Class 11 Computer Science Complete Notes by Binod Rijal

Introduction to Computer
Concept, Importance and Characteristics of Computer
The full form of COMPUTER is Common Operating Machine Particularly Used for Trade, Education and Research. Technically
speaking, the term computer doesnot have a full form. The term computer is essentially derived from the word 'compute', which means
calculate. Nevertheless, there is a hypothetical full form of computer, which is said to be Commonly Operated Machine Particularly
Used for Trade, Education and Research
The computer is a multi-tasking programmable electronic machine which performs the calculations and processes information with
astonishing speed. It can calculate thousands of informations with flash speed and almost unfailing accuracy. The computer can
perform both computation and logical action at enormous speed. The two principle characteristics of a computer are:
It responds to a specific set of instructions in a proper manner.

It can execute a prerecorded list of instruction (a program)
In other words, a computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data.
Before we talk about different types of computers, let's talk about two things all computers have in common: hardware and software.
Hardware is any part of your computer that has a physical structure, such as the keyboard or mouse. It also includes all of the
computer's internal parts, which you can see in the image below.
Software is any set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do and how to do it. Examples of software include web
browsers, games, and word processors. Below, you can see an image of Microsoft PowerPoint, which is used to create
presentations.
IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER
The computer is important in a variety of ways. For example, a difficult and time-consuming task can be done in no time and in an easy
way. The computer provides better and effective way to manage a large amount of information to every individual, organization,
business, government and institution. The value of computer lies in the ability to perform quickly and accurately. The computer can help
in producing better quality products, help in teaching and assist in elimination human error.
a.) Solving numerical problems
One of the most difficult and most important jobs performed by computers is the solution of complicated problems involving numbers.
computers can solve those problems amazingly and quickly. The computer can perform a simple numerical problem to complicated
numerical problem.
b.) Storing and retrieving information
People use computers to store large quantities of information. information stored on a computer is sometimes called a database. The
database can be enormous. For example, a country's entire census might be contained in a single database. A computer can search a
huge database to find a specific piece of information. In addition, the information can be changed easily and quickly. The efficiency with
which computers store and retrieve information makes them valuable in a wide range of professions.
c.) Creating and displaying document and picture
Computers can store a huge number of words in a way that make it easy to manipulate them. For this reason, word processing is one
of the most important and widespread uses of a computer. Computers are also important in the publishing industries. For example,
most books and magazine are typed on a computer. Graphics is the use of a computer to make pictures.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
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Source: www.freezonal.com
Every computer has certain common characteristics irrespective of their type and size. The computer is not just adding machines; they
are capable of doing complex activities and operations. They can be programmed to do complex, tedious and monotonous tasks.
Computers are what they are because of the following characteristics:
i.) Word length
A digital computer operates on binary digits i.e 0 and 1. It can understand information only in terms of 0s and 1s. A binary digit is called
a bit. a group of 8 bits is called a byte. The number of bits that a computer can process at a time in parallel is called its word length.
Commonly used word length are 8,16,32 or 64 bits. Word length is the major of the computing power of a computer. When we talk of a
32-bit computer, it means that it's word length is 32 bits.
ii.) Speed
The calculation in the computer is at very high speeds. For example, a micro computer can perform millions of instructions per second
as many times without any mistake. The speed increases, as the power of computer increase. For example, a super computer can
operate at speed measures on nanoseconds and even picosecond.
iii.) Storage
The computer has main memory and auxiliary memory. The computer can store a large amount of data. With more and more auxiliary
storage devices, which are capable of storing huge amounts of the data, the storage capacity of a computer is virtually unlimited. The
reason that makes computer storage unique is not that it can store huge amount of data, but the fact that it can retrieve the information
that the user wants in a few seconds. For example, computer dictionaries are available and the contents of this software version are
the same as that of the printed dictionary.
iv.) Accuracy
The accuracy of a computer is very high unless the input is given correctly. In most cases, the error is because of human factor rather
that technology mistake. For example, if the person input wrong code or the data is corrupted,the processing result is also wrong or
corrupted. So if wrong input is given, the output also will be wrong- GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out)
v.) Versatility
Computers can perform activities ranging from simple calculation like arithmetic calculation, to a complex calculation like launching
a missile, which it makes a computer a versatile machine. some application area of computers like a business, bank medical
diagnosis, science and technology,communication and astronomy, so it is a versatile machine.
vi.) Diligence
Diligence means being constant and determined in effort and application. The computer can perform the repetitive task without
being a bore and it never gets tired. It can work continuously for several hour or day without getting bored and tired. Unlike human
beings, a computer is free from tiredness, weakness, lack of concentration and monotony. Computers can perform activities
ranging from simple calculation like arithmetic calculation, to a complex calculation like launching a missile, which it makes a
computer a versatile machine.
vii.) Automation
A computer is an automatic machine, capable of functioning automatically once they are an appropriate set of instruction and data
provided to the computer. Once the task is initiated on a computer it can proceed continuously. The computer can be
programmed to perform a series of a task involving multiple programs. Computers are capable of these levels of automation if the
instruction is provided correctly.
viii.) Reliability
Computers are used widely as they are reliable. The computer never gives the wrong result as long as the input is given correctly.
The probability of error in the computer is negligible. A Huge amount of verities of data like monetary transaction, banking account,
personal information is stored in a computer with the strong reliability to the computer.
The computer has become an integral part of our lives and is helping us in improving the standard living, enhancing the quality
products, providing better healthcare, assisting in teaching and learning and other however computer have many limitations like
lack of intelligence, lack of reasoning capabilities and other.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER
ADVANTAGES
The computer can perform a complex operation in a short

time. The computer can process a large volume of data.
Computer can work continuously for a long time
A single computer can perform multiple tasks such as watching a movie, playing games, listening song and
others. The computer does not make a mistake.
Computer increases the curricular performance of the student.
DISADVANTAGES
The computer does not have a brain and cannot decide

itself. It does not have its own intelligence.
The computer does not have emotion and
feelings. It needs electricity to operate.
It cannot operate itself, unless, a human command is given.
Generation of Computer and Their Features
Note Things to remember
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Computer generations classification is mainly based on the basic devices used. Also, the considerations are the architecture,
languages, modes of operation, etc. The function performed by the computer and the speed of their operations have been changing
since the old days to the most modern computer. Based on the period of development and the features incorporated, the computers are
classified into different generations- First generation to Fifth generation. This is called the computer generation.
The classification and time periods are given below:

