Figures of Speech Handout

Figures of Speech - Stylistic Devices

• Accumulation

• Accumulation is a figure of speech in which the arguments previously stated are

presented again in a forceful manner.

• The word accumulation comes from Latin and it means mass, pile or heap.

• The bringing together of a number of points into a powerful conclusion or climax.

• The word literally means the 'accumulation' of many points. This bringing together
either hammers home a repeated or previous point, or may synthesize a new meaning.

• The accumulation may be through a set of sentences, phrases, words or other

grammatical units.

• Classification: Meaning, Repetition

• Accumulation: Examples

• "He is the betrayer of his own self-respect, and the waylayer of the self-respect of
others; covetous, intemperate, irascible, arrogant; disloyal to his parents, ungrateful to
his friends, troublesome to his kin; insulting to his betters, disdainful of his equals and
mates, cruel to his inferiors; in short, he is intolerable to everyone." Attributed to
Cicero,Rhetorica ad Herennium, IV.52

• I have talked about weather patterns, the rising sea levels, and the natural patterns of
high tides. Together this means that at the next full moon where there is a force ten
storm, then New York is in great danger of being flooded.

• Accumulation: Uses

• In storytelling, the climax is a classic point of accumulation, where multiple tensions are
resolved, meaning is created and the reader thrilled.

• In speeches, which are often a form of storytelling, the need to create memorable
points makes accumulation a powerful device.
• Adjunction

• Adjunction is a figure of speech in which a word, phrase or clause is placed at the

beginning or the end of a sentence.

• Adjunction is the placement of the verb at the start of the phrase or sentence.

• Putting the verb first in a sentence gives it primacy, emphasizing it.

• It also is an unusual structure and so grabs attention of readers, making them pause and
think.

• Classification: Rearrangement

• Adjunction: Examples

• Fades physical beauty with disease or age.

• Either with disease or age physical beauty fades.

• High the bird flew.

• The bird flew high.

Adynaton

• Adynaton is a declaration of impossibility, often in an obviously exaggerated

comparison.

• Example: It is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than a sinner get
into the kingdom of heaven.

• When something happens or is said that we consider highly unlikely, we are shocked
and want to express our extreme emotion.

• Adynaton allows us to do this by exaggeration.

• An easy way of doing this is by using a contrasting comparison.

• Classification: Distortion, Meaning

•
• Adynaton: Cont…

• It is a rhetorical device that is a form of hyperbole in which exaggeration is taken to a

great extreme where it seems impossible.

• In other words, when hyperbole is magnified to such extent that it is completely

impossible to occur, it is called Adynaton.

• Adynaton is used to create exaggeration in order to emphasize some point.

• The basic purpose of using Adynaton is to draw the attention of the audience by
overstating some thing or idea.

•
Adynaton: Cont…

• Adynaton examples were found in literary pieces written as early as the Classical and
Medieval periods.

• However, examples of adynaton were seen in folklore, drama and fiction of the modern
age.

• In everyday conversations, the function of Adynaton is to create amusing effects by

highlighting an idea.

• It is employed both for comic as well as serious purposes.

• By using extravagant statements, the poets and writers make the ordinary human
feelings extraordinary.

• In addition, Adynaton develops comparisons and contrasts in literature.

• It happens when one point is overstated over the other.

•
Adynaton: Example-1

• Had we but world enough, and time

This coyness, lady, were no crime.
We would sit down, and think which way
To walk, and pass our long love’s day.

• “This coyness, lady, were no crime.” – saying that a lady’s “coyness” is a crime is clearly
an Adynaton since no lawmaker will be sane enough to pass a law to criminalize
 coyness.

• Adynaton: Example-2
• I’ll love you, dear, I’ll love you
Till China and Africa meet,
And the river jumps over the mountain
And the salmon sing in the street,
I’ll love you till the ocean
Is folded and hung up to dry
And the seven stars go squawking
Like geese about the sky….

(As I Walked Out One Evening by W.H. Auden)

• Adynaton is very clear in the highlighted lines, as the poet expresses his love by
overstating that till China and Africa meet, salmon sings in the street and the ocean is
folded and hung up to dry.

• These are extreme exaggerations, which are impossible in real life.

• Adynaton: Example-3
• Why then, O brawling love, O loving hate,
anything, of nothing first create!
heavy lightness, serious vanity,
Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms…

Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health,

Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is!
This love feel I, that feel no love in this.
Dost thou not laugh?

• (Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare)

• In the following excerpt, Romeo compares his love to several things.

