BIOLOGY NOTES

TOPIC-2A
CELL MEMBRANES
 Outer cell membrane forms a boundary of the cells. It controls what goes inside and outside
of the cells.it also allows either side of fl uids to have diff erent compositi on. this makes it
possible for the right conditi ons for a parti cular reacti on in one part of the cell and diff erent
conditi ons for diff erent reacti ons going in the diff erent cells. The membranes are mostly
composed of two type of moleules-phsopholipids and proteins arranged in a specifi c way.

 Many chemical reacti ons take place on membrane surfaces e.g. some reacti ons of respirati on happen
on the inner mitochondrial membrane . Enzymes and all factors are needed to make the reacti on
happen are held closely together so the process can go easily from one reacti on to another. it
should also me fl exible so the cell can change its shape this happens very slightly when its
water content changes or quite dramati cally when a white blood cell engulfs a bacterium.
chemical secreti ons made by
the cell are contained in
membrane bags called
vesicles, which must be able
to combine with cell surface
membrane to release its
content.

THE PHSOPHOLIPID BILAYER

The lipids in the membrane are called polar lipids. These are lipids with one end joined to a polar
group. Many polar lipids in the, membrane are phospholipids with a phosphate group forming the
polar part of the molecule .

 The fatt y acids chain of a phospholipid is neutral and insoluble in water.in contrast the
phosphate head carries a negati ve charge and is soluble in water. when the phospholipids
contact water, the two parts of the molecule behaves diff erently. The polar phosphate part is
hydrophilic (water-loving) and dissolves easily in water. The lipoids tails are
hydrophobic(water-hati ng) and insoluble in water. If the molecules are ti ghtly packed in
water, they either form a monolayer, with the hydrophilic heads in the water and the
hydrophobic lipids tails in the air or clusters which are called micelles. In a micelle all the
hydrophilic heads point outwards and all the hydrophobic tails are hidden inside .

 A monolayer may develop at the surface between the air and water, but this doesn’t happen
oft en in living cells where there is water based soluti ons on either side of membranes. With
water on each side of the phospholipid molecule form a bilayer, with the hydrophilic heads
pointi ng in to the water while the hydrophobic tails are protected inside.

 A simple phospholipid bilayer allows at soluble organic molecules to pass thru it. many vitals
molecules needed in cells are ionic. While these dissolve in water, they cannot dissolve in or
pass thru lipids, even polar lipids. They canter the cells because the membrane not only
consists of lipids but proteins and other molecules.

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THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL OF CELL MEMBRANE
Many proteins and other molecules are fl oati ng within it together with others that are fi xed in a
place. The phospholipids containing unsaturated fatt y acids in the bilayer seems to aff ect how
freely the protein move within the membrane. Cholesterol is more rigid molecule then many of
the phospholipids molecules and so it makes the membrane more stable, stronger and more
eff ecti ve barrier to the movement of small molecules and ions and makes it harder from them to
pass thru the membrane. Many of the protein have a hydrophobic part, which is buried in the
lipid bilayer and a hydrophilic part which can be involved in a variety of acti viti es.

 One of the main functi ons of the proteins is to help substances move across the membranes.
The protein may make pores or channels. Some permanent, some temporary. Which allows
specifi c molecules to move thru the membrane. Some of these channels can be open or shut,
depending on conditi ons in the cell. They are known as gated channels. Some of the protein
pores are acti ve carrier systems, using energy to move molecules. Others are simply gaps in
the lipid bilayer which allows ionic substances to move thru the bilayer in all directi ons.

 Proteins may act as specifi c receptor molecules e.g. making some cells sensiti ve to a specifi c
hormone. They may be enzymes, parti cularly on the internal cell membrane to control
reacti ons linked to that membrane. some membrane proteins are glycoprotein proteins with a
carbohydrate added to the molecules. These are important on the surface of cells as part of
the way cells recognize each other.