1. First Generation Computer (1945-1955)
2. Second Generation Computer (1957-1963)
3. Third Generation Computer (1964-1971)
4. Fourth Generation Computer (1972 onward)
5. Fifth Generation Computer (Present and future)
1.) First Generation Computer (1945-1955)
First generation computers were characterized by the fact that operating instructions were made to order for the specific task for which
the computer was to be used. It was operated on the ' Principle of Thermionic Emission".
In the first generation computer, vacuum tubes as CPU, magnetic drum for data storage , and machines languages were used for giving
instruction. The computer of this generation was very large in size called room-sized computers. The programming of first generation
computers was done in machine languages (0s and 1s). Afterward, assembly languages were developed and used in first generation
computer.
Features of first generation computers:

Technology used: vacuum tube
Machines languages were used to instruct the computer.
Magnetic core memory was used as primary memory.
Electrostatic tubes, Parer tape, punch card, magnetic tape
Punched card, printing devices were used for input/output operations and store the result.
It occupies very large space, slow processing, inefficient and unreliable due to low accuracy.
Power consumption was very high and it generated much heat.
It could only perform straight forward simple numerical calculation.
Computer used to be much expensive.
The example of first generation computers is ENIAC, UNIVAC,EDVAC, and EDSAC.

2.) Second Generation Computer (1957-1963)
Second generation computer replaced machine language with assembly language, allowing abbreviated programming codes to replace
long, difficult binary codes.
Fig: Second Generation Computer

source: www.techiwarehouse.com
The transistor was developed in this generation. A transistor transfers electric signals across a resistor. A transistor was highly reliable
compared to tubes.
The transistor was far more superior in performance on account of their miniature size, smaller power consumption, and heat
production rate. The second generation computer used these semiconductor devices.
Some of its features are:

Technology used: Transistor
Operating speed was in terms of a microsecond.
Assembly language and machines independent language such as COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) and
FORTRAN (Formula Translation) were introduced the size of the computer.
Magnetic core memory was used as primary memory.
Magnetic drum and magnetic tape were used as secondary memory.
Power required to operate them was low.
It could perform scientific calculation such as solving differential equations.
Storage capacity and use of computers are increased.
3.) Third Generation Computer (1964-1971)
Transistors were an improvement over the vacuum tube, but they still generated a great heat, which damaged the computer's sensitive
parts. The quartz eliminated this problem.
Fig: Third Generation Computer

source:www.tutorialspoint.com
Transistors were replaced with an integrated circuit known popularly as chips. Scientist managed to fit many components on a single
chip. As a result, the computer became ever smaller as more components were squeezed on the chip.

IC was first designed and fabricated by Jack S Kilby at Texas Instrument and by Robert S Noyce at Fairchild independently. IC is a
circuit consisting of a large number of electronic components placed on a single silicon chip by a photo-lithographic process.
Magnetic disks began to replace magnetic tape for auxiliary and video display terminals were introduced for the output of data.
Keyboards were used for the input of data. A new operating system was introduced for automatic processing and multi-programming.
These computers were highly reliable, relatively expensive and faster. High-level programming languages continued to be a developer.
The example of third generation computers is IBM-360 series, ICL-900 series, and Honeywell 200 series.
Features of the third generation computers are:

The technology used: IC (Integrated Circuit).
Transistors were replaced by IC in their electronic circuitry.
High-level languages like FORTAN , BASIC and other are used to develop programs.
Semiconductor memory like RAM and ROM were used as primary memory.
Monitor and keyboard were introduced for data input and output respectively.
Multiprogramming facility was developed.
The computer was used in census calculation, military, banks and industries.
Size, cost, power requirement and heat generation decreased.
Processing speed and storage capacity used of computer increased.
4.) Fourth Generation Computer (1972 onward)
Fig: Fourth Generation Computer

source: www.slideshare.net
The invention of microprocessor chip marked the beginning of the fourth generation computers. Semiconductor memories replaced
magnetic core memories. The invention of microprocessors led to the development of microcomputer or the personal computer.
The first microprocessor called Intel 4004 was developed by American Intel Corporation 1971.
This computer has faster generation language and application software for microcomputers became popular and allowed home and
business users to adapt their computers for word processing, spreadsheet manipulating, file handing and graphics.
In this generation, the concept of computer networks and CD-ROMs came into existence.
Features of the fourth generation computer are:

Technology in use: VLSI is introduced and used Microprocessor-based technology.
Problem-oriented fourth generation language (4GL) is used to develop the program.
Semiconductor like RAM, ROM and cache memory is used as a primary memory.
Magnetic disks like hard disk, optical disk (CD,DVD), Blue-ray disk, flashes memory (memory chip, pen drive) are used as
secondary memory.
E-mail, Internet and mobile communication are developed.
Advanced, user-friendly, web page software are developed.
Size, cost, power requirement, heat generation decreased compared to the previous generation.
Operating speed, storage capacity ,use of computer increased compared to the previous generation
The example of the fourth generation computer is IBM-PC, HP laptops, Mac notebook etc.
5.) Fifth Generation Computer (Present and future)

Fig: Fifth generation Computer
source: robot.suanier.com
The aim is to bring machines with genuine IQ, the ability to reason logically and with real knowledge of the word. Thus, this computer
will be totally different, totally novel and totally new than last four generations of computer.
Fifth generation computer was based on Artificial Intelligence (AI) and that is still developing process, but not yet a reality i.e this
computer is incomplete. The scientists are working on it still.
These computers will be able to converse with people and will be able to mimic human sense, manual skills, and intelligence.
Features of the fifth generation computers are:

Technology to be used: These machines will incorporate Bio-chip and VVLSI (Very Very Large Scale Integration) or Ultra-Large
Scale Integration (ULSI)
The computer will have Artificial Intelligence (AI).
Natural language will be used to develop programs.
The computer will have parallel processing in full fledge.
The operating speed will be in terms of LIPS(Logical Inference per Second)
These aim is to solve highly complex problems, which require great intelligence and expertise when solved by people.
Quantum computation, molecular and nanotechnology will be used completely.