• He intermingles love with hatred, mixes up beautiful things with ugly, hot with cold,
dark with bright and so on.

• He also calls love as a fighting love and loving hate. These are too much exaggerations of
love.
 •
Alliteration

• Alliteration is the repetition of initial sounds in neighboring words.

• Alliteration draws attention to the phrase and is often used for emphasis.

sweet smell of success,

a dime a dozen,

bigger and better,

jump for joy

share a continent but not a country

• Alliteration acts as a simple hammer, beating home the point.

• It is often used in advertising slogans to create something catchy that more people will
remember.

•
Alliteration: Cont…

• Only the repetition of the same sound is valid in an alliteration not the consonants
themselves.

keen camarad.

philosophy fan.

A neat knot need not be re-knotted.

• Although they start with different consonants, they constitute perfect instances of
alliteration.

•
Alliteration (Cont…)

• By contrast, if neighboring words start with the same consonant but have a different
initial sound, the words are not alliterated.

a cute child

highly honored (pay attention to the ‘h’ in honored; it is silent)

• Although they start with the same consonants, they are not instances of alliteration
since the sounds differ.

•
Alliteration: Examples

• “Sally sells sea shells by the seashore”

•
Amphilogy

• Amphilogy is talking around a subject to avoid being harmed.

• Classification: Hidden

• Example

• I know I don't talk much about football, but that doesn't mean it is meaningless to me. In
fact I can watch it for hours. ( = I don't like football, but saying this would result in my
being criticized and maybe ostracized).

• Let's go somewhere else. That restaurant is so boring and I didn't really like the food
there last time. (= it is too expensive for me. I can't afford it).

•
Amphilogy (Cont…)

• When talking about ourselves, we may have secrets that, if other knew, would lead to
us losing out in some way.

• The esteem of others is so important to us that, when pressed, we will still avoid talking
about a subject, even if others know about it.

• And so we will try to avoid the subject, make excuses or otherwise not say things we do
not want to say.

• This can be true even if we know that others know that we know.

• When the lump in the carpet is obvious, we still pretend it isn't there as we sweep our
problems out of sight.

•
Anabasis

• Anabasis is stepwise increasing of sense or emphasis in each phrase or sentence.

• Classification: Amplification

• Example

• We must respond. We must fight! We must overcome this evil enemy!!

• Are you there? I can hear you! There -- I see you!!

• Good, better, best!

•
Anabasis (Cont…)

• Anabasis uses the recency principle, where we remember best that which is said last or
most recently.

• Spoken as a rising crescendo, it can also give power to the conclusion of a paragraph or
speech.

• Anabasis can be used to show growing confidence, perhaps as a speaker is encouraged

by positive responses to earlier but weaker assertions.

• Anabasis is the opposite of catabasis, which is a stepwise decreasing of emphasis.

• Anabasis is Greek for 'ascent' or 'going up'.

•
Anadiplosis

• The repetition of a word sequence used at the end of a phrase or sentence at the start
of the next phrase or sentence.

• When something is repeated, a pattern is created. We are programmed to recognize

patterns and so we pay attention.

• Repetition emphasizes. It hammers home the message that 'this is important'.

• Anadiplosis is a typical device that is used when building a climax, with words set up in
increasing importance. Spoken, this is likely to be done with rising tone.

• Anadiplosis comes from the Greek word for 'doubling' or 'repetition'.

• Classification: Repetition

•
 Anadiplosis-Examples

• I would but run away. Run away, perhaps today. Perhaps today I will. I will run away.

• Will you come with me? Come with me to a better place. A place where we can be
together forever, forever where we can do what we know must be done.

•
Anesis

• Anesis is the use of a concluding phrase or sentence that somehow diminishes what has
previously been said.

• Example

• He was one of the most admired men of his time, yet he had one terrible, fatal flaw.

• This is the best mixer money can buy, although it does not have a great reputation for
reliability.

• I love you without question. I adore you, above all others. But I'm not sure I want to go
out with you.

•
Anesis (Cont…)

• Anesis seems like a contradiction and it is, yet it is heard surprisingly often, perhaps
where a person says something, realizes they have said more than they intent, and then
tries to retract or reduce the effect.

• If done badly, it can damage the speaker's reputation as others see them
as inconsistent.

• Classification: Reduction

•
Antanaclasis

• Antanaclasis is a rhetorical device in which a word is repeated and whose meaning

changes in the second instance.

