ChE-391

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR

Department of Chemical Engineering
Unit Operation Lab

Experiment Name: Losses due to pipe fitting, sudden expansion and contraction, straight
pipe and flow measurement by orifice meter

1. Objective:
To study the losses of head due to various fittings in pipelines, friction in straight
pipe.

2. Aim:
2.1 To determine the loss of head in the fittings at the various water flow rates.
2.2 To determine the loss co-efficient for the pipe fittings.
2.3 To determine friction co-efficient for flow through straight pipe.
2.4 To determine co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter.

3. Introduction:
Loss of head due to change in cross-section, bends, elbows, valves and fittings of all types
fall into the category of minor losses in pipe lines. In long pipe lines the friction losses are
much larger than these minor losses and hence the latter are often neglected. But, in shorter
pipelines their consideration is necessary for the correct estimate of losses.

4. Theory:
When there is any type of change in pipe like bend, expansion etc, the velocity of flow
changes, due to which the separation of the flow from the boundary changes and also
formation of eddies, takes place. Thus the energy is lost. These fittings such as elbows, tees,
valves and reducers represent a significant component of the pressure loss in most pipe
systems. These pressure losses of some minor equipment and pipe fittings can be calculated
using the K-value method, also known as the Resistance Coefficient or Velocity Head.
The basic approach to calculate loss in piping systems is to write the Bernoulli equation
between two points, connected by a streamline, where the conditions are known. For
example, between the surface of a reservoir and a pipe outlet.

The K-value, Resistance Coefficient, Velocity Head or Excess Head method allows the
user to characterize the pressure loss through fittings in a a pipe. The K-value represents the
multiple of velocity heads that will be lost by fluid passing through the fitting.

It is more accurate than the Equivalent Length method, as it can be characterized against
varying flow conditions (i.e. Reynolds Number). However it is less accurate than other
methods as it does not take into account the varying geometries of fittings at different sizes.
These K-values also generally assume fully developed turbulent flow, and thus are
inaccurate at low Reynolds Numbers.

Formula for Calculating Head Loss from K Values:

L
K= f , where L/D is equivalent length.
D

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The losses of head due to fittings in pipe:
V2
hL = K L
2g
The minor losses in contraction can be expressed as:
V12
hL = K L
2g
The minor losses in expansion can be expressed as:
(V1 − V2 ) 2
hL = K L
2g
Where
hL = Minor loss or head loss
KL = Loss coefficient
V = Velocity of fluid.
V1 = Velocity of fluid in pipe of small Diameter.
V2 = Velocity of fluid in pipe of large Diameter.
Straight Pipe:
It is found that the total friction resistance to fluid flow depends on the following:
1. The area of the wetted surface
2. The density of the fluid
3. The surface roughness
4. It is independent of the fluid pressure
5 .It increase with the square of the velocity
The loss of head in pipe due to friction is calculated from Darcy-Weisbach equation which
has been given by:
4 f LV 2
hf =
2g d
hf = Loss of head due to friction
f = Friction factor
L = Distance between pressure point
V = Mean velocity of fluid
d = Diameter of pipe
g = Acceleration due to gravity

5. Description:
The apparatus consist of three pipes with different fittings. Bend, sudden expansion, sudden
contraction, Globe valve and elbow are provided at upper pipe. Gate valve, straight pipe and
Tee is provided at middle pipe. The lower pipe consists of Ball valve and Orifice meter.
Pressure tapings are provided at inlet and outlet of these fittings at suitable distance. A
differential manometer fitted in the line gives head loss. Supply to the pipeline is made
through centrifugal pump, which deliver water from sump tank. The flow of water in pipes
can be regulated by the valve provided at the end for each pipe. Discharge is measured with
the help of Rota meter.

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6. Utilities Required:
6.1 Electricity Supply: Single Phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 0.5 kW with
earth connection
6.2 Water supply
6.3 Drain Required
6.4 Floor Area Required: 1.5 m x 0.75 m
6.5 Mercury (Hg) for manometer (250 gm)

7. Experimental Procedure:
7.1 Starting Procedure:
7.1.1 Close all the valves provided.
7.1.2 Fill Sump Tank ¾ with clean water and ensure that no foreign particles are
there.
7.1.3 Fill manometer with mercury up to half of its level by opening the PU pipe
from the fitting connected to the bottom most point of the manometer and
connect the pipe back to its position.
7.1.4 Open by-pass valve.
7.1.5 Ensure that ON/OFF Switch given on the panel is at OFF position.
7.1.6 Switch ON the main power supply.
7.1.7 Switch ON the pump.
7.1.8 Open flow control valve of, upper pipe (for bend, sudden enlargement, sudden
contraction, Globe valve, elbow and Tee flow 180o or middle pipe (for gate
valve, pipe friction and Tee flow 90o) or lower pipe (for Ball valve and orifice
meter).
7.1.9 Open the pressure taps of manometer of related test section, very slowly to
avoid the blow of water on manometer fluid.
7.1.10 Now open the air release valve provided on the manometer, slowly to release
the air in manometer.
7.1.11 When there is no air in the manometer, close the air release valves.
7.1.12 Adjust water flow rate in desired section with the help of control valve and by
pass valve.
7.1.13 Record the manometer reading.
7.1.14 Record the flow of water, by Rotameter.
7.1.15 Repeat same procedure for different flow rates of water, operating control
valve and by-pass valve.
7.1.16 Repeat the experiment for other fittings of selected pipe.
7.1.17 When experiment is over for test section of selected pipe, open the by-pass
valve fully. Then close the flow control valve of pipe and open the control
valve of other pipe.
7.1.18 Repeat same procedure for selected test section and so on.

