UNIT I

BASICS OF COMPUTERS

WHAT IS COMPUTER?

The term "computer" is derived from Latin word "compute" which means to calculate.

Computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and processes it
with set of instructions to produce result as output. It renders output just after performing
mathematical and logical operations. The device also has memory that stores the data, programs
and result of processing.

It is believed that Analytical Engine was the first computer. It was invented by Charles Babbage
in 1837. Charles Babbage is also considered as the father of computer.

Types of Computer

We can categorize computer by two ways: data handling capabilities and size.

On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:

o Analogue Computer
o Digital Computer
o Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer

Analogue computers are designed to process the analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data
that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values such as speed, temperature, pressure
and current.

The analogue computers measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and generally
render output as a reading on a dial or scale.
Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting
it into numbers and codes.

Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue computers.

2) Digital Computer

Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It
accepts the raw data as digits or numbers and processes it with programs stored in its memory to
produce output. All modern computers like laptops and desktops that we use at home or office
are digital computers.

3) Hybrid Computer

Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like analogue
computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both continuous
and discrete data. So it is widely used in specialized applications where both analogue and digital
data is processed. For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the
measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price.

On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Supercomputer

Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge
amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has
thousands of interconnected processors.

Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. First supercomputer was
developed by Roger Cray in 1976.

2) Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big
organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high volume
of data.

3) Miniframe computer

It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can support 4
to 200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes and departments for the
tasks such as billing, accounting and inventory management.

4) Workstation

Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications. It
has faster microprocessor, large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters. It generally
performs a specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types such as
graphics workstation, music workstation and engineering design workstation.

5) Microcomputer

Microcomputer is also known as personal computer. It is a general purpose computer that is

designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage
area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of
microcomputers.

Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five
functions −

Step 1 − Takes data as input.

Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.

Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.

Step 4 − Generates the output.

Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

High Speed

 Computer is a very fast device.

 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.

 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.

 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will
spend many months to perform the same task.

Accuracy

 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

 The calculations are 100% error free.

 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.

Storage Capability

 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.

  It can store large amount of data.

 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

Diligence

 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.

 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.

 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

Versatility

 A computer is a very versatile machine.

 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.

 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.

 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game.

Reliability

 A computer is a reliable machine.

 Modern electronic components have long lives.

 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

Automation

 Computer is an automatic machine.

  Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer
receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program
and instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper
work and results in speeding up the process.

 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.

 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces
the cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages of Computers

Following are certain disadvantages of computers.

No I.Q.

 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.

 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.

 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

Dependency

 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.

Environment

 The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.

No Feeling
  Computers have no feelings or emotions.

 It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike
humans.

Computer – Hardware

Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer, i.e. the components
that can be seen and touched.

Examples of Hardware are the following −

 Input devices − keyboard, mouse, etc.

 Output devices − printer, monitor, etc.

 Secondary storage devices − Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.

 Internal components − CPU, motherboard, RAM, etc.

Relationship between Hardware and Software

  Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work
together to make a computer produce a useful output.

 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.

 Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.

 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the
hardware.

 Hardware is a one-time expense.

 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.

 Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.

 A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.

 If the hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then the software is its 'soul'. Both are
complementary to each other.

Computer - Software

Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program

is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.

There are two types of software −

 System Software

 Application Software

System Software

The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the
computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level
languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the
interface between the hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers,
etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

 Close to the system

 Fast in speed

 Difficult to design

 Difficult to understand

 Less interactive

 Smaller in size

 Difficult to manipulate

 Generally written in low-level language

Application Software

Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular

environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of Application software.

Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing
and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software
package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are the following −

  Payroll Software

 Student Record Software

 Inventory Management Software

 Income Tax Software

 Railways Reservation Software

 Microsoft Office Suite Software

 Microsoft Word

 Microsoft Excel

 Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows −

 Close to the user

 Easy to design

 More interactive

 Slow in speed

 Generally written in high-level language

 Easy to understand

 Easy to manipulate and use

 Bigger in size and requires large storage space

 Computer - Input Devices

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −

 Keyboard

 Mouse

 Joy Stick

 Light pen

 Track Ball

 Scanner

 Graphic Tablet

 Microphone

 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

 Optical Character Reader(OCR)

 Bar Code Reader

 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.No Keys & Description

Typing Keys

1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the
same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad

2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a

set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding
machines and calculators.