• Examples of Antanaclasis:

1. Put out the light, then put out the light. - Shakespeare in Othello. This is said by Othello
when he enters Desdemona's chamber while she sleeps, intending to murder her. The first
instance of put the light out means he will quench the candle, and the second instance means
he will end the life of Desdemona.

2. Your argument is sound, nothing but sound. - Benjamin Franklin.

The word sound in the first instance means solid or reasonable. The second instance of sound
means empty.

3. If you aren't fired with enthusiasm, you will be fired with enthusiasm. - The American
football coach Vince Lombardi to his team.

•
Antanaclasis (Cont…)

• Antanaclasis is the repetition of a word, where the word has different meanings each
time.

• The effect of Anatanaclasis is an initial confusion as a word just used, and hence with
one meaning is repeated with a different meaning.

• This causes the listener to pause and think, thus creating attention to what is said.

• Using Antanaclasis displays an overt cleverness that perhaps seeks to impress the
listener with the verbal dexterity of the speaker.

• Antanaclasis comes from Greek 'antanaklasis', meaning 'reflection' or 'echo'.

• Antanaclasis is also known as Antilogy.

• Classification: Repetition.

•
Antanagoge

• Antanagoge occurs where a negative point is balanced with a positive point.

• Example

• Yes, I know I've lost my job, but I'm so looking forward to spending time at home.

• So you live alone? It must be nice to be able to do what you want.

• You are doing good work, though you are not involving others enough. I still think you
can become our most valued team member.

• She died, and her enemies cried 'How glad we were to know her.'
•
Antanagoge (Cont…)

• When we talk or think about negative things we experience uncomfortable feelings

associated with that thing.

• As a result, we often avoid talking about negative things, both because of the effect on
us and also because of the effect on others (there is a strong social rule about not
causing emotional distress to others).

• If we must say something negative, then we will balance it up with something positive.

• If we must criticize another person, one method is to soften the blow by starting with a
positive comment.

• Antanagoge may also be used as a deliberate device in poetry or prose to highlight an

obvious negative under the guise of a positive.

• This uses the contrast principle to throw the negativity into stark relief.

• Classification: Falsehood, Hidden

•
Antithesis

• Antithesis is the use of an opposite in order to highlight a point.

• Example

• It has been said we are good, but I say we are bad.

• In many ways, the old are young.

• She is very intelligent -- far from stupid.

•
Antithesis (Cont…)

• Antithesis uses the contrast principle to draw attention to something.

• When an opposite to what might be expected is given, it is usually a surprise and hence
causes the listener to slow down and figure out the puzzle presented.

• Antithesis may simply include the negative or may be done as a form of repetition,
stating both the positive and criticized negative case.
• Argument is often described as thesis, antithesis and synthesis where, briefly, an idea is
put forward (thesis), it is debated (antithesis) and the idea is consequently improved
(synthesis).

• The principle of antithesis may also be used more broadly, for example where a
character in a play acts in contrary ways, or where two characters have diametrically
opposite positions, thus highlighting each other.

•
Aphorismus

• Aphorismus is questioning or challenging the meaning of a word.

• Example

• Call yourself a man? You're acting like a boy!

• That's not a car, it's a lawn mower!

• Is that 'music' is these days? How impoverished you must be.

• Aphorismus (Cont…)

• Words are little packets of meaning that have all kinds of connotations by which we
enrich and extend the language. For example, 'man' may also mean 'strong',
'independent', 'chivalrous', and so on.

• This gives plenty of scope in challenging the meaning of a word by challenging one of
the extended elements.

• Thus, for example, a man who is not 'strong' may have his manhood challenged in an ad
hominem (personal) attack that implies that failure to comply with one added meaning
is failure to comply with the basic meaning or denotation of the word.

• Classification: Questioning, Meaning

•
Apophasis

• Apophasis is talking about something without directly mentioning it.

• Example

• I'm just going .. er.. to the .. um .. little room .. back soon. (going to the toilet)
• You know who is doing you know what with you know who else!

• He's not going out with Jane, and not with Susan. But I'm not allowed to say who he is
going out with.

•
Apophasis (Cont…)

• There are times when it is impolite to mention something or using the word could get
you into trouble. Seeking not to embarrass ourselves or others, we thus talk around the
forbidden words or subjects.

• Sex, bodily function, interpersonal differences, religion and so on are typical of subjects
where there are plenty of social taboos and political incorrectness for the unwary to go
astray. Those in the know either avoid the topic or talk delicately around it.

• Euphemisms are words that are used to replace words we cannot say. The toilet is thus
called, the 'loo', the 'little room' and so on.