7.2 Closing Procedure:

7.2.1 When experiment is over, close the pressure taps of manometer
7.2.2 Switch off pump.
7.2.3 Switch off power supply to panel.
7.2.4 Drain the apparatus completely with the help of drain valves provided.

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8. Observations and Calculations:

DATA:
g = 9.81 m/s2
d1 = dp = 0.016 m
d2 = 0.028 m
do = 0.008 m
L = 1m
ρm = 13600 kg/m3
ρw = 1000 kg/m3
ρCCl4 = 1590 kg/m3

OBSERVATION:
Test Section = -------------------- (Bend, Sudden enlargement, Sudden contraction,
Elbow, Gate valve, Tee, Globe valve,
Straight pipe, Orifice meter)

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No h1, cm h2, cm FL, LPH

1.
2.
3.
CALCULATIONS:
FL
Q= , m3/sec = ------------------- m3/sec
1000 3600
h1 − h2
h= ,m = ------------ m
100
 
hL = h m − 1 , m = --------------- m
 w 

a1 = d12 , m2 = --------------------- m2
4

a2 = d 22 , m2 = --------------------- m2
4
Q
V1 = , m/sec = -------------------- m/sec
a1
Q
V2 = , m/sec = --------------------- m/sec
a2

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 ChE-391
2 g hL
KL = = --------------- (For Sudden contraction, Bend,
V12
Elbow, Gate valve, Globe valve or Tee)
2 g hL
KL = = ----------------- (For sudden enlargement)
(V1 − V2 ) 2
hL 2 g d 1
f= 2
=------------------- (For pipe friction)
4 LV 1

ap = d p2 , m2 = --------------------- m2 (For orifice meter)
4

ao = d o2 , m2 = --------------------- m2 (For orifice meter)
4
a p a o  2  g h L
Qt = , m3/sec = ----------------- (For orifice meter)
(a p − ao )
2 2

Q
Cd = = ----------------- (For orifice meter)
Qt

9. Nomenclature:
a1 = Cross-sectional area of Small diameter Pipe, m2.
a2 = Cross-sectional area of Large diameter Pipe, m2.
ap = Cross-sectional area of Pipe for orifice meter, m2.
ao = Cross-sectional area of orifice, m2.
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter.
d1 = Diameter of small pipe, m.
d2 = Diameter of large pipe, m.
dp = Diameter of pipe for orifice meter, m.
do = Diameter of orifice, m
FL = Flow rate of water through test section, LPH.
f = Friction coefficient of straight pipe.
g = Acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2
h = Manometer difference, m
h1,h2 = Manometric reading at both points, cm
hL = Head loss, m of water
KL = Loss coefficient.
L = Length of pipe between pressure taping, m.
Q = Discharge, m3/sec.
Qt = Theoretical discharge for orifice meter, m3/sec.
V1 = Velocity of fluid in pipe of Small Diameter, m/sec.
V2 = Velocity of fluid in pipe of Large Diameter, m/sec.
ρm = Density of manometer fluid (Hg), kg/m3
ρw = Density of water, kg/m3

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10. Precaution and maintenance Instructions:
10.1. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above 230
volts.
10.2. Never fully close the flow control valves and by-pass valve simultaneously.
10.3. To prevent clogging of moving parts, Run Pump at least once in a fortnight.
10.4. Always keep apparatus free from dust.
10.5. Keep the flow rate low in case of orifice meter and globe valve to avoid high
pressure drop.

11. Troubleshooting:
11.1 If pump gets jam, open the back cover of pump and rotate the shaft manually.
11.2 If pump gets heat up, switch OFF the main power for 15 minutes, avoid closing
the flow control valve and by pass valve simultaneously, during operation.

12. References:
12.1 V.L.Streeter, E.B.Wylie, “Fluid Mechanics”, 1st ed., McGraw Hill, NY, 1983,
Page 134-135, 243-246, 347-349.
12.2 W.Mcabe J.Smith, “Unit Operation Of Chemical Engineering”, 7th ed., McGraw
Hill, NY, 2005, Page 121-124.
12.3 Dr. P.N.Modi & P.N.Seth, “Hydraulics & Fluid Mechanics Incluiding
Machines,” 15th ed., Rajinder K umar Jain, ND, 2005, Page 458-459.
12.4 https://neutrium.net/fluid_flow/pressure-loss-from-fittings-excess-head-k-method/

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 Sudden Expansion ChE-391
Curvature ‘L’ Fitting

Globe Valve

‘T’ Fitting

Gate Valve Flange

Ball Valve Orifice

Rotameter
Hg CCL4
Manometer Manometer

Loss due to pipe fitting, sudden

expansion and contraction, straight
pipe and flow measurement by
orifice meter Circulation Tank

Circulation Pump

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