History of computer
Evolution of computer is a study of past development of computer i.e. it is meant by the gradual improvements of accuracy, speed and
efficiency of computers through generations, whereas generations of computers may be defined as the development of computer in an
average period of time in which old computer technology may be replaced by newer technology.
Ancient people lived on the earth for centuries without counting.Then, they started to count their ten figures. It become so difficult to live
and to remember anything. These phenomena were gradually replaced by the use of stones, counting notches on sticks or marks on
walls. The different generations are described below which has helped the humans for keeping records with the passing of time.
1.) The Mechanical Era (Zeroth generation)
The calculator of this age was developed by using mechanical components like wood, metal, stone, bone, etc. It was used for simple
mathematical calculations. Some of the popular calculations used in this ages are:
Abacus
In ancient period, it was used to calculate mathematical calculation. It was used for performing simple calculation like counting,
addition, subtraction and multiplication of number. An abacus consists of a rectangular frame carrying a number of wooden rods. Mid-
bar divides each of these rods in top unequal -upper and lower parts.

Fig: Abacus
Source: www.computerhistory.org
The upper part is called heaven,whereas lower part is called earth.The heaven consists of two beads, whereas the earth part consists
of five beads to each rod. The value of bead on heaven part is five and earth is one. Each abacus consists of nine or eleven or thirteen
rods.
John Napier (1550-1617 AD)

THE SCOTTISH mathematician John Napier first published the table of logarithms in 1614 AD. It was very used and consists of a large
number of calculations.
He invented bone rods and used bones to demonstrate by subtracting and multiplication by addition according to his principle. These
are made of strips of bones on which numbers were carved and painted that`s why it is also called Napier's bone.
Fig: Napier bone

Source:www.microscopy-uk.org.uk
William Oughtred (1575-1660AD)

It is a rectangular device-slide-rule. It was a calculating device based on the principle of a log. A rule consists of two graduated scales,
one of which slips upon other. It is devised in such a way that suitable alignment of one scale against the other makes it possible to
find products and quotient of any numbers.
Fig: Oughtred ruler

Source: www.oughtred.org
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662AD)
The man name Blaise Pascal, was a brilliant mathematician and religious thinker. Pascal made a mercury barometer and measured
atmospheric pressure to assist his father in his work accounting. Pascal invented the first mechanical calculation machine in Paris.
Fig: Pascal Calculator

Source:en.wikipedia.org

Baron Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz (1646-1716AD)
He develops a new method of calculation called 'Calculus'. He modified the masculine machine and invented a first calculator, Stepped
Reckoner, which was able to perform automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, but could find out square root. Each with
nine teeth of varying lengths instead of wheels it was called 'Leibniz Calculator' or 'Stepped Reckoner'.

Fig : Leibniz Calculator
Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834 AD)

The french man, Joseph Marie Jacquard, was a textile manufacturer who invented a mechanism for automated weaving clothes for the
textile industry at Lyon, in 1802 AD. This machine was used to automatically control weaving looms to facilitate the production of
weaving cloth with complex patterns.
Fig: Jacquard loom

Source:www.allonrobots.com
Charles Babbage (1791-1871 AD)

The English Professor and Mathematician, Charles Babbage, invented the Different Engine at Cambridge University, in 1822 AD. This
machine can solve differential equations and calculate various mathematical functions. It is also called " Analytical Engine ".
Fig: Analytical engine

Source: www.plyojump.com
Lady Augusta Ada Byron Lovelace (1515-1852 AD)

The English intelligent and independent-minded woman, Lady Augusta, was a daughter of English poet Lord Byron and a very Great
follower, assistant of Charles Babbage. Lady documents Babbage`s work and writes programs for Babbage.

This plan is now regarded as the first computer program. That`s why, she was considered the first computer programmer and a
software language developed by the US Defense Department, was named Ada in her honor.
Herman Hollerith (1860-1929 AD)

An American Inventor, Herman Hollerith, also applied the Jacquard loom concept in computing and applies for patents for an automatic
punch-card tabulating machine. He invented a machine knows as " Tabulating Machine ". This device could process on the punch
cards and perform census calculating faster than ever before.
John Von Neumann (1903-1975 AD)
The Hungarian Mathematician, John gave an idea of stored program computer in the sense that program is stored internally in the main
memory of the computer along with its associated data, in 1945. So, he is called the "Father of Stored Program". Before that, program
required for the computer were integrated and written permanently in chips. So, modification of program was not possible. But, after
Neumann, such programs were stored on a computer in some storage media, so modification was easy and flexible.
Source: io9.gizmodo.com
2.) The Electro-Mechanical Era
The calculator of this age was developed by using mechanical and electronic component vacuum tube.
Successful general purpose mechanical computers were built, in the 1930s. Konrad Zuse developed mechanical computer, the Z1, in
1983 in Germany.
The Mark I Computer (1937 - 1944)

A Professor of Physics, Howard H. Aiken designed a general purpose mechanical computer at Harvard University and IBM Automatic
Sequence Controlled Calculator (IBM ASCC). It was the first fully automatic calculating machine and later as Harvard Mark I.
It used binary numbers for its operation. Later, Mark II was invented by Aiken and his colleagues that were working electromechanical
relays for its operation. Mark II used 19000 valves.