• Sometimes a fairly direct reference may be used, typically mentioning the intial letter.

• Classification: Reference

•
Asyndeton

• Asyndeton is a figure of speech where conjunctions are omitted from a series of related
clauses.

• Example

• I came, I saw, I conquered. (Julius Caesar)

• ...we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in
the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never
surrender... (Winston Churchill)

• I will buy you a drink; you do not deserve it.

•
Asyndeton (Cont…)

• Conjunctions join clauses into complete sentences and include words such as although,
and, as, after, before, because, but, if, nor, since, that, until, unless, yet.
• They send signals about how the clauses work together. When then are omitted, they
cause a certain amount of confusion, forcing the person to review what was just said.

• Asyndeton can thus be used as a form of light emphasis.

• Where the conjunction is omitted there may well be a pause, which appears in written
text as a comma or semicolon. This may act as a signal to the listener or reader to think
again about the meaning.

• The clauses must stand alone and the listener must be able to make sense of how they
are connected.

•
Asyndeton (Cont…)

• One of the most common forms of asyndeton is the omission of the word 'and' in a list.
This creates surprise as the word 'and' is usually a signal that the list is about to end.

• Asyndeton done well is terse and direct.

• Asyndeton is popular in speeches. It is also used in poetry and literature to add

terseness.

• Classification: Omission

• Figures of Speech-2

• Stylistic Devices

• Anaphora

• Anaphora is a stylistic device that consists of repeating a sequence of words at the

beginnings of neighboring clauses to give them emphasis.

• Anaphora is the repetition of words at the start of successive clauses, phrases or

sentences.

• Examples of anaphora

• In time the savage bull sustains the yoke,

In time all haggard hawks will stoop to lure,
In time small wedges cleave the hardest oak,
In time the flint is pierced with softest shower.
Thomas Kyd, The Spanish Tragedy, I, vi. 3

• Anaphora (Cont…)

• Mad world! Mad kings! Mad composition!

William Shakespeare, King John, II,

• What the hammer? what the chain?

In what furnace was thy brain?
What the anvil? what dread grasp
Dare its deadly terrors clasp?

William Blake, "The Tiger“

• Strike as I struck the foe!

Strike as I would
Have struck those tyrants!
Strike deep as my curse!
Strike!—and but once!

• Byron, Marino Faliero

• Anaphora (Cont…)

• The primacy effect says that things at the beginning are remembered.

• Repetition also enhances memory.

• It thence provides the bedrock on which subsequent words are built.

• More generally, Anaphora can also mean a reference back to a previous term.

• In this form, exact repetition is not needed, for example 'Joe is a man, he is good.' ('he'
refers back to 'Joe').

• Anaphora comes from the Greek 'ana' meaning 'up' or 'back' and 'pherein' meaning 'to
carry.'

• Classification: Repetition

•
Cataphora
• Cataphora refers to a figure of speech where an earlier expression refers to or describes
a forward expression.

• Examples of Cataphora

• If you want them, there are cookies in the kitchen. (them is an instance of Cataphora
because it refers to cookies which hasn't been mentioned in the discourse prior to that
point.)

• After he had received his orders, the soldier left the barracks. (he is also a Cataphoric
reference to the soldier which is mentioned later in the discourse).

• If you like it, you can stroke the puppy.

•
Cataphora (Cont…)

• Cataphora occurs where a word used is not initially clear and is explained by a
subsequent word or words.

• Cataphora is a form of forward reference where vital information is initially omitted,

only to be added in subsequent text.

• When something is started but not completed, we feel the tension as we seek closure.
The inadequate information in the initial word thus causes increased attention.

• Classification: Omission.

• Chiasmus

• Chiasmus is a figure of speech in which words, grammatical constructions, or concepts

are repeated in reverse order, in the same or a modified form. In other words, the
clauses display inverted parallelism.

• Examples:

• He knowingly led and we followed blindly

• Swift as an arrow flying, fleeing like a hare afraid

• 'Bad men live that they may eat and drink,

whereas good men eat and drink that they may live.‘ Socrates (fifth century B.C.)

• Chiasmus (Cont…)
• Chiasmus,shows up in ancient Sanskrit, Mesopotamian, and Egyptian texts.

• It appears in ancient Chinese writings, including the Analects of Confucius.

• It was an integral feature of ancient Hebrew poetry and is common in both the Old and
New Testaments.

• To the Greeks, though, chiasmus held a special fascination, as Greek sages and orators .

