also helps you
to return to the home section of the document.

Insert tab:

Insert Tab is the second tab in the Ribbon. As the name suggests, it is used to insert or add
extra features in your document. It is commonly used to add tables, pictures, clip art, shapes,
page number, etc. The Insert tab has seven groups of related commands; Pages, Tables,
Illustrations, Links, Header & Footer, Text and Symbols.

Page Layout tab:

It is the third tab in the Ribbon. This tab allows you to control the look and feel of your
document, i.e. you can change the page size, margins, line spacing, indentation,
documentation orientation, etc. The Page Layout tab has five groups of related commands;
Themes, Page Setup, Page Background, Paragraph and Arrange.
References tab:

It is the fourth tab in the Ribbon. It allows you to enter document sources, citations,
bibliography commands, etc. It also offers commands to create a table of contents, an index,
table of contents and table of authorities. The References tab has six groups of related
commands; Table of Contents, Footnotes, Citations & Bibliography, Captions, Index and
Table of Authorities.

Mailing tab:

It is the fifth tab in the ribbon. It is the least-often used tab of all the tabs available in the
Ribbon. It allows you merge emails, writing and inserting different fields, preview results and
convert a file into a PDF format. The Mailings tab has five groups of related commands;
Create, Start Mail Merge, Write & Insert Fields, Preview Results and Finish.

Review tab:

It is the sixth tab in the Ribbon. This tab offers you some important commands to modify
your document. It helps you proofread your content, to add or remove comments, track
changes, etc. The Review tab has six groups of related commands; Proofing, Comments,
Tracking, Changes, Compare and Protect.
View tab:

The View tab is located next to the Review tab. This tab allows you to switch between Single
Page and Two Page views. It also enables you to control various layout tools like boundaries,
guides, rulers. Its primary purpose is to offers you different ways to view your document. The
View tab has five groups of related commands; Document Views, Show/Hide, Zoom,
Window and Macros.

Q5) What is the function shortcut of cut, paste and copy?

Shortcut for Cut

For this, press Control (Cltr) key and “X” together on your Windows laptop/ PC. Here’s
how it works:

 First up, go to the paragraph, or information you want to cut.

 Now, double-click the first word of the paragraph. And just press and hold the Shift
key and the right arrow key, up until you want the selected information to be copied.
If you want to select without a mouse, just hold the control (Ctrl) key and press
spacebar, move with the arrows you want to select the file, and press and hold shift if
you want to select multiple files after releasing the control key. You can also press
control and “A” keys together to highlight the entire page.

 Next, hold down the Control key and press “X” to cut the highlighted text.

Shortcut for Copy

Hold down Control (Cltr) key and press “C” to copy on your Windows laptop/ PC. Before
that,

 Highlight the content, file, or folder you want to copy.

  This can be done using double-click or shortcut commands such as Shift + right arrow
key up until the point you want to copy, control (Ctrl) key + spacebar and arrow keys,
and control (Ctrl) + “A”.

 Next, press Control key and “C” simultaneously to copy

Shortcut for Paste

 To paste the content using the shortcut key, hold the Control (Ctrl) key, then press
“V”.

Q6) What do you know about the header and footer?

The header is a section of the document that appears in the top margin, while the footer is a
section of the document that appears in the bottom margin. Headers and footers generally
contain additional information such as page numbers, dates, an author's name,
and footnotes, which can help keep longer documents organized and make them easier to
read. Text entered in the header or footer will appear on each page of the document.

To create a header or footer:

1. Double-click anywhere on the top or bottom margin of your document. In our

example, we'll double-click the top margin.

2. The header or footer will open, and a Design tab will appear on the right side of
the Ribbon. The insertion point will appear in the header or footer.
3. Type the desired information into the header or footer. In our example, we'll type the
author's name and the date.

4. When you're finished, click Close Header and Footer. You can also press
the Esc key.
 5. The header or footer text will appear.

To insert a pre-set header or footer:

Word has a variety of pre-set headers and footers you can use to enhance your document's
design and layout. In our example, we'll add a pre-set header to our document.

1. Select the Insert tab, then click the Header or Footer command. In our example,
we'll click the Header command.

2. In the menu that appears, select the desired pre-set header or footer.
3. The header or footer will appear. Many pre-set headers and footers contain text
placeholders called Content Control fields. These fields are good for adding
information like the document title, author's name, date, and page number.

4. To edit a Content Control field, click it and type the desired information.
 5. When you're finished, click Close Header and Footer. You can also press
the Esc key.

If you want to delete a Content Control field, right-click it and select Remove Content
Control from the menu that appears.
Q7) What is the various features of a good Word Processor?

Features of a word processors

 A word wrap which automatically starts a new line if there is insufficient room at the
hand margin.

 Availability of different fonts, character sizes and styles.

 Text paragraph and page formatting eg text alignment, indenting, page number etc.

 Search and replace command which allow replacement of every incidence of a certain
combination of characters with a set of characters.

 Undo which allows action that have been performed to be reversed.

 Printing of documents single or multiple choices.

 Mail merging that is very essential while similar letters have to be sent.

 Ability to create and import tables, text and graphics from other programs.