The Mark II Computer
It used about 18 thousand vacuum tubes as the main memory device with 7 lakes 50 thousand parts. It is 51 feet long, 8 feet height and
3 feet wide as bulky in size.It was capable of performing five basic arithmetic operations; additions, subtraction, multiplication, division
and table reference. The result was printed at the rate of one result per five seconds.
The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939 - 1942)
In 1939, John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry designed Atanasoff-Berry computer or ABC solving systems of mathematical
simultaneous equation. It used 18000 valves and other 45 valves for internal logic and capacitors for storage.
Source:jva.cs.iastate.edu
It used punch cards as input and output operation i.e secondary. It is considered as the first computing machine which introduced the
idea of binary arithmetic, regenerative memory and logic circuits.
The Colossus (1941 - 1944)

In 1944, Colossus computer is designed by Alan M. Turing and build by British mathematician Alan Mathison Neuman, Alan with some
colleagues, creates a computer named colossus at the University of Manchester, England, which comprised 1800 vacuum tubes.
Source:www.colossus-computer.com
It was one of the world's earliest working programmable electronic digital computers. Colossus was a special purpose machine that
suited a narrow range of tax (for example, it was capable of performing decimal multiplication ).
The Electronic Computer Era

The computers of this age are developed by using electronic components like a vacuum tube, transistors IC, VLSI, etc. These
computers are smaller, faster and more reliable.
The Eniac (1943-1946)

In 1946, John W. Mauchly and J.presper Eckert constructed ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrated and Calculator), at the Moore

School of Engineering of the University of Pennsylvania. USA ENIAC was the first popular general purpose all electronic digital
computers. John Von Neumann was the consultant of the ENIAC project.
Source:www.ushistory.org
It was a very large machine weighing about 30 tons and containing about 17,468 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors, 5 million soldered
joints and it consumed 160 kilowatts.
The EDVAC (1946-1952)

EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was developed by Dr.John Von Neumann,and a member of the Moore
School of Engineering of the Unversity of Pennslyvania,J.P Eckert, and J.W Mauchly. The EDVAC is used for more school personnel
and the Ballistics Research Laboratory of the US Army,which was based on Jhon Von Neumann`s ideas of Stored Program".
The UNIVAC (1951)

UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) was developed by J.P.Eckert and J. Mauchly in 1951. It was the first computer manufactured
for commercial use and general purpose digital computer.It was designed to handle both numeric and textual information. Before this,
all the computers were either used for defense or census was by General Electrical Corporation in 1954.

Classification of Computer
On the Basis of Brand
The computers can be classified into three categories on the basis of brand. They are:
a) IBM PC
b) IBM Compatible
c) Apple/Macintosh
IBM PC (International Business Machine Personal Computer)
IBM is the largest computer manufacturing company established in 1924, in the USA. The IBM PCs are developed by a company named,
International Business Machine (IBM) Company so, the computers are known as IBM PC.The technology used in IBM PC is designed by the
engineer of IBM Company. IBM PCs are more reliable, durable and have better quality but costly. It was specifically designed for
professionals and scientific problem solvers.
(HSEB NOTES)
The IBM PC was not as powerful as many of the other personal computers that it was competing against at the time of its release. The IBM
PC was created by a team of 12 IBM engineers and designers under the direction of Don Estridge of the IBM Entry Systems Division in
Boca Raton, Florida.
IBM Compatibles
The computers that have some functional characteristics and principles of IBM computers are called IBM compatible. IBM compatible
computers are developed by other companies than IBM companies using the technology of IBM PC. They are easily available and cheaper.
Their parts are easily available in the market. They are also duplicate or assemble a computer. They are popular in the world.
Apple/Macintosh
All the computers manufactured by Apple Co-operation are known as Apple/Macintosh computer. It is a leading computer manufacturing
company of USA. Apple computers are developed by Apple Co-operation which was established in the late 1970s in the USA. Apple
computers are costlier than IBM computers.
These computers use their own software and hardware. Software developed for IBM computer can't run in apple computers and vice- versa.
They are totally different than that of IBM computers, in terms of both hardware and software. They are available in a different capacity, cost
and sizes. These computers are nearly 8% in the market. The first Macintosh was introduced on January 24, 1984, by
On the basis of Working Principle
Computers are being very popular in the present days. In less than 100 years, computers have
revolutionized much of human society. Modern computers have helped people in many ways, such as in
communication, creating works, distribution of works, and so on.
There are a number of computers that have fulfilled the necessities of the people.
On the basis of the application and working principle, the computers are classified as:
Analog computer
Digital computer
Hybrid computer
Analog Computer
The computer which operates on continuous data, usually of a physical nature such as length, voltage or current, etc. is known as the
analog computer. An analog machine is usually a special purpose device that is dedicated to a single task. Analog computers are
based on the analog signals that are continuous in nature.

Analog computers are widely used in scientific and industrial applications. It is used in hospitals to measure the size of the stone in
kidney and mental disease diagnostics. It works by measuring rather than counting.
Analog computers are also called special purpose computers as they are usually used for scientific work rather than personal purpose.
It is powerful in solving differential equations.
In comparison with digital computers, it has less storage capacity and their performance is less accurate. It is specially designed to perform
continuously in physical forces like computing the temperature, pressure, and others. It represents physical quantities in the form of continuous
waves.
Presley, thermometer, speedometer, barometer, lactometer, etc. are the example of an analog computer. Thermometer, barometer,
speedometer, and ammeter are examples of analog devices.
Characteristics of Analog Computer
The speed of an analog computer is fast but have no state.

These computers work with physical values such as temperature, pressure etc.
These computers are based on continuous data.
These computers are not reliable and are difficult to use and operate.
These computers are the base for digital computers.
These computers have small memory.
Normally, an analog computer cannot be reprogrammed.
Digital Computer
Source: www.slideshare.net
The computer which works on discrete data or discontinuous data is known as a digital computer. It works on a binary system where 0
represent off and 1 represents on. It is based on digital signals i.e discrete signals.
The basic principle of these computers is either present or absence of an electric pulse in the signals. It is a multipurpose and
programmable computer. It is fast processing, more accurate and has a large memory capacity. It is usually a general purpose
computer. Some examples of a digital computer are IBM PC, Apple/Macintosh computer, etc.
Characteristics of Digital Computer are:
A digital computer operates by calculation.