• Chiasmus (Cont…)

• "It is not the earth that makes us believe the man, but the man the oath."
—Aeschylus (fifth century B.C.)

"Love as if you would one day hate, and hate as if you would one day love."
—Bias (sixth century B.C.)

• (Mardy Grothe, Never Let a Fool Kiss You or a Kiss Fool You. Viking, 1999)

• Chiasmus (Cont…)

• Chiasmus is a reversal of words in consecutive phrases.

• Example

• She gave me hope and hopefully I gave my loyalty.

• I thought you good, originally, but your originality is not that good.

• He who sheds the blood of man, by man, shall his blood be shed -- Genesis 9.6

• Chiasmus (Cont…)

• Repetition acts as a form of emphasis, drawing attention through creation of a pattern

of similar words.

• The confusion caused, forces the listener to review what was said in order to make
sense of the full meaning.

• Its impact makes various forms of chiasmus popular with speech-makers.

• Chiasmus is also known as Epanodos.

• Classification: Repetition, Reversal, Grammar

 • Climax (Cont…)

Climax refers to a figure of speech in which words, phrases, or clauses are arranged in order of
increasing importance.

Examples:

"There are three things that will endure: faith, hope, and love. But the greatest of these is
love.”1Corinthians 13:13

This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be
guaranteed the "unalienable Rights" of "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."

• Martin Luther King, I Have a Dream

• Climax (Cont…)

• Climax is the arrangement of words in increasing order of effect.

• Example

• We'll collect pennies in tens, hundreds and millions! Power starts small, becomes
significant then becomes unstoppable.

• We'll fight them in the country, in every town and every street. We shall not surrender!

• Love creates happiness, happiness creates joy, joy creates enlightenment.

• Climax (Cont…)

• 'Climax' in this usage creates the word in its common usage, building up to a climax.

• A well-built climax increases expectation and so tension with each item in the list.

• As words are added to the sequence, a pattern is set up, first of a similar theme and
then of increasing importance and impact.

• The opposite of climax is anti-climax, where tension is release in a disappointing way.

• Climax is also known as Gradation.

• Climax is the Greek for 'ladder'.

• Classification: Amplification

•
 Distinctio

• Distinctio uses reference to multiple meanings of a word or other elaboration to

highlight or enquire about which particular meaning is intended.

• Example

• Now when you say 'rough', do you mean difficult or do you mean harsh, because both
make sense, although I would have thought the latter most appropriate.

• Now becoming invisible is impossible. And by impossible I mean beyond possibility

within our current technologies.

•
Distinctio (Cont…)

• When a word can have more than one meaning, the intended meaning is usually clear
from the context within the sentence.

• Likewise confusion may arise from the potential ambiguity or misunderstanding of a

word.

• When the speaker wants to be sure that understanding is unambiguous they may use
Distinctio to achieve this goal.

• To the listener, this can appear rather forced as the speaker makes significant issue of
the point.

• In changing minds, Distinctio can be used deliberately to sustain attention on a

particular item.

• If this is a relatively unimportant point, then perhaps the speaker is seeking to

distract the listener from some other point.

• Classification: Meaning, Amplification

•
Dysphemism

• Dysphemism is the use of a harsh, more offensive word instead of one considered less
harsh. Dysphemisms are generally used to shock or offend.

• Examples:

• These are examples of dysphemism:

• Snail mail for postal mail,

• Cancer stick in reference to a cigarette.

• Egghead for genius.

• Worm food for dead.

• Bullshit for lies.

• Dead tree edition for the paper version of a publication that can be found online.

• Dysphemism (Cont…)

• When an extreme word is used it amplifies the meaning and thus grabs attention. It says
'this is important, please listen!'

• The use of swear words is common in Dysphemism and it is often a signal that the
person using it is emotionally aroused. This can be a threat situation and hence
encourages other people to pay close attention.

• Classification: Amplification, Substitution

•
Epitrope

• Epitrope is the admission of wrong or concession of a point in order to gain something

else.

• Example

• Ok. You can drive there. I'll drive back.

• I was wrong to ask for help when you should be volunteering.

• You know, I guess I can't add up. But then I can afford not to mind.

•
Epitrope (Cont…)

• In arguments or presentations, it is common to provide some form of negotiation,

where giving in on something is done for the purpose of gaining something more
valued.

• This plays to the need for fairness and distributive justice, where we will accept
 something that is not necessarily desirable, but where it is deemed fair.

• In this way, epistrophe offers the listener a tacit bargain of accepting a point in a deal
that is based social capital.