CELL TRANSPORT AND DIFFUSION

T HE MAIN TYP E OF TR AN SPORTS ACR OS S MEM BR AN E;

 Passive transport: takes place when there

is concentrati on, pressure or
electrochemical gradient it involves no
energy from the cell .
 Acti ve transport: The movement of
substances across the membranes of cells
using ATP as an immediate source of
energy. It always involves a carrier protein which carries molecules and ions through the
membrane using energy supplied by the breakdown of ATP.

PASSIVE TRANSPORT MECHANISM

1. Diff usion : The movement of parti cles in a liquid or gas down a concentrati on gradient. They move
from an area where they are at a relati vely high concentrati on to an area where they are relati vely
low concentrati on by random movements. Cell membranes are no barrier to the diff usion of small
parti cles gases such as carbon dioxide. It requires kineti c energy doesn’t need ATP.

2. Facilitated diff usion: Diff usion that takes place through carrier proteins or protein channels. The
protein-lined pores of the cell membrane make facilitated diff usion possible. Doesn’t need ATP needs
concentrati on gradient.

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3. Osmosis : a specialized form of diff usion that involves the movement of small molecules (in cells;
these are free water molecules) down a water potenti al gradient through a parti ally permeable
membrane. Nature of parti ally permeable membrane means solutes (dissolved substances) can be
accumulated either side of the membrane and this results in the movement of water by osmosis
across the membrane.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT MECHANISM

1. Endocytosis : the movement of large molecules into the cells through vesicle formati on. The fl uid
nature of the cell membrane makes it possible to form vesicles.

2. Exocytosis : the movement of large molecules out of the cell through fusion of vesicles to the
membrane.

Facilitated diff usion

 Substances with strong positi ve or negati ve charge and large molecular cannot cross cell
membranes by simple diff usion. Nevertheless, they may move into and out of a cell down a
concentrati on gradient by a specialized form of diff usion. Facilitated diff usion involves
proteins in the membranes that allows specifi c substances to move passively down their
concentrati on gradient. The proteins may be channel proteins that from pores thru the
membranes. Each type of channel protein allows one parti cular type of molecules to pass
thru this depends on the molecules shapes and charge. E.g. Some are sodium ions channels
and some are potassium ion channels. Some channels open only if a specifi c molecule is
present. Or if there is an electrical change across the membrane, such as during the passage
of nerve impulses along the neurons. These are called gated channels.

 Another type of facilitated diff usion depends on carrier molecules fl oati ng on the surface of
the membrane. The carries will be found on the outside surface of the membrane structure
when a substance is to be moved into the cell or organelle. The protein carries are for
specifi c for parti cular molecules or group of molecules, depending on the shape of the carrier
protein and the substances to be carried. Once a carrier has picked up the molecule it rotates
to the membrane to the other side, carrying the molecule with it and then releases the
molecules. The movement thru the membrane takes places because the carrier changes shape
once its carrying something. The process can only take place down a concentrati on gradient.
From high concentrati on of a molecule to low. It doesn’t use energy its considered a form of
diff usion. e.g. red blood cells have a carrier to help glucose move into the cells rapidly.

OSMOSIS

Osmosis in cells can be defined as the net movement of free water molecules thru a partially permeable
membrane. Down a water potential gradient. On living organisms, the solvent is always water and membranes in
cells are generally partially permeable membrane. the water potential of a solution measures the concentration of
free water molecules. Most free water molecules mean a higher water potential. Water molecules will move from
an area of high water potential to an area with low water potential where there are few water molecules. This is
water potential gradient so osmosis in cells involves the movement of water from a region of high water potential
to region of low water potential down a water potential gradient across a partially permeable membrane such as
the cell surface membrane or the nucleus membrane.

If a solution bathing the outside of cell has higher water potential, then the solution inside the cell there will be
water potential gradient that encourages water molecules to move into the cell. If its opposite then the cell
contents, the water potential gradient will be from inside to the outside and free water molecules will move out of

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the cell. The osmotic concentration of a solution concerns only those solutes that have an osmotic effect. Large
insoluble particles found in cytoplasm such as starch and lipids are ignored when considering osmotic
concentration. Only soluble including big plasma proteins such as albumin and fibrinogen. In animals it is important
that the water doesn’t simply move continuously into the cells from a dilute external solution. If this were to
happen the cell would burst.