It is a multipurpose computer and can be reprogrammed.
It has a large storage capacity than an analog computer.
The results are accurate and high.
It stores the data in the form of a bit.
The processing speed is very fast.
These machines are automatic.
These computers are versatile in the sense that they can carry out the different type of jobs at a time without any interference.
A computer works at the same speed, same accuracy, and with the same efficiency at all time.
Difference between Digital Computers and Analog Computers are:
S.NO. Digital Computer S.No. Analog Computer
The digital computer works upon discrete

1. 1. Analog computer works on continuous data.
(discontinuous) data.
These computers work with natural or physical

2. This computer works with a digit. 2.
value.
3. The accuracy is high. 3. The accuracy is low.
4. It is a general purpose computer. 4. It is a special purpose computer.
5. It has high storage capacity. 5. It has no or limited storage capacity.

6. It does a multi-purpose job. 6. It does a single purpose job.
7. It can be reprogrammed. 7. No possibility of reprogramming.
8. The cost is low and portable. 8. The cost is high and easily not portable.
Example: Desktop computer, IBM PC,

Example: Presley
Apple/Macintosh computer, etc.
Hybrid Computer
Fig.: Hybrid Computer

Source: www.slideshare.net
A computer, which is a combination of the best feature used in both analog and digital computers is called a hybrid computer. It helps
the user to process discrete and continuous data. The hybrid computer can convert the analog signal into digital signals and digital
signal into the analog signal. Hybrid computers are used mainly in specialized applications where both kinds of data need to be
processed. Therefore, they help the user to process both continuous and discrete data.
They have the speed of digital computers and the accuracy of the analog computer. They can perform the task of both analog and the
digital computer. They are usually used for special problems, as it is a special purpose computer in which input data are derived and
measurement are converted into digits and processed by a computer.
Hybrid computers are used in the following fields:
During rocket launching process, where the analog devices measure the speed of the rocket, temperature, pressure of the
atmosphere, then, these measurements are converted into digital signals and supplied to the digital devices to analyze the data
for taking appropriate steps on launching.
In hospitals, analog components measure the temperature and blood pressure of a patient, then, these measurements are
converted into a digital signal and fed to the digital devices that monitor the patient's vital information.
In weather forecasting, analog devices measure wind speed, humidity, temperature, wind direction and fed to the digital devices
that compare with the past information to predict the climate changes.
In an automated industry, analog component measure temperature, pressure, speed and provide it to the digital component that
takes proper action.
Characteristics of Hybrid Computer
It is the combination of qualities of analog as well as a digital computer.

It can process both continuous and discrete data.
It is a special purpose computer.
It can convert one type of data into another.
It is mostly used in radar communication, rocket launching, weather forecasting and in other fields.
It usually costs high compared to the analog and digital computer.
Hybrid Machines are generally used in scientific applications or in controlling industrial processes.
On the Basis of Size

1. Super Computer
2. Mainframe Computer
3. Mini Computer
4. Micro Computer
1) Super Computer
Super computer is one of the most powerful computers which is used to perform the complex calculations. They are the fastest
computer which works in nanosecond even in a picosecond too. This computer is used for a special purpose. Usually, such computer
uses parallel processors. Nowadays, the computing capability of a super computer is equal to that of 40,000 micro computers. Mostly
super computers are used by government agencies. These computers are used in research and other operations where there is a huge

numerical calculation. Different industries also use this huge computer for designing their products. It is also used in Hollywood movies
for animation purposes. It requires large space and temperature control room. CRAY X-MP/24, NEC-500, PARAM, etc are some of the
examples of a super computer. Today's super computers are designed by companies such as HP, IBM, Cray Inc.
2) Mainframe computers
Fig: mainframe Computer

Mainframe computers are powerful multi-user computers capable of supporting many hundreds of users simultaneously. It is also large
in size. This computer has slower processing speed than a super computer but faster than a mini and micro computer. It is designed for
large-scale data processing and a huge amount of data storage. They are used in a big organization such as bank, insurance
companies, airlines, railway reservation system, e-mail service providers, web hosting, etc. It needed a large area approximately 1000
sq.ft. It supports a large number of I/O terminals, more than 100 terminals.
In a mainframe, each user accesses the mainframe’s resources through a device called a terminal. Their terminals are attached to the
mainframes to perform the different types of task in FIFO.
Dumb terminal and intelligent terminal are the two kinds of terminals. A dumb terminal is the input/output device that functions as a
window into a computer located somewhere else. An intelligent terminal can perform some processing operations, but it usually does
not have any storage.
IBM 1401, ICL 2950/10,CYBER 170, etc are some of the examples of mainframe computers.
3) Minicomputer
Fig: Mainframe Computer

Source: professorprahlad.wordpress.com
Minicomputer is also a multi-user computer capable of supporting ten to hundreds of users simultaneously. Due to the smaller size and
its cost compared to mainframe and a super computer, it got its name as a minicomputer. It is also known as midrange computer.
Minicomputer can handle more input and output than a micro computer. It can support about 50 terminals and requires an area around
100 sq ft. This computer is useful for medium sized business, organizations, industries, universities and banks. It is cheap and easy to
operate than a mainframe computer.
Prime 9755, VAX 7500, HCL, MAGNUM, CDC-1700, etc. are some of the examples of a mini computer.
4) Microcomputer
A computer which is based on a microprocessor is called microcomputer. They are small and single user computer. This computer has
a keyboard for entering data, a monitor for displaying and a storage device for storing the data. It requires less area compared to other
computers.
This computer consists of central processing unit and a single chip. It is mainly used in office, school, house, shop, etc.The smallest of
this category are a laptop, notebook, palmtop and PDA. IBM PC, Apple/Macintosh, etc. are the examples of the microcomputer. The
microcomputer is categorized as a non-portable and portable category.
Some of the examples of microcomputer are described below:
Desktop
Fig: Desktop