Function Keys
3
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at
the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for
 some specific purpose.

Control keys

4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow
keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5 Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock,
Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and
sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between
the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it
cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages

 Easy to use
  Not very expensive

 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical
ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or
draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a
small tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be
moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can
be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had
been pointed at.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image
manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable
code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be
a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then
fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.

Computer - Output Devices

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.
  Monitors

 Graphic Plotter

 Printer

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be
placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines
vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT −

 Large in Size

 High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on
your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors,
laptop computer, and graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).

 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight

or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-
Crystal Device).

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers −

 Impact Printers

 Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the
paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy

 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types −

 Character printers

 Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come
out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages

 Inexpensive

 Widely Used

 Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

 Slow Speed

 Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower)
which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-
processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.
Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality

 Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy

 More expensive than DMP

Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

 Drum Printer

 Chain Printer

Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper
width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track.
Different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set.
One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000
lines per minute.

Advantages

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive

 Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

 Noisy

Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers
  Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy

 High quality

 Supports many fonts and different character size

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output

 Good graphics quality

 Supports many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages
  Expensive

 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality
output with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages

 High quality printing

 More reliable

Disadvantages

 Expensive as the cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer

Computer - Components
All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following five
basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

S.No. Operation Description

The process of entering data and instructions into the computer

1 Take Input
system.

Saving data and instructions so that they are available for

2 Store Data
processing as and when required.

Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to

3 Processing Data
convert them into useful information.

Output The process of producing useful information or results for the

4
Information user, such as a printed report or visual display.

Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above
5
workflow operations are performed.
Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit
creates a link between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information
into a form understandable by the computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the
operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has the following three components −

 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 Memory Unit

 Control Unit

Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the
computer. This unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the
computer's output into a form understandable by the users.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

  CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.

 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).

 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit

 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main
memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two
types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −

 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.

 It stores intermediate results of processing.

 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.

 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual
data processing operations.

Functions of this unit are −

 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of
a computer.

 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.

 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.

 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section

 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the
above operations.

Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching,
and merging of data.

Classification of computers

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

S.No. Type Specifications

PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful

1
Computer) microprocessor

It is also a single user computer system, similar to personal

2 Workstation
computer however has a more powerful microprocessor.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting

3 Mini Computer
hundreds of users simultaneously.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting

4 Main Frame hundreds of users simultaneously. Software technology is
different from minicomputer.
 It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute hundreds of
5 Supercomputer
millions of instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)

A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual

user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an
entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting,
desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At
home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing the Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally
linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days high-end models of the
Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end
workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

Workstation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,
software development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.

Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of
RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have
mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called diskless
workstation, comes without a disk drive.

Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC,
workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a
local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or
even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and
supports many simultaneous execution of programs.
Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number crunching).

For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in
petrochemical prospecting).

COMPUTER MEMORY
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types −

 Cache Memory

 Primary Memory/Main Memory

 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
  Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.

 It is known as the main memory.

  Usually volatile memory.

 Data is lost in case power is switched off.

 It is the working memory of the computer.

 Faster than secondary memories.

 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

Random Access Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program,
and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working.
As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can
hold.

RAM is of two types −

  Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips
use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent
leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.

There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache
memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of Static RAM

 Long life

 No need to refresh

 Faster

 Used as cache memory

 Large size

 Expensive

 High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made
up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

 Short data lifetime

 Needs to be refreshed continuously

 Slower as compared to SRAM

  Used as RAM

 Smaller in size

 Less expensive

 Less power consumption

Computer - Read Only Memory

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there
are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and
is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the
charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal
use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased
one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is
flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −

 Non-volatile in nature

 Cannot be accidentally changed

 Cheaper than RAMs

 Easy to test

 More reliable than RAMs

 Static and do not require refreshing

 Contents are always known and can be verified

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RAM AND ROM

RAM is Random Access Memory.
ROM is Read Only Memory.
RAM is the memory available for the operating system, programs and processes to use when the
computer is running.
ROM is the memory that comes with your computer that is pre-written to hold the instructions
for booting-up the computer.
RAM requires a flow of electricity to retain data (e.g. the computer powered on).
ROM will retain data without the flow of electricity (e.g. when computer is powered off).
RAM is a type of volatile memory. Data in RAM is not permanently written. When you power
off your computer the data stored in RAM is deleted.
ROM is a type of non- volatile memory. Data in ROM is permanently written and is not erased
when you power off your computer.
There are different types of RAM, including DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) and
SRAM (Static Random Access Memory).
There are different types of ROM, including PROM (programmable read-only memory) that is
manufactured as blank memory (e.g. a CD-ROM) and EPROM (erasable programmable read-
only memory).

SECOPNDARY MEMORY

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the
main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not
access these memories; instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is known as the backup memory.

 It is a non-volatile memory.

 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

 It is used for storage of data in a computer.

 Computer may run without the secondary memory.

 Slower than primary memories.

If we need to store large amount of data or programs permanently, we need a cheaper and
permanent memory. Such memory is called secondary memory. Here we will discuss
secondary memory devices that can be used to store large amount of data, audio, video and
multimedia files.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

These are some characteristics of secondary memory, which distinguish it from primary
memory −

 It is non-volatile, i.e. it retains data when power is switched off

 It is large capacities to the tune of terabytes

 It is cheaper as compared to primary memory

Depending on whether secondary memory device is part of CPU or not, there are two types of
secondary memory – fixed and removable.

Let us look at some of the secondary memory devices available.

Magnetic Tapes: The Magnetic Tapes is the Type of Secondary Storage Device and this
Device is used for taking back up of data and this Tape contains some magnetic fields and the
Magnetic Tapes are used Accessing the data into the Sequential Form and the Tape Also
Contains a Ribbon which is coated on the Single Side of the Tape and also contains a head which
reads the data which is Recorded on to the Tape. And when we are reading the information from
the disk then we can also read backward information means we can also back the Tape for
Reading the Previous information. And For inserting the Tape into the System we also Requires
Some Tape Drives Which Contains Tape and which is Responsible for Reading the contents
from the Tapes.

They can Store huge Amount of data into the Tape Drive , But the Main Limitation of the Tape
Drive is that we can’t Access the Data from the Disks directly means if we wants to 100th
Record from the Tape then we must have to move all the Previous i.e. 99th Records first. And
the Tapes are also easily damaged due to the Human Errors.

Hard Disk Drive

This is made from the thin metal platter which is coated on the both sides of the magnetic Disks.
And the there are Many Plates or Platters into a single Hard Disk and all the Plates are Made
from the Magnetic Materials and all the Disks are Rotate from the 700 to 3600 rpm means
Rotation per Minute and the Hard Disk also Contains a head which is used for both Reading and
Writing the Data from the Hard Disks.

Standard diameter of these disks is 14 inches and they rotate with speeds varying from 4200
rpm (rotations per minute) for personal computers to 15000 rpm for servers. Data is stored by
magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic coating. A magnetic reader arm is used to read data
from and write data to the disks. A typical modern HDD has capacity in terabytes (TB).

The Plate of Disk is Divided into the Tracks and sectors and the collection of Tracks makes a
Cylinder means all the Tracks of the Disk which a Consecutive Areas makes a Cylinder.

The Disk is first divided into the Number of Tracks and the Tracks are further divided into the
sectors and the Number of Tracks Makes a Cylinder. All the data is Stored into the disk by using
Some Sectors and each sectors belongs to a Tracks. The Data is accessed from the Disk by using
the heads, all the heads have Some Arm those are used for Reading the Data from the Particular
Tracks and sector. When the Disk Rotates very high Speed then the Head also Moves, For
Reading the data from the Disk the ARM touches with the Particular Track and read the data
from that Location.

For Locating a Particular data from the Disk the head Moves Around the Disk very Fastly and
data which a user wants to Access must have an Address So that Arm of the head just use that
Address Means the Number of Cylinder, Number of Track and Number of Sectors from which
user wants to read the data. With the Help of these Read and Write heads we can also Read the
Data from the Disk and we can also Stores some data onto the Disk. Some Time Considerations
are also used when we are accessing or storing the data onto the hard disk.