• Epitrope can be used for irony, where the speaker is not really conceding, but is actually
making a contrary point.

•
Euphemism

• Euphemism is used to express a mild, indirect, or vague term to substitute for a harsh,
blunt, or offensive term.

• Some euphemisms intend to amuse, while others intend to give positive appearances
to negative events or even mislead entirely.

• Examples:

• Going to the other side for death,

• Passed away for die.

• On the streets for homeless.

• Between jobs for unemployed.

• Euphemism is the substitution of a 'harmless' word for one that might offend.

• Example

• I'm going to the loo.

• Euphemism (Cont…)

• In polite society there are words that are forbidden, typically around body functions and
sex though also covering religion and other areas where others may be offended. Using
such words can hence be embarrassing and risk censure.

• Alternative words are therefore created to allow people to converse about the delicate
topic without being admonished.

• Taboos are a core part of many cultures and are coped with in many ways, including
Euphemism.
• Classification: Substitution, Reduction

•
Hyperbole

• Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech.

• It may be used to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong impression, but is not
meant to be taken literally.

• Hyperboles are exaggerations to create emphasis or effect.

• Examples

• The bag weighed a ton.

• I was so hungry; I could eat a horse!

• I could sleep for a year; I was so tired.

• He's filthy rich. He's got tons of money.

•
Hyperbole (Cont…)

• Example

• My love is as great as the greatest mountain. It is as deep as the deepest ocean. It

reaches around the world and brings you to me.

• That was so hilarious I laughed my head off. Oh, goodness it was incredibly, unbelievably
funny. I still think my head is somewhere else. Maybe that is why I won't be going back
there again.

•
Hyperbole (Cont…)

• Hyperbole may thus be used as a prod to try to get people to feel something where a
more accurate description would be less likely to evoke the desired response.

• The exaggeration of hyperbole may have positive intent. It may also be used in irony,
painting something large when you really mean it is small.

• Hyperbole may also be used to push things to the limit, and is often used in conflict,
such as when a person accuses another of 'never' doing what is wanted and 'always'
 doing what is wrong.

• Classification: Distortion

• Hypophora

• Hypophora is a figure of speech in which the speaker raises a question and then
answers it.

• In hypophora, however, the writer poses the question and answers it immediately after.

• Example:

"You ask, what is our policy? I will say: It is to wage war, by sea, land, and air, with all our might
and with all the strength.." — Winston Churchill, 4 June 1940.

• Figures of Speech-3

• Stylistic Devices

•
Innuendo

• Innuendo is 'saying something without saying it', often implying something negative or
politically incorrect, through allusion or insinuation.

• Example

• She's got a great future in front of her!

• Is that a gun in your pocket or are you just pleased to see me?

•
Innuendo (Cont…)

• When you are prevented from saying something due to social norms, such as when
certain words are forbidden or even from politeness, then it is common to try and get
others to understand by using metaphor of some kind.

• Sexual innuendo is common, particularly in drama that written in times when explicit
language could not be used.

• Innuendo can also be produced without language, using gestures.

• Classification: Substitution
• Irony

• Irony is a figure of speech in which there is a contradiction of expectation between what

is said what is really meant.

• It is characterized by an incongruity, a contrast, between reality and appearance.

• Examples:

• His argument was as clear as mud.

• The thieves robbed the police station.

• I caught the last train in time. Unfortunately it was going back to where I had started.

•
Types of Irony

• Verbal irony:
It is a contrast between what is said and what is meant.

• Dramatic irony:
It occurs when the audience or the reader knows more than the character about events.

• In other words, what the character thinks is true is incongruous with what the audience
knows.

• Situational irony:
This refers to the contrast between the actual result of a situation and what was
intended or expected to happen.

•
Kenning

• Kenning is the use of circumlocution instead of a simple noun.

• Example

• He is the feeder of the bloody battle axe (= he is a warrior).

• The clashing ring-feast of the darken day (midwinter festival).

•
Kenning (Cont…)
 • Circumlocution is talking around a subject rather than just naming it.

• Not naming something creates mystery and the confusion of uncertainty, thus
encouraging others to pay attention in order to better understand.

• Talking around the subject can also be a form of verbal painting, using visual and
sensory images that otherwise would describe a dull subject.

• As kenning is typically used in mythological prose and verse, it can be quite obscure and
use strange combinations of words and other devices and figures.

•
Litotes

• If you want to affirm something as true in an understated, quiet way, you can do this by
taking the opposite of what you want to say and then turning it back into a positive by
negating it.