Modeling osmosis in cells

You can make a model cell using artificial membrane that is permeable to water molecules and impermeable to
others such as sucrose. The presence or absence of sucrose is different region of model can be shown by carrying
out benedicts test for non-reducing sugars.

OSMOTIC CONCENTRATION

The osmotic concentration of a solution is to measure of only those

dissolved substances that have an osmotic effect.

 In an isotonic soluti on, the osmoti c concentrati on of the

solutes in the soluti on is the same as that in cells.

 In a hypotonic soluti on, the osmoti c concentrati on of solutes

in the soluti on is lower than that in the cytoplasm of the cells.

 In a hypertonic soluti on, the osmoti c concentrati on of solutes in the soluti on is higher
than that in the cytoplasm .

OSMOSIS IN ANIMALS CELLS

Animal cells do not have cell walls so, in hypotonic
soluti ons, animal cells swell up and explode. They cannot
become turgid because there is no cell wall to prevent the
cell from bursti ng. When the cell is in danger of bursti ng,
organelles called contracti le vacuoles will pump water out of
the cell to prevent this from happening.

In hypertonic soluti ons, water diff uses out of the cell due to osmosis and the cell shrinks. Thus,
the animal cell always has to be surrounded by an isotonic soluti on. Animals that live on dry land
must conserve water, as do animals that live in salty sea water. Animals that live in freshwater
have the opposite problem; they must get rid of excess water as fast as it enters into their bodies
by osmosis.

OSMOSIS IN PLANTS CELLS

 Plant cells are enclosed by a rigid cell wall. When the plant
cell is placed in a hypotonic soluti on, it takes up water by
osmosis and starts to swell, but the cell wall prevents it
from bursti ng. The plant cell is said to have become
‘turgid’, i.e. swollen and hard. The pressure inside the cell
rises unti l this internal pressure is equal to the pressure
outside. This liquid (or hydrostati c pressure called ‘turgor

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 pressure’) prevents the further net intake of water. Turgidity is very important to plants as it
helps with the maintenance of rigidity and stability of plant ti ssue and, as each cell exerts a
turgor pressure on its neighbor, it creates plant ti ssue tension which allows the green parts
of the plant to ‘stand up’ into the sunlight.

 When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic soluti on, the water from inside the cell ‘s
cytoplasm diff uses out and the plant cell is said to have become ‘fl accid ’under a microscopic,
it will be noti ced that the cytoplasm has shrunk and pulled away from the cell wall. This
phenomenon is called plasmolysis . The process is reversed as soon as the cells are
transferred into a hypotonic soluti on (deplasmolysis).

 When a plant cell is placed in an isotonic soluti on, a phenomenon called ‘incipient
plasmolysis’ is said to occur. ‘Incipient’ means ‘about to be’. Although the cell is not
plasmolsysed, it is not turgid either. When this happens, the green parts of the plant droop
and are unable to hold the leaves up in the sunlight.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 Acti ve transport involves carrier proteins. It may be
Evidence for active transport
very specifi c to work for only one type of ion or
molecule or several similar substances competi ng with  Takes place only in living respiring cells
each other for a place on the carrier. Energy needed for  Rate of AT depends on temperature and
acti ve transport is provided by adenosine triphosphate oxygen concentration. This affects the
ATP. Cells that carry out a lot of acti ve transport have rate of respiration and production of
many mitochondria to supply the ATP they need. Acti ve ATP.
 Many cells carry out a lot of AT and
transport in carrier systems in the membrane involves
contain very large number of
the enzyme ATPase. This enzyme catalyzes the
mitochondria.
hydrolysis of ATP by breaking one bond and forming to  Cyanide prevents the synthesis of ATP
more. This provides the energy needed to move carrier during cellular respiration, it stops
system in the membrane or to releases transported active transport. However if ATP is
substances and return the system to normal. added artificially AT starts again.