The desktop computer is the kind of personal computer (PC), which is a common type of computer used by many people today. They
are a non-portable computer.
The term “desktop computer” means the concept of such a computer actually sitting on top of a desk. A computer is known as
“workstation” is actually a relatively powerful kind of desktop.
This type of desktop has a faster processor, more memory and other advanced features compared to another desktop. Common
desktops often have much computing capability compare to the workstation.
Laptop
Fig: Laptop
A ‘laptop’ computer is a light, compact and portable PC. It contains a rechargeable battery. They also contain a built-in LCD monitor. It
is a portable computer.
To make them as portable as possible; most laptops try to avoid any sort of cable or wire. In laptop, instead of a mouse, a trackpad is
used. Instead of wired connection to a network or printer, ‘wireless’ radio connection are used.
A laptop is also known as a notebook, which is another kind of personal computer used by many people today. It has usually a flat-
screen monitor and keyboard attached to the computer.
Most of the laptop have a clam-shell case design, which means that the case opens in a way similar to a clam. Some of the laptops are
in the form of a tablet.
Handheld
Source:www.techpowerup.com
Fig: Handheld
A handheld computer is a kind of portable computer that is intended to be held and used in a hand. A handheld computer is becoming
more and more common in modern society.
This computer includes various kinds of PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) computers, such as those running palm OS or windows
mobile. Nowadays, mobile phones have slowly replaced by smartphones and similar handhelds with mobile phone capabilities.
Those phones which contains the running of Google Android, windows mobile and also the iPhone are the handheld computer which
has the function of mobile phones.
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
A PDA is similar to a palmtop computer. It is more compact and typically has no keyboard, using a touch screen for all data input. The
screen of PDA has a small screen. So, it has a small stylus (plastic stick) that is used to press things on a screen.
Most PDAs use some sort of handwriting recognition system to allow the user to write on the screen and have their writing converted
into text. PDAs use a ‘digital diaries’ to take their e-mail, documents, appointments, etc.
Mobile Computing and Speed Measurement
Mobile computing is the form of human-computer interaction by which a computer is expected to be transported during normal usages.

Mobile computing has three aspects: mobile communication, mobile hardware and mobile software.
The first aspect addresses communication issues in ad-hoc and infrastructure networks as well as communication properties, protocol,
data format and concrete technologies. The second aspect is on hardware, e.g., mobile device or device components. The third aspect
deals with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications.
Mobile computing is a generic term describing one's ability to use technology while moving, as opposed to portable which is the only
particle for use while deployed in a stationary configuration. A mobile computing device is created using mobile components, such as
mobile hardware and software.
Mobile computing devices are portable devices capable of operating, executing, providing services and applications to a computing

device. It is a computing device used in transit. Users can access data and information from wherever they are. Here's the example
view of how does the mobile computing works on a server and mobile networks.
Fig: Working of Mobile Computing

Source:slidesharecdn.com
Fig: Layers of Mobile Computing

Source:www.notsotrivial.net
Mobile computing is the process of computation on a mobile device. In mobile computing, a set of distributed computing systems or
service provider servers participate, connect, and synchronize through mobile communication protocols.
Mobile computing provides decentralized (distributed) computations on diversified devices, systems, and networks, which are mobile,
synchronized, and interconnected via mobile communication standards and protocols.
Many types of mobile computers have been introduced since the 1990's including wearable computer, PDA, enterprise digital assistant,
smart phone, UMPC (Ultra-mobile PC), Tablet PC.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MOBILE COMPUTING
It is a portable device that you can carry during mobility.

It has limited processing and storage capability.
It includes mobile communication, mobile hardware, and mobile software.
It usually contains touch screen for providing input.
It contains on-screen or virtual keyboard for proving text inputs. However, an external keyboard can be connected by using USB
port, infrared or Bluetooth.
It contains the camera, speaker, and microphone etc.
It contains handwriting recognizing software.
Most of the mobile computing devices contain memory card slot to expand the storage capacity.
It has wireless connectivity such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, to connect the Internet or with other computing devices as well as the wired
connection through the USB port.
The most mobile computing device can synchronize their data with the applications on a user's computer.
It can be used for cloud computing and remote access.
It uses the mobile computing operating system such as Android, iOS, Windows Mobile OS, Plam OS.

It can include GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver for navigation.
Fig: Mobile Computing

Source: www.forbes.com
Speed Measurement units of Computer
In computers, the size of a device does not reflect the space available to store data in it. There many tiny devices that store the
unbelievable amount of data whereas larger device only can store few amount of data. How long, how thick cannot determine how
much we can store inside inspite, we need to find some other way to measure space available on the computer. Almost all of the
computers use binary numbering systems.
Binary numbering system consists of two digits i.e 0 and 1 which represents any quantity. Everything in computers is represented in
strings of binary numbers. For example capital A is represented by a computer as 0100 0001 and B is 0100 0010. All characters,
symbols, images, numbers, animations, sounds, videos and everything is converted into binary code to process by a computer to
store in computer. So if there is any device that can store one binary digit, 1 bit is its storage capacity.
We’ve know that bit is the abbreviation of binary digit. Any device that has storage space to confirm 5 binary digits has 5 bits
space.There require thousands and millions of bits for a file and expressing the space available in bits which are really inconvenient
because of its extreme large number. So, there are larger units which represent a group of lower units.
A group of 4 binary digits is called a nibble. Similarly, a group of 8 bits is called a byte.As the example, each character requires 8 bits
which are 1 byte, so 1 character requires only 1-byte space. If we have a text file whose size is 32 bytes, it means there are 32 x 8
binary digits stored in it. .1024 (=2 10) is that digit which converts higher unit in a binary numbering system.
Following table lists the different units and their values:
Units Equivalent
0 or 1 1 Bit
4 bits 1 Nibble
8 bits 1 Byte
1024 bytes 1 Kilobytes (KB)
1024 Kilobytes 1 Megabyte (MB)
1024 Megabytes 1 Gigabytes (GB)
1024 Gigabytes 1 Terabytes (TB)
1024 Terabytes 1 Petabyte (PB)
1024 Petabytes 1 Exabyte (EB)
Units Equivalent
1000th of a second 1 Milliseconds (MS)
1000th of a milliseconds 1 Microseconds
(μs) 1000th of a microseconds 1 Nanosecond (ns)
1000th of a nanoseconds 1 Picoseconds (ps)
1000th of a picoseconds 1 Femtoseconds
(fs)