Example

• Oh well, that is not an unimportant thing.

• That's not bad.

•
Litotes (Cont…)

• Lilotes is a figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is

expressed by negating its opposite. For example, instead of saying that someone
is mean, you can say he is not very generous.

• Examples of lilotes

• He's not a very generous man.

• She is not very beautiful.

• He is not the friendliest person I 've met.

• Don't be too wicked.

• It won't be an easy trip

• He is not unaware of his wife's foolishness.

•
Litotes (Cont…)

• Twists also make the listener think harder to work out what is really being said. This can
be deliberate use of confusion or seeking to sustain attention.

• Classification: Distortion. Reversal

•
Meiosis

• Meiosis is an understatement, making less of something that it actually is.

• Example

• What they called a 'riot' was really high spirits, just people having fun.

• Don't worry, I'm fine. It's only a scratch.

• Making something smaller reduces chance of people being distracted by it or focusing

on it. If you want others to pay attention to something then you may well want them
not be distracted.

•
Meiosis (Cont…)

• Meosis is also common in polite society, where it is considered rude to draw attention
to one's own problems, which may hence be downplayed.

• In a curious reversal, by downplaying something that others know is significant, you

actually draw attention to it.

• There are words that diminish, such as 'just', 'only', 'simply' and so on. Inserting these as
modifiers makes what is said less important. Spotting them is a useful method for
identifying meiosis.

• 'Meiosis' comes from the Greek word meaning 'to make smaller'.

• Classification: Reduction, Reversal

•
Metaphor

• Unlike simile, metaphor (from the Greek language: meaning "transfer") is language that
directly compares seemingly unrelated subjects.
• It is a figure of speech that compares two or more things not using like or as. In the
simplest case, this takes the form:

• X - is - Y

• Examples of metaphor:

• All the world's a stage,

And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances;

• (William Shakespeare, As You Like It, 2/7)

Metonymy

• Metonymy is a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is not called by its own
name, but by the name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept.

• Examples:

• Crown. (For the power of a king.)

• The White House. (Referring to the American administration.)

• Dish. (To refer an entire plate of food.)

• The Pentagon. (For the Department of Defense and the offices of the U.S. Armed
Forces.)

• Pen. (For the written word.)

• Sword - (For military force.)

• Hollywood. (For US Cinema.)

• Hand. (For help.)

•
Metonymy (Cont…)

• Metonymy is the use of one item's name to represent another item. In particular the
representing item usually has a close association with the represented item.
• The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen represents words. Sword represents military
power).

• I'll just Google it. (using Google instead of search).

• Metonymy can be used in a number of associations, for example:

• Cause represents effect

• Container represents the contained

• A greater thing represents a smaller thing

• An author represents the book

• The sign represents the signified

•
Onomatopoeia

• The use of words (such as hiss or murmur) that imitate the sounds associated with the
objects or actions they refer to.

• Examples :

• "Chug, chug, chug. Puff, puff, puff. Ding-dong, ding-dong. The little train rumbled over
the tracks."
("Watty Piper" [Arnold Munk], The Little Engine That Could, 1930)

• "Brrrrrrriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinng! An alarm clock clanged in the dark and silent room."

(Richard Wright, Native Son, 1940)

•
Oxymoron

• An oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines incongruous or contradictory terms.

• Examples:

• Dark light

• Deafening silence

• Living dead

• Open secret
 • Virtual reality

• The silence whistles

• Oxymoron (Cont…)

• Oxymorons are often surprising in that the contradiction illustrates some wisdom or
unexpected truth. This may be done deliberately to put over a message or create some
other dramatic effect.

• Oxymorons can also be used to create confusion, and so grab attention, distract the
listener or give a moment of inattention in which persuasive words may be added.

• Figures of Speech-4

• Stylistic Devices

• Paradox

A paradox is a statement (or set of statements) where a seemingly impossible contradiction is

presented.

Example

• I always lie. (If the person is a liar, then this is true, which makes them not a liar).

• Death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die. (how can death die?)

• Youth is wasted on the young. (but how can young people know the value of youth
without not having it?)

• Paradox (Cont…)

• On being presented a paradox, most people pause and try to work out what it means.

• In this way it uses the principle of confusion to distract them and so gives opportunity
for persuasion.

• Paradoxes may be self-referential, contradictory and circular..

• Paradoxes can appear to be false but actually be true, such as a person having their fifth
birthday after living twenty years (if they are born on February 29th in a leap year).