 Acti ve transport is a one way systems for each specifi c

substance the carriers will not transport the substances
back through the membrane. An acti ve transports moves substances only in one directi on
required by the cell these transports are known as gated channels because they act as a gate
and controls what comes in and out of the cell. In some cases, the substances will move out
again in open channels down the concentrati on or electrochemical gradient that had just
been overcome but acti ve transport can move substances in faster than they can move out by
diff usion.

 Example of acti ve transport is the sodium pump that acti vely moves potassium ions into the
cell and sodium ions out. This pump vital for working of the nervous system each nerve
impulse depends on an infl ux of sodium ions thru the axon membrane. These ions must be
acti vely pumped out of the neurons again so that another impulse can pass.

ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS

 Membrane-bound vesicles can surround and take up materials in a process known as
endocytosis. This can occur on a relati vely large scale for example ingesti on of
bacteria during phagocytosis (cell eati ng). It also happens at a microscopic level, when

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 ti ny amount of the surrounding fl uid is taken into minute vacuoles. It’s known as
pinocytosis (cell drinking). Electron microscope studies have shown pinocytosis is very
common as cells take in the extracellular fl uid as a source of minerals and nutrients.

 Exocytosis is the term for emptying of a membrane-bound vesicle at the surface of the
cell or elsewhere. For example, in cells producing hormones, vesicles containing the
hormones fuse with the cells surface membrane to release their contents. These
processes are made possible by the fl uid mosaic nature of the membrane. The
formati on of vesicles and the fusing of vesicles with the surface cell membrane are
both acti ve processes requiring energy supplied by ATP.

THE NEED FOR GAS EXCHANGE SURFACES.

 Single celled and very small multi cellular organisms have a large surface are to volume rati o.
This means they can get the oxygen they need for cellular respirati on by air or water they live
in thru their outer body surface. As organism gets bigger their volume to surface area rati o
gets smaller and they begin to need specialized surfaces and systems to get the oxygen they
require.

 In contrast to unicellular organisms as amoeba larger organisms consists of billions of cells

oft en organized into specialized ti ssues and organs. Substances need to travel long distances
from the outside of the body to reach the cytoplasm of all the cells. Nutrients and oxygen
would eventually reach the inner cells of the body by diff usion but not fast enough to keep
them alive. Metabolic rate of larger organisms is higher than smaller. which allows them to
be very acti ve and to control their own body temperatures.

Factors that control the rate of diffusion

 The surface area; the bigger the surface are the more parti cles can be exchanged at the same
ti me.

 The concentrati on gradient of parti cles diff using; parti cles diff use from an area of high
concentrati on to low. The more parti cles on one side of the membrane the faster they move
across. Maintaining the gradient makes diff usion faster.

 The thickness of the exchange surfaces; the shorts the distance the faster the diff usion.

Fick’s law
Fick's Law describes the relati onship between the rate of diff usion and the three factors
that aff ect diff usion. It states that 'the rate of diff usion is proporti onal to both the
surface area and concentrati on diff erence and is inversely proporti onal to the thickness
of the membrane'.

Fick's law can be writt en as:

If the top number, the (concentrati on

and surface area) is higher and the bott om number the (thickness) is smaller the rate of
diff usion will increase.

THE MAMMALIAN GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEMS

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 EFFECTIVE GAS EXCHANGE FEATURES
 A large surface area giving suffi cient gas exchange to supply all the
needs of the organism it has to compensate for a relati vely small surface
area: volume rati o of whole organism.

 Thin layers to minimize the diff usion distances from one side to other.

 In animals a rich blood supply to the respiratory surfaces. The blood is involved in the
transport of the respiratory gasses to and from the site of gas exchange and helps to
maintain a steep concentrati on gradient.

 Moist surfaces because the diff usion takes place with the gases in soluti on.

 Permeable surfaces that allow the free passage of respiratory gasses.

HOW DOES IT WORK

 Nasal cavity: this is the main route by which air enters the gas exchange system.

 Mouth: air can enter the respiratory system here, but misses out on cleaning, moistening and
warming eff ects of the nasal route.

 Epiglotti s: a fl ap of ti ssues that closes over the glotti s in a refl ex acti on when food is
swallowed. This prevents food from entering in the gas exchange system.