Number System: Introduction and Types
In every step of life, we definitely find the use of numbers. If you need to buy something, you will have to pay a certain amount of
money for which you will have to count the money. Likewise, the shopkeeper will also count the goods to give you and same for your
changes. Therefore, number system can simply be defined as a way to represent numbers.
For example, a number system can be used to represent the number of players in a certain game like 11 players in a football team or
for the number of audience for a concert like 25000 concert-goers, etc. So number system can also be viewed as a set of values that is
used to represent different quantities.
TYPESOF NUMBER SYSTEM
1) Decimal Number System:
The decimal number system is the most commonly used number system in our daily life. This generally used number system is also
known as the base 10 number system because it uses just the 10 symbols i.e. 0 to 9. It is also known as the denary number system
because any numeric value there is, these system’s digits can easily represent them.The decimal system is specially used in the
computer interface. The weight and position of the digit dictate the value represented by it.
In this system, each number consists of the digits that are located at different positions. The positions of the 1 st and the 2nd digits

towards the right side of the decimal point are -1 and -2. Similarly, the positions of the 1st and 2nd digits towards the left side of the
decimal point are 0 and 1 respectively.
The value of the number is determined by adding the results out of the multiplication of the digits with the weight of their position. This
method is called the expansion method. Under this method, the rightmost digit of the number is called the Least Significant Digit (LSD),
as it has the lowest weight. Likewise, the leftmost digit of the number is called the Most Significant Digit (MSD), as it has the highest
weight.
Examples:
(a) The weights and positions of each digit of the number 796 are as follows:
Positions 2 1 0
Weights 102 101 100
Face value 7 9 6
The above table indicates that:

The value of digit 7 = 7x102=700
The actual number can be formed by adding the values obtained by the digits as follows:
700+90+6=796
Here, the digit 7 in the number 796 is the most significant digit and 6 is the least significant digit.
(b) The weights and positions of each digit of the number 125.64 are as follows:
Positions 2 1 0 -1 -2
Weights 102 101 100 10-1 10-2
Face value 1 2 5 6 4

The value of digit 1 = 1x102 = 100
The value of digit 2 = 2x101 = 20
The value of digit 5 = 5x100= 5
The value of digit 6 = 6x10-1= 0.6
The value of digit 4 = 4x10-2= 0.4
The actual number can be formed by adding the values obtained by the digits as follows:
100+20+5+0.6+0.4=125.64
2) Binary Number System:
Binary Number System refers to the number system that uses only two symbols i.e. 0 and 1, that's 0why it is called a base 2 number
system. It is also known as Binary Digit (BIT). This number system is especially used in the internal processing of computer system.
When we count up from 0 in binary, symbols are much more frequently run out as this system only uses 0 and 1 and 2 do not exist.
Therefore, we use 10 in this system because 10 is equal to 2 in decimal. The combination of binary numbers can be used to represent
different quantities like 1001. In Binary, each digit’s positional value is twice the face value or place value of the digit of its right side.
Each position’s weight is a power of 2.
According to the position and weight, the place value of the digits is as follows:
Positions 3 2 1 0
Weights 23 22 21 20
Example: Convert 101.11
Positions 2 1 0 -1 -2
Face value 1 0 1 1 1
Weight 23 2¹ 20 2-1 2-2

101.101 = 1x2²+0x2¹+1x20+1x2-1+1x2-2
= 1x4+0+1x1+1/2+1/4

= 4+0+1+0.5+0.25
= 5.75
3) Octal Number System:
Octal Number System is the base 8 system. Like the decimal number system, this system is also used in the internal processing of
computer system. It is the system that consists of eight digits i.e. {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} which is used for the representation of long
binary numbers short-handedly. In this system, each digit position represents a power of 8. The number 708 will not be valid in this
system as 8 is not a valid digit.
Example: Convert 128 to a decimal number.
Positions 4 3 2 1 0
Weights 84 8³ 8² 8¹ 80
128 = 1x8¹+2x80
= 1x8+2x1
= 8+2
= 10
4) Hexadecimal NumberSystem:
Hexadecimal Number System is the number system that represents long binary numbers in shortcut method. It is a base 16 system as
it consists of 16 digits i.e. {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F } where the alphabets represent the decimal numbers 10 to 15.
This system is also used in the computer system, mainly in the memory management. As the name suggests, each digit's position
represents a power of 16 in this system.
Example: Convert 2A16 to a decimal number.
Positions 4 3 2 1 0
Weights 164 16³ 16² 16¹ 160
2A16 = 2x16¹+Ax160
= 2x16+10x1
= 32+10
= 42

21 + 1×20
= 32 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 +1
= (51)10
Example 2: convert (1011.101) 2 into decimal.

(1011.101)2 = 1×23 + 0×22 + 1×21 + 1×20 + 1×2-1 + 0×2-2 + 1×2-3
= 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 +0.5+ 0 +0.125
= 11 + 0.5 + 0.125
= (11.625)10
Conversion of binary to octal (base 2 to base 8):
The rules for conversion from binary to decimal are given below:
1. Divide the given binary number into a group of three bits from binary point to left (or from right to left if no fractional part) and
from binary point to the right. Append 0’s at leading or trailing or trailing position if necessary to make each group of 3 bits.
2. Substitute each group of three bits by octal equivalent from a table.
3. Collect octal digits to get an octal equivalent number.
Example: convert (10110101)2 into octal.