1) Seek Time: - The Total Time which is Taken to Move on the Desired track is known as the
seek Time. And time is always measured by using the Milliseconds.

2) Latency Time. : The time required to Bring the Particular Track to the Desired Location
Means the Total Time to bring the Correct the Sector for Reading or for the read and Write head.
This is also called as the Average Time.

3) Data Transfer Time: The Total Time which is required for Reading and Writing the data
into the Disk is known as the Data transfer Time.

When we are Taking About the Magnetic Tapes then we can say that the Storage Capacity of the
disk is Measure in the Form of Mega Bytes and when are talking about the Hard Disk then the
Measurement will be in the Form of Giga Bytes. Means the Capacity of t the Hard Disk will be
Read by using the Giga Bytes. The Magnetic Tapes are Sequential Access Device and the Hard
Disk is the Direct Access Device means the data of this Disk will be Read from Any Location
and the Data can be Read from the Disk by using the Read Write Heads. But hard Disks are
Costlier than the Simple Magnetic Tapes. But the capacity of the Hard Disk is very high in
compare to the Tapes.

CD Drive
CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually lasers, to
read and write data. They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of storage space for less than a
dollar. CDs are inserted in CD drives built into CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can eject
the drive, remove the CD and carry it with you. There are three types of CDs −

 CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) − The data on these CDs are
recorded by the manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio or video are released on CD-
ROMs.

 CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can be written by the user once on the CD-
R. It cannot be deleted or modified later.

 CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data can be written and deleted on these
optical disks again and again.

DVD Drive
DVD stands for Digital Video Display. DVD are optical devices that can store 15 times the
data held by CDs. They are usually used to store rich multimedia files that need high storage
capacity. DVDs also come in three varieties – read only, recordable and rewritable.

Pen Drive
Pen drive is a portable memory device that uses solid state memory rather than magnetic fields
or lasers to record data. It uses a technology similar to RAM, except that it is nonvolatile. It is
also called USB drive, key drive or flash memory.
Blu Ray Disk
Blu Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media used to store high definition (HD) video and
other multimedia filed. BD uses shorter wavelength laser as compared to CD/DVD. This
enables writing arm to focus more tightly on the disk and hence pack in more data. BDs can
store up to 128 GB data.

Floppy Diskette
Floppy disk is a kind of storage device that can be used to carried around? The Floppy Disk is
also a Secondary Storage device which is used for storing the data in a Permanent Manner. The
floppy is made up of Rigid Mylar Plastic and also contains a Magnetic black disk inside the
Plastic Cover. The Floppy Disk also Stores all the Data into the Form of Tracks and Sectors and
the floppy Disk provides both Reading and Writing the data into the Disk. The Floppy Disk is
also called as Reusable Disk means the Floppy Disk Provides us the Facility to Read and Writes
the Data into disk as and When Necessary and Also Many Times. We can Read and Write the
data from the Disk.

The Main Advantage of the Floppy Disk is that the Data can be Stored many Times but the Main
Limitation of the floppy Disk is that floppy Disk have a Small capacity and the Floppy Disk also
doesn’t have Reliability means the Data Stored into the Disk may not be used for Long Time
because the floppy Disk is very Sensitive Thing when we Move the Head of the Disk Again and
Again then the floppy gets Damaged
MEMORY UNITS

Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage capacity is
expressed in terms of Bytes.

The following table explains the main memory storage units −

S.No. Unit & Description

Bit (Binary Digit)

1
A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a
component in an electric circuit.

Nibble
2
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte

3 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a
data item or a character.

Word

A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a unit,
4 which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer.

The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length. It may be as

small as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in
 the form of computer words.

The following table lists some higher storage units −

S.No. Unit & Description

Kilobyte (KB)
1
1 KB = 1024 Bytes

Megabyte (MB)
2
1 MB = 1024 KB

GigaByte (GB)
3
1 GB = 1024 MB

TeraByte (TB)
4
1 TB = 1024 GB

PetaByte (PB)
5
1 PB = 1024 TB