 Larynx: the voice box which uses air across it to produce sounds.

 Trachea: the major airway to the bronchi, lined with cells including mucus secreti ng goblet
cells. Cilia on the surface of the trachea moves mucus and any air trapped microorganisms
and dust away from the lungs.

 Incomplete rings of carti lage: these prevent the trachea and bronchi from collapsing but
allow food to be swallowed and move down to the esophagus.

 Left and right bronchi: theses tubes lead to the lungs and have similar structure as trachea
but narrower they divide into bronchioles.

 Bronchioles: small tubes that spread into the lungs and end in the alveoli. Main functi on is
sti ll airway but some gas exchange may occur.

 Alveoli: main site of gas exchange in lungs .

 Ribs: protecti ve bony cage around the gas exchange system.

 Intercostal muscles: found between the ribs and important in breathing. Maintains air into
and out of the lungs to maintain a steep concentrati on gradient for rapid gas exchange.

 Pleural membranes: surrounds the lungs and lines the chest cavity forming a sterile, sealed
unit.

 Pleural cavity: space between the pleural membranes, usually fi lled with a thin layer of
lubricati ng fl uid that allows the membranes to slide easily with breathing movements.

 Diaphragm: broad sheet of ti ssue made of tendon and muscle that forms the fl oor of the
chest cavity, also important in breathing movements.

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 Inhaling:
GAS EXCHANGE IN THE ALVEOLI the internal intercostal muscles relax and the external
intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribcage
upwards and outwards
 In the lungs most gas exchange occurs in the air sacs known as the diaphragm contracts, pulling downwards
the alveoli. An alveolus is made up of a single layer of fl att ened the volume in the thorax gets bigger, forcing the lungs
to expand, and the air pressure inside decreases
epithelial cells. The capillaries that are close to the alveoli wall air is pushed into the lungs
are also have a wall that is one cell thick. Between the two is a Exhaling:
larger layer of connecti ve ti ssue holding everything in place. The the external intercostal muscles relax and the internal
intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribcage
elasti c ti ssue helps to force air out of the lungs which are downwards and inwards
starched when you breathe in. its known as elasti c recoil of the diaphragm relaxes, moving back upwards
The lungs are elastic and shrink back to their relaxed
lungs. The alveoli have a natural tendency to collapse, but this
volume and the air pressure inside increases
prevented by a special phospholipid layer known as lung air is pushed out of the lungs
surfactant that coats the alveoli and makes breathing easy. Gas
exchange occurs by diff usion between the alveolar air and
deoxygenated blood in the capillaries. This blood has relati vely low oxygen content and high carbon
dioxide content.

 Alveoli has enormous surface for gas exchange. Average adult has about 480 to 500 million alveoli in
their lungs. So surface area for gas exchange is around 40-75m² packed in your chest. Distance
between diff using gas is 0.5 to 0.15μm.

Gas Inspired air Alveolar air Expired air

Oxygen 20.70 13.20 14.50
Carbon dioxide 0.04 5.00 3.90
Nitrogen 78.00 75.60 75.40
Water vapor 1.24 6.20 6.20

BREATHING (VENTILATION)
 The exchange of the gasses at the alveolar surface in the lungs happens by passive
diff usion alone but moving air along the lungs and external environment is an acti ve
process known as breathing or venti lati on it’s the key to rapid gas exchange. By
delivering air rich in oxygen, removing air loaded with waste carbon dioxide breathing
maintains a steep concentrati on gradient for diff usion between the blood in the
capillaries and the air in the lungs.

PROTECTING THE LUNGS

 The air you breathe carries out a lot of ti ny parti cles such
as dust, pollen grains and smoke parti cles that could
block the alveoli. It also carries microscopic organisms
such as bacteria and viruses such as pathogen. To reduce
the chance of damage your respiratory system produces a
lot of mucus that lines your airways and traps these ti ny
parti cles. Its runny so it can be moved up the airways by cilia that sweeps upwards to
the back of your throat. The digesti ve enzymes in your stomach digest the mucus and
everything with it.

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Topic 2A ends here