Solution:
Dividing the given binary number (10110101)2 into groups of 3 bits from right to left, and appending 0’s at leading position, we have,
Conversion of binary to hexadecimal (base 2 to base 16):

The rules for conversion from binary to hexadecimal are as given below:

1. Divide the given binary number into a group of four bits from binary point to left (or from right to left if no fractional part) and from
binary point to the right. Append 0’s at leading or trailing position if necessary to make each group of 4 bits.
2. Substitute each group of four bits by hexadecimal equivalent symbol (letter or digit) from the table.
3. Collect Hexadecimal symbols to get Hexadecimal equivalent number
Example: convert (10101011101)2 into hexadecimal

Solution:
Dividing the given binary number (10101011101)2 into groups of 4 bits from binary point to left and binary point right and appending 0’s
at leading or at trailing position to make each group of four bits, we have,
Conversion of Decimal
It consists of conversion from decimal to binary, octal and hexadecimal number system which are described below:
Conversion of decimal to binary (base 10 to base 2):
The rules for conversion from decimal to binary are as given below:
1. Divide the given number by 2 and note the remainder.

2. Repeatedly divide the quotient by two and note the remainder until quotient reduced to 0.
3. Collect the remainders, last obtained first and first obtained last to binary equivalent.
Example: convert (51)10 into binary

Solution:
51÷2=25 remainder =1
25÷ 2=12 remainder =1
Therefore, (51)10 = (110011)2
Conversion of decimal to octal (base 10 to base 8):
The rules for conversion from decimal to binary are as given below:
1. Divide the given number by 8 and note the remainder.

2. Repeatedly divide the quotient by 8 and note the remainder until quotient reduced to 0.
3. Collect the remainders, last obtained first and first obtained last to get the octal equivalent.
Example: convert (177)10 into octal

Solution:
177÷ 8 =22 Remainde =1
r
22÷ 8 = 2 Remainde =6
r
2÷ 8 = 0 Remainde =2
r
Therefore, (177) 10 = (261)8

Conversion of decimal to hexadecimal (base 10
to base 16): Example: convert (77)10 into
hexadecimal
Solution:
77÷ 16=4 remainder = 13 which means D
4÷ 16 =0 remainder =4
Therefore, (77)10 = (4D)16
Conversion of octal
It consists of conversion from octal to decimal, binary and hexadecimal number system which are described below:
Conversion of octal to decimal (base 8 to base 10):

Multiply the each octal digit by corresponding power of 8 and sum each product term to get decimal equivalent.
Example: convert (632)8 to decimal.

Solution:
(632)8 = 6×82 + 3×81 + 2×80
= 384 + 24 + 2
= 410
Therefore, (632) 8 = (410)10
Conversion from octal to binary (base 8 to base 2):

Substitute each octal digit by equivalent 3 bit binary from table and collect bits for each digit to get binary equivalent numbers.
Example: convert (741)8 into binary.
Conversion from octal to hexadecimal (base 8 to base 16):

Actually, there is no direct method for converting from octal to hexadecimal so first, convert octal into binary or decimal and then convert
binary or decimal to hexadecimal.
Conversion of hexadecimal
It consists of conversion from hexadecimal to decimal, binary and octal number system which are described below:
Conversion of hexadecimal to decimal (base 16 to base 10):

The rules for conversion from hexadecimal to decimal are as given below:
1. Multiply each digit by corresponding power of 16(base) as in decimal to binary.

2. Sum each product term to get decimal equivalent.
Example: convert (F4C)16 into decimal.

Solution:
(F4C)16 = F×162 + 4×161 + C×160
= 15×256 + 4×16 + 12×1
= 3840 + 64 + 12
= 3916
Therefore, (F4C)16 = (3916)10
Conversion of hexadecimal to binary (base 16 to base 2):

Substitute each hexadecimal symbol by equivalent 4 bit binary from table and collect bits for each digit to get binary equivalent numbers.
Conversion of hexadecimal to octal (base 16 to base 8):

There is no direct method for converting from hexadecimal to octal, so first convert hexadecimal into binary or decimal and then convert binary or
decimal to octal.
Components of Computer System: Input, output, Processor and Storage

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Introduction to Computer

Concept, Importance and Characteristics of Computer

It responds to a specific set of instructions in a proper manner.

a.) Solving numerical problems

b.) Storing and retrieving information

c.) Creating and displaying document and picture

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i.) Word length

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The computer can perform a complex operation in a short

The computer does not have a brain and cannot decide

Generation of Computer and Their Features

Note Things to remember

The classification and time periods are given below:

1.) First Generation Computer (1945-1955)

Features of first generation computers:

The example of first generation computers is ENIAC, UNIVAC,EDVAC, and EDSAC.

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Fig: Second Generation Computer

Some of its features are:

3.) Third Generation Computer (1964-1971)

Fig: Third Generation Computer

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Features of the third generation computers are:

4.) Fourth Generation Computer (1972 onward)

Fig: Fourth Generation Computer

Features of the fourth generation computer are:

5.) Fifth Generation Computer (Present and future)

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Features of the fifth generation computers are:

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1.) The Mechanical Era (Zeroth generation)

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John Napier (1550-1617 AD)

Fig: Napier bone

William Oughtred (1575-1660AD)

Fig: Oughtred ruler

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662AD)

Fig: Pascal Calculator

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Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834 AD)

Fig: Jacquard loom

Charles Babbage (1791-1871 AD)

Fig: Analytical engine

Lady Augusta Ada Byron Lovelace (1515-1852 AD)

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Herman Hollerith (1860-1929 AD)

2.) The Electro-Mechanical Era

The Mark I Computer (1937 - 1944)

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The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939 - 1942)

The Colossus (1941 - 1944)

The Electronic Computer Era

The Eniac (1943-1946)

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The EDVAC (1946-1952)

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