• Paradox (Cont…)

• Paradoxes may be deliberate puzzles and are common in philosophy.

 • Authors also use paradoxes to create excitement, confusion and enlightening lessons.

• A moral paradox occurs where values conflict, for example where a person is faced with
the choice of killing another person or letting a loved one die.

• Classification: Attention

•
Paraprosdokian

• Paraprosdokian is the use of words at the end of a phrase or sentence that change the
apparent initial meaning.

Example

• I am most disgusted that you were not rewarded for your wonderful work.

•
Paraprosdokian (Cont…)

• When we listen to what someone is saying, we constantly predict ahead, trying to work
out what they are going to say.

• It is thus relatively easy to set up expectation and then dash it. This
causes confusion and hence makes the person review and re-think what you are really
saying.

• The confusion and subsequent realization of Paraprosdokian makes it a popular formula

with comics and other humorists.

• Paraprosdokian comes from the Greek words for 'beyond' and 'expectation'.

• Classification: Attention, Meaning, Humor

•
Paronomasia (Pun)

• A pun, also called paronomasia, involves a word play which suggests two or more
meanings, by exploiting multiple meanings of words, or of similar-sounding words, for
an intended humorous effect.

• Puns are constructions used in jokes and idioms .

•
Pun (Cont…)
 • Paronomasia is the use of similar-sounding words to cause confusion, often for
humorous effect.

• Example

• You can tune a file system, but you can't tune a fish.

• We egged on the runners, but the yolk was on us.

• Classification: Hidden, Humor.

•
Pleonasm

Pleonasm is the use of unnecessary words.

• Example

• Your future prediction is null and void.

• The sound of the music is loud.

• It's a puppy-dog, not a kitten-cat!

•
Pleonasm

• Proponents of Plain English and concise writing are often strong opponents of
pleonasm.

• The simplest test of a pleonasm is when you can eliminate words without changing the
meaning of the sentence.

• Pleonasm may also lead to repetition of the same thing through different words.

•
Simile

• A simile is a figure of speech comparing two unlike things, often introduced with the
word "like" or "as". It takes the form of:

• X is (not) like Y

• X is (not) as Y

• X is (not) similar to Y
 • A simile is a comparison of two things, where attributes of one is transferred to the
other.

Examples of simile:

• He fights like a lion.

• He swims as fast as a fish.

• He slithers like a snake.

• As deep as the ocean.

• Simile (Cont…)

Example

• He look like a fish out of water.

• A simile is not the same as a metaphor.

• Simile takes some attribute of the object and applies it to the subject.

• A metaphor takes all of the attributes of the object and applies them to the subject.

• The simile says 'A is like B in some way'. The metaphor equates, says 'A is B in all ways'
or 'A = B'. Thus:

• Simile: You are like a dog.

• Metaphor: You are a dog.

•
Spoonerism

• Spoonerism is the exchange of letters or sounds between two words, often with comic
effect.

• Example

• Search every crook and nanny! ('Search every nook and cranny')

• Gets low, folks. ('Let's go, folks').

•
Tautology
 • Tautology is a statement that says the same thing twice in different ways, or a
statement that is unconditionally true by the way it is phrased.

• Examples of tautology

• Forward planning.

• It's a free gift.

•
Tautology (Cont…)

• Tautology is the unnecessary repetition of meaning within a sentence.

• Example

• I can't believe I'm seeing it with my own eyes.

• It's a new and innovative idea.

• If you don't get any better, then you'll never improve.

• Tautology can be repetition of a single word or of phrases or sentences. The main point
in it is that meaning is reproduced.

•
Tautology (Cont…)

• It can happen deliberately where the speaker is trying to make sure the other person
understands and so is using different words in case the listener does not understand the
initial (and usually more complex or jargon-based) word.

• Tautology can happen where abbreviations include words which are repeated, such as
'The BPS System', where 'BPS' means Business Processing System'.

• Tautology comes from the Greek word meaning 'redundant'.

• Classification: Repetition, Excess

• Zeugma

Zeugma is the joining of two or more parts of a sentence with a common word, usually a
verb.
• Example

• She wore a pink hat and a beatific smile.

• Time makes older adults wiser and younger adults less wise.

• Walking up and down.

•
Zeugma (Cont…)

• Thus rather than saying 'walking up and down' you should really say 'walking up and
walking down.'

• Zeugma is thus a convenient abbreviation of language and appears often and

unconsciously in speech as we are economical with words.

• It may also be used deliberately for conciseness